TOPIC 12:

HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH (PAPER 2 – 43 MARKS)

HISTORY OF LIFE
Scientists estimate that the earth came into existence approximately 4,6 billion years
ago. According to scientists, life on earth started 3,8 billion years ago with a unicellular,
prokaryotic cell similar to a bacterial cell. Multicellular organisms only developed a few
billion years later.
Scientists try to make sense of the history of life on earth by relating it to other
important events, such as:

Increase in oxygen levels:

4,6 billion years ago Formation of earth; low oxygen level

3,8 billion years ago Prokaryotes (anaerobic bacteria)

3,5 – 2,5 billion years ago Photosynthetic bacteria; large quantity of

CO2 was used; more oxygen was released.
Level of oxygen increases.

Present Oxygen-dependent (aerobic) organisms

developed: increase in variety of living
organisms on earth.

Climate change e.g. ice ages: Ice ages are long geological periods of drastic
decrease in the temperature of the earth’s surface and atmosphere.
During the ice ages, many species that could not adapt to the low temperatures died
out. Some species were forced to migrate towards the equator where temperatures
were higher. Due to ice formation, the sea level dropped. This resulted in decreased
habitats and the extinction of many aquatic species.

Geological events e.g. continental drift: About 200 million years ago, all the
continents were fused to form one giant continent, Pangaea.
Pangaea broke up into two super continents: Laurasia (in the north) and
Gondwanaland (in the south). Approximately 120 million years ago, these two super
continents broke up even further into the continents we know at present.
As a result of continental drift, the climate changed. Habitats also changed or were
destroyed. A large number of life forms became extinct or had to adapt to the changing
environment.

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By means of biogeography, evidence has been found that the continents were once
joined. Closely related species occurring on different continents probably shared a

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common ancestor. Examples are ostrich in Africa, the emu in Australia, the nandu
(common rhea) in South America and the extinct moa of New Zealand. These birds
although on different landmasses show great similarities but belong to separate
species.

Biogeography – study of the distribution of existing and extinct plant and animal
species in specific geographical regions on earth.

Fossil evidence: Fossils are complete organisms or remains, imprints or traces/tracks

of organisms, usually preserved in a rock. The study of fossils is known as
palaeontology. Scientist who studies fossils is a palaeontologist.
Fossils provide evidence of earlier life (extinct organisms) on earth and give
information regarding the history of life on earth. Fossils also give indications of the
climate and the environment of millions of years ago.

THE GEOLOGICAL TIMESCALE

Geologists divide the history of the earth into geological time units. The purpose of a
geological timescale is to represent a timeline of life on earth, from the origin of the
earth.
Time units are divided according to the age of the fossils that have been discovered.
The largest defined unit is the aeon. An aeon is divided into three eras (the
Palaeozoic, the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic). Each of these is further divided into
periods, i.e. the Quaternary, Tertiary etc.
The period that precedes the Palaeozoic is known as the Precambrian.

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All the fossils of different ages that have been discovered by palaeontologists are listed
and this is known as the fossil record. However, fossil records are incomplete and
not an indication of all the organisms that lived in a particular period.

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Archaeopteryx, for example, is the earliest and most primitive bird known, is such a
transitional form and is regarded as the ‘missing link’ between reptiles (dinosaurs) and
birds. Archaeopteryx which means ‘ancient wing’ has characteristics of reptiles as well
as birds.

CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION
The Cambrian period is an important point in the history of life on earth. The early
forms of most animal groups appeared in this time. This occurrence is sometimes
known as the “Cambrian Explosion”, due to the relatively short time in which the large
diversity of life forms appeared.

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Life forms of the past and present

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MASS EXTINCTIONS
It occurs when many species disappear over the same period of time.
Five important mass extinctions have occurred since the creation of life on earth. They
all had physical causes, e.g. climate changes, volcanic eruptions, continental drifts
etc. Scientists believe that we are nearing the sixth extinction at a faster rate due to
some of the effects of our activities on earth.

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FOSSILS
Fossils are complete organisms or remains, imprints or traces/tracks of organisms,
usually preserved in a rock.
Most fossils are found in sedimentary rocks. These rocks are formed when clay and
sand particles are carried from one place to another by water or wind. These
sediments harden over hundreds of years.
Fossils are also found in other places like ice, volcanic lava, tar pits, anaerobic swamps
etc.
Fossilisation – set of inorganic process by which dead organisms or their parts are
transformed into fossils.

Different types of fossils

Body fossils – the preserved remains of organisms, namely:
- Complete organisms: the organism is preserved in resin, ice, tar, anaerobic
swamps. Even the soft tissue such as skin or muscle remains.
- Parts of organisms

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 - Moulds: the hard parts of an organism are trapped in sediment. The organic
material (hard parts) decomposes and leaves an imprint or mould.

Cast fossils – when the mould is filled with minerals, it is known as a cast (fossil)

Trace fossils – sign or marks of organisms that were once living. Examples are
footprints and burrows. The imprint hardens and is filled with sand or clay.

Fossil dating
The age of fossils can be determined using two methods;
Radiometric dating – this method is based on radioactivity. The rate of decay of a
radioactive element, e.g. uranium, potassium and calcium (half-life) is calculated. The
more the radioactive element in a fossil has decayed, the older the fossil.

Relative dating – palaeontologists and archaeologists study the sedimentary layers

above and below a fossil. Older fossils occur in the sedimentary layers below the fossil
and more recent species in the layer above the fossil.
Relative dating is not a very accurate form of dating but the sequence of life on earth
can be determined using this method.

FOSSIL EVIDENCE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

- Fossilised photosynthetic bacteria (cyanobacteria), discovered in the
mountainous landscape of Barberton, Mpumalanga – A.
- Fossil of soft-bodied invertebrates discovered in Namibia – B and Northern
Cape – C.
- Fossil of early land/terrestrial plants discovered in the Eastern Cape – D.
- Fossils of the primitive plant, Glossopteris found near Mooiriver and Estcourt
(KZN) – E.
- The coelacanth (transitional form between fish and amphibians) was caught
near East London – F and also near Sodwana, off the north coast of KZN – G.
- Fossils of mammal-like reptiles e.g. Lystrosaurus and Thrinaxodon were found
in the Karoo – H.
- Fossils of early dinosaur, Euskelosaurus were found near Ladybrand in the
Free State – I and fossils of dinosaur bones were found in the Drakensberg and
Maluti Mountains – J.
- Fossils of early mammals were found in the Eastern Cape and Lesotho – K.
- Fossils of early human fossils were found in The Cradle of Humankind
(including Sterkfontein Caves) in Gauteng – L.

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