KTTI

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE AND FAULT DIAGNOSIS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CODE TOPIC SUB-TOPIC

1 Electrical -Correct maintenance and servicing
maintenance procedures
service -Safety precautions and standards
-Maintenance activities required
2 D.C Machines -Common faults in DC machines
-Procedures of locating faults
-Functional tests required after repair of
machines
-Safety precautions necessary when
working with DC machines
3 A.C machines -Common faults associated with ac
machines
-Procedure for repairing faults in ac
machines
-Functional tests for repaired machines.
-Safety observation requirement when
maintaining ac machines
4 Discharge -Common faults in discharge lamps in
lamps circuits
-Fault in discharge lamp circuits
-Safety precaution

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TOPIC 1: ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE SERVICE

MAINTENANCE
Is the process undertaken to repair and recondition a machine or equipment to its normal
functional state.
SERVICING
This is the procedure undertaken to examine and repair a machine or equipment that has
developed a fault.
TYPES OF MAINTENANCE
1) Routine maintenance:This is a type of maintenance programmed to take place after a
given period of time eg on daily basis,weekly,monthly or annually.
2) Corrective maintenance:This is a type of maintenance subjected to an equipment which is
faulty.
3) Preventive maintenance:This involves servicing a machine which is not faulty in order to
minimize the possibility of occurrence of a fault.It includes:
i)Safety precautions
ii)Use of the right tools for the right job.
iii)Use of machines properly
iv)Avoid overworking a machine or equipment
v)Use of oils and grease to reduce friction and overheating in machines.
vi)Create enough ventilation to machines.
vii)Cleaning or washing of machines and equipment where necessary.
viii)Replace worn out parts of machine or equipment at the right time.
ix)Tighten loose parts of an equipment or machine appropriately.
x)Painting and polishing of machines and equipment where necessary.
FAULTS
Faults are technical problems developed by a machine or equipment.When a machine or
equipment develops a technical problem,the problem is regarded as a fault and therefore
requires diagnosis and maintenance.
Diagnosis
This is the process undertaken by the technician or engineer to identify or establish a fault
and create or arrange for its maintenance or correction.
HOW TO DIAGNOSE A FAULT
i)By use of instruments.
ii)Visual inspection
iii)By the feel of palm.
iv)By the information given at the site of the fault.
v)Production of certain sounds.
vi)Production of sparks.

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vii)Smell.
viii)Smoke
ix)Refusal of a machine to start.
x)Inefficiency of a machine or equipment.
xi)Irregular movement of machine or equipment.
xii)Worn out parts.
xiii)Overheating.
SAFETY
1)No smoking in a workshop.
2)Always wear protective clothing while working in the workshop.
3)Always use the correct tool for the correct job.
4)You must always concentrate on your job.
5)Electrical appliances must always be handled with great care.
6)Always switch off before plugging in or out an electrical appliance or equipment.
7)Always stand on a rubber mat when working on a high voltage equipment to avoid the
danger of electrick shock.
8)When working on high voltage equipment,always use one hand with the other hand in
the pocket.
9)When working on a high voltage equipment,ensure that there is a second person present
to help in case of electric shock.
10)You must always know the position of the main switch and fire fighting equipment in
a workshop.
11)Pools of water to be avoided in a workshop.
General causes of accidents.
-Carelessness -Inconsideration
-Conditions -Overconfidence
-Attitudes -Indifference
-Ignorance -Equipment
CARELESSNESS
-By not following instructions properly
-Not concentrating on your job.
CONDITIONS
-Working while hungry
-working while sick
-Working while drunk
-Working while tired.
ATTITUDES
-Overconfidence
-Not seeking for help while in difficulties.
IGNORANCE
-Pretending to know something while you don‘t know.
-Doing something wrongly.
CARE TO BE TAKEN

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i)Follow instructions
ii)Use right tools for the right job.
iii)Do not work while hungry,tired,sick,stressed or worried.
iv)Avoid being overconfident.
v)Have rest when tired.
vi)Have some recreation and calmness(relax)
vii)Do not drink while working (alcohol)
viii)Do not use a faulty equipment or machine.
ix)Ensure that there is proper ventilation and enough lighting.
CONDITIONS THAT CAN CAUSE ELECTRIC SHOCK
-Shock is experienced when a human body becomes part of an electric circuit by:
1)Touching a live wire and a neutral wire at the same time.
2)Touching two live wires at the same time.
3)Touching a faulty metal work which is not earthed.
4)Touching a live wire while standing on uninsulated ground.
DEGREE OF SHOCK CONDITION IN A HUMAN BODY
For an electric shock to take place,it is necessary for the human body to be in contact
with two objects of unequal potentials in such a way that the body forms parts of an
electric circuit in which current will flow.The amount of current flowing through the
body will then decide on how serious the accident will become.The degree of shock will
be determined by the amount of current as follows:
1-3 milliamps:-This is known as the threshold of perception when a slight tingling
sensation is felt.
10-15 milliamps:-At this value of current the muscles begin to tighten and it becomes
difficult to release any object held eg a live conductor.
25-30 milliamps:-At this current,the muscles are really tight and the person has
absolutely no control over them.This is the first dangerous state.
Over 50 milliamps:-At this current,fibrillation of the heart occurs which is generally
lethal if immediate specialist attention is not given.
HOW TO PREVENT ELECTRICK SHOCK.
1) By use of insulation-Screening live parts and keeping live parts out of reach.
2) By earthing-ensuring that any metal work in an electrical installation other than the
conductor is prevented from becoming electrically charged.
3) Avoid touching naked conductors.
4) Always stand on a rubber matt when working on a line circuit.
5) Avoid touching electrical equipment with wet hands.
6) By use of hand gloves when working on high voltage equipment.
FAULT TRACING IN ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS
STEEL CONDUITS
A conduit is an electrical pipe or tube.There are two types of conduits namely;
i)Metallic conduits-aluminium,copper and steel.
ii)Plastic conduits.
USES OF CONDUITS

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i)To provide a high degree of mechanical protection.

ii)Help to confine a number of cables together.
iii)Used in five prone installation.
iv)Earthing purposes.
TYPES OF FAULTS/POSSIBLE FAULTS
i)Earth faults-L & E coming together I,e touching conduit.
ii)Short circuit-L&N
iii)Bad connections
iv)Earth leakages
v)Open circuit
vi)Blown fuse
vii)Loose connections
viii)Excess current.
ix)Corrosion-more common in conduits(metallic)
Corrosive environment
-Cement industry
-Chemical industry
-Salt industry
-Cold stores.
-Condensation
-The faults will affect: i)The wiring system
ii)The conduit system
EFFECTS OF THE FAULTS
i) Unreliable system
ii) Results in the interruption of the supply due to blowing of fuses or tripping of
circuit breakers.
Iii) Failure of the earthing system.
iv) Dangers of electric shock.
v) The system is exposed to fire risks.

PROCEDURE OF TRACING THE FAULTS

i) Visual inspection
ii) Use of instruments-ohmeter,megger,continuity,insulstion resistance tester.
iii) Feeling/sensing
HOW TO RECTIFY THE FAULTS
i) Separate the affected conductors
ii) Make good connections
iii) Repair/mend the affected conduits.
iv) Replace/rewire blown fuses and reset circit breakers
v) Tighten loose connections.
vi) Paint the affected conduits

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UNDERGROUND CABLES
Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by overhead system or by underground
cables. The underground cables have serveral advantages such as less liable to damage through
storms or lightning, low
maintenance cost, less chances of faults, smaller voltage drop and better general
appearance.However, their major drawback is that they have greater installation cost and
introduce insulation problems at high voltages compared with the equivalent overhead system.
For this reason, underground cables are employed where it is impracticable to use overhead lines.
Such locations may be thickly populated areas where municipal authorities prohibit overhead
lines for reasons of safety, or around plants and substations or where maintenance conditions do
not permit the use of overhead construction.

FAULTS IN UNDERGROUND CABLES

i) Short circuit
ii) Open circuit
iii) Earth fault
iv) Loose connections
v) Open circuit
HOW TO TRACE THE FAULTS
i)Visual inspection
ii) Instruments –Insulation resistance tester,ohmmeter,continuity tester,megger,phase tester.
HOW TO RECTIFY THE FAULTS

1) SHORT CIRCUITS
After locating the position of the fault, the affected line is excavated and replaced.
Broken cables are removed and replaced,Short circuited conductors are isolated and fault
repaired and damaged insulation must be repaired and made good.
2) EARTH FAULTS
Incase of an earth fault, the affected conductors are separated and repaired.
3) OPEN CIRCUIT
In case of an open circuit, the affected conductors are replaced or made good by proper
joints.

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4) LOOSE CONNECTIONS
Any loose connections are tightened properly.
5) SUPPLY FAILURE
In case of supply failure,consult the power supply authority.(KPLC).
NOTE:Fault tracing and fault repair in underground cables is very expensive.It takes a lot
of time to replace and repair an underground cable.
FAULTS ON POWER CIRCUITS

SOCKET OUTLET CIRCUITS

i) Short circuits
ii) Loose connections
iii) Bad connections
iv) Open circuits
v) Supply failure
vi) Earth leakage
vii) Blown fuses
HOW TO LOCATE THE FAULTS
i) Visual inspection
ii) Use of instruments:-Continuity tester,ohmmeter,phase tester,test lamp and ammeter.
HOW TO RECTIFY THE FAULTS

SHORT CIRCUITS
-Separate the affected conductors
-Replace the destroyed part of the insulation.
-Replace/rewire the blown fuses and reset circuit breakers

LOOSE CONNECTION
-Tighten all loose connections and terminations,make them firm,electrically and mechanically
sound.
BAD CONNECTIONS
Ensure that terminals and points are wired accordingly i.e- L to L, N to N,E to E
OPEN CIRCUIT
Mend/repair broken conductor in case of any broken circuit.Use the most appropriate joints.If the
broken part cannot be easily jointed and it should be replaced by a new one.

SUPPLY FAILURE
-Replace fuses
-Reset circuit breakers
EARTH FAULT
-Ensure insulation or completion of the earthing circuit.
FAULTS ON LIGHTING CIRCUITS
i) Short circuits
ii) Loose connections
iii) Open circuit
iv) Supply failure
v) Earth fault

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vi) Bad connection

HOW TO LOCATE THE FAULTS
i) Visual inspection
ii) Use of instruments:-Test lamp,Continuity tester,ohmmeter,megger and multi-meter.
HOW TO RECTIFY THE FAULTS
i) Separate the affected conductors
ii) Tighten loose connections
iii) Make good or replace broken conductors
iv) Ensure that good and proper connections are made.
v) Repair the affected earthing circuit
vi) Replace blown fuses/reset circuit breakers.

FAULTS ON FLOURESCENT LAMPS

PARTS
i) The choke-This unit supplies a high starting voltage.It also limits the current in the
lamp when the lamp is operating.
ii) The starter-
iii) The capacitor-This is fitted to correct or improve the power factor by neutralizing the
inductive effect of the choke.
iv) Lamp caps-Used for connecting lamps to the supply and also to hold lamps in
position.

APPLICATION
i) Domestic lighting systems
ii) Factories
iii) Streets
iv) Ships
v) Transport(buses)
vi) Tunnels
vii) Coal mines
viii) Hospitals
ix) Schools
x) Offices
xi) Churches
POSSIBLE FAULTS
i) Loose connections
ii) Blown choke
iii) Bad connections
iv) Open circuit
v) Short circuits
vi) Blown tube
vii) Blown starters
viii) Supply failure
ix) Earth fault
x) Faulty holders/caps

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EFFECTS OF THE FAULTS

i) Sparks
ii) Arcing
iii) High resistance
iv) Overheating
v) Failure of lamps to operate
vi) Blowing of fuses

HOW TO TRACE THE FAULTS

i) Visual inspection
ii) Use of instruments
iii) Smell
iv) Smoke
v) Sound
vi) Feeling

HOW TO RECTIFY THE FAULTS

i) Tighten any loose connections.
ii) Ensure that termination and joints are electrically and mechanically sound.
iii) Replace any blown choke.
iv) Reconnect any broken conductors
v) Replace blown or faulty starter.
vi) Make good any damaged insulation
vii) Replace blown fuses and reset circuit breakers.
viii) Replace blown tube
ix) Replace faulty caps/holders
x) Make good any affected earthing circuit.

FLOURESCENT LAMP STARTER CIRCUIT

STROBOSCOPIC EFFECTS
At a frequency of 50hz, a discharge lamp will light and go off at the rate of 100 times per second.
Machinery rotating at 100 rev/se. may appear to be stationary while those rotating at some other
speeds may appear to be slower than they actually are. This effect causesmisjudgment of the
human eye to see as if those machines are not rotating and is called the stroboscopic effect.
EFFECTS
i) Potential danger risk with the moving machines(possibility of risks)
ii) Machines moving at very high speed of say 100 rev/sec will appear to be stationary
while in the real sense they are moving.
iii) Dangerous machine rooms as room illumination is affected.
iv) Affects human sight.

ELIMINATION OF STROBOSCOPIC EFFECTS

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i) Where three phase power is available,stroboscopic effect can be eliminated by

connecting adjacement lamps to different phases alternately so that at no time will
light output be zero.
ii) In single phase installations, the use of lead and lag circuits using where some lamps
are connected to lagging circuits using capacitors.
iii) Mixing of incandescent lamps with fluorescent lamps sine the incandescent lamps
remain on in that instantaneous moment when fluorescent lamps have zero light
output. This method is not commonly used.

TROUBLE SHOOTING FLOURESCENT LIGHTING CURCUITS

SYMPTOMS POSSIBLE CAUSES
1)Fuse blows when lamp is switched on -A short circuit or
-Shorted power factor capacitor
2)Lamp does not light at all -Faulty starter switch
-Broken tube electrodes
-No supply
3)Lamp flickers repeatedly in an effort to -Faulty starting switch
start. -Faulty lamp
-Low voltage
4)Lamp electrode glow continuously but -Faulty starter or
lamp does not light. -Short radio interference
-Suppression capacitor.

FAULT FINDING IN FLOURESCENT LAMP FITTINGS

STEP ITEM TESTS TO BE APPLIED
1 Supply and fuse -Check supply voltage at input to the fitting
-Check polarity of incoming supply and ensure the
frame is earthed.
-If the fuse is blown, suspect circuit or component and
find the fault before replacing.
2 Lamp -Check lamp in a good fitting and if proved faulty
replace with a new lamp. Remember never try a new
lamp in a fitting which has faulty components or circuits
3 Circuit -Examine wiring inside the fitting and if possible check
against the wiring diagram.
-Check insulation resistance between the circuit and the
metal frame of the fitting.
-If an earth fault is found, trace the cause and replace
the component
4 Ballast chokes -Examine for signs of overheating if possible check
continuity of windings and insulation resistance.

STARTLESS FLOURESCENT LAMP CIRCUIT

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This type of circuit does not require the use of a starter switch.This method of starting
is known as‘ instant start‘ or‘ Quick start‘.The normal starter is replaced by a filament
heating transformer.
Advantages of startles method
i) It is almost instantaneous starting.
ii) There is no flickering and no false starting.
iii) It can start and operate at low voltage of 160-180V.
iv) Its maintenance cost is lower due to the elimination of any starter switch
replacements.
v) It lengthens the life of the lamp.

TOPIC 2: DC MACHINES

Construction of DC Machine (Generator & Motor)

The dc generators and dc motors have the same general construction. In fact, when the machine
is being assembled, the workmen usually do not know whether it is a dc generator or motor. Any
dc generator can be run as a dc motor and vice-versa.

All dc machines have five principal components

1. Magnetic frame or Yoke

2. Pole Cores and Pole Shoes
3. Pole Coils or Field Coils
4. Armature core
5. Armature winding
6. Commutator
7. Brushes and Bearings

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The diagram given below represents the various parts of a DC machine.

Yoke
The outer frame or yoke serves double purpose :

1. It provides mechanical support for the poles and acts as a protecting cover for the whole
machine
2. It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.

In small generators where cheapness rather than weight is the main consideration, yokes
are made of cast iron. But for large machines usually cast steel or rolled steel is

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employed.

The modern process of forming the yoke consists of rolling a steel slab round a cylindrical
mandrel and then welding it at the bottom. The feet and the terminal box etc. are welded to the
frame afterwards. Such yokes possess sufficient mechanical strength and have high permeability.

Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

The field magnets consist of pole cores and pole shoes. The pole shoes serve two purposes:

1. they spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of larger cross-section, reduce the
reluctance of the magnetic path
2. they support the exciting coils (or field coils)

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Since armature and field systems are composed of materials that have high permeability, most of
the m.m.f. of field coils is required to set up flux in the air gap.
By reducing the length of air gap, we can reduce the size of field coils (i.e. number of turns).
Armature core and Laminations

The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the field poles.
It consists of slotted soft-iron laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick) that are stacked
to form a cylindrical core as shown in figure.

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The laminations are individually coated with a thin insulating film so that they do not come in
electrical contact with each other. The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy
current loss. Thinner the lamination, greater is the resistance offered to the induced e.m.f.,
smaller the current and hence lesser the I²R loss in the core.The laminations are slotted to
accommodate and provide mechanical security to the armature winding and to give shorter air
gap for the flux to cross between the pole face and the armature ―teeth‖.

Armature winding
The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are connected in a suitable manner.
This is known as armature winding. This is the winding in which ―working‖ e.m.f. is induced.
The armature conductors are connected in series-parallel; the conductors being connected in
series so as to increase the voltage and in parallel paths so as to increase the
Current

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f the brush pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of the commutator and the
brushes. On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the commutator
may produce sparking.

Multipole machines have as many brushes as they have poles. For example, a 4-pole
machine has 4 brushes. As we go round the commutator, the successive brushes have
positive and negative polarities. Brushes having the same polarity are connected together
so that we have two terminals viz., the +ve terminal and the -ve terminal f the brush
pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of the commutator and the brushes.
On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the commutator may
produce sparking.

Multipole machines have as many brushes as they have poles. For example, a 4-pole
machine has 4 brushes. As we go round the commutator, the successive brushes have
positive and negative polarities. Brushes having the same polarity are connected together
so that we have two terminals viz., the +ve terminal and the -ve terminal f the brush
pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of the commutator and the brushes.

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On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the commutator may
produce sparking.

Multipole machines have as many brushes as they have poles. For example, a 4-pole
machine has 4 brushes. As we go round the commutator, the successive brushes have
positive and negative polarities. Brushes having the same polarity are connected together
so that we have two terminals viz., the +ve terminal and the -ve terminal

If the brush pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of the commutator and
the brushes. On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the
commutator may produce sparking.

Multipole machines have as many brushes as they have poles. For example, a 4-pole
machine has 4 brushes. As we go round the commutator, the successive brushes have
positive and negative polarities. Brushes having the same polarity are connected together
so that we have two terminals viz., the +ve terminal and the -ve terminal.

An Electric DC motor is a machine which converts electric energy into mechanical energy. The
working of DC motor is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force.
The direction of mechanical force is given by Fleming‘s Left-hand Rule and its magnitude is
given by F = BIl Newton.
There is no basic difference in the construction of a DC generator and a DC motor. In fact, the
same d.c. machine can be used interchangeably as a generator or as a motor. Like generators DC
motors are also classified in to shunt-wound, series-wound and compound-wound.

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DC motors are seldom used in ordinary applications because all electric supply
companies furnish alternating current.
However, for special applications such as in steel mills, mines and electric trains, it is
advantageous to convert alternating current into direct current in order to use dc motors. The
reason is that speed/torque characteristics of d.c. motors are much more superior to that of a.c.
motors. Therefore, it is not surprising to note that for industrial drives, d.c. motors are as popular
as 3-phase induction motors.
Working principle of DC Motor
Consider a part of a multipolar d.c. motor as shown in Figure below. When the terminals of the
motor are connected to an external source of d.c. supply:
(i) the field magnets are excited developing alternate N and S poles;
(ii) the armature conductors carry currents. All conductors under N-pole carry currents in one
direction while all the conductors under S-pole carry currents in the opposite direction.

Suppose the conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane of the paper and those under
S-pole carry currents out of the plane of the paper as shown in Figure. Since each armature
conductor is carrying current and is placed in the magnetic field, mechanical force acts on it. On
applying Fleming‘s left hand rule, it is clear that force on each conductor is tending to rotate
the armature in anticlockwise direction. All these forces add together to produce a driving torque
which sets the armature rotating.
When the conductor moves from one side of a brush to the other, the current in that conductor is
reversed and at the same time it comes under the influence of next pole which is of opposite
polarity. Consequently, the direction of force on the conductor remains the same.
It should be noted that the function of a commutator in the motor is the same as in a generator.
By reversing current in each conductor as it passes from one pole to another, it helps to develop a
continuous and unidirectional torque.

Why Motor Fails? Most Common Causes

Motors are used everywhere in industrial environments and they are becoming increasingly
complex and technical, sometimes making it a challenge to keep them running at peak
performance. It‘s important to remember that the causes of motor and drive issues are not
confined to a single domain of expertise–both mechanical and electrical issues can lead to motor
failure and being armed with the right knowledge can mean the difference between costly
downtime and improved asset uptime.

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Winding insulation breakdown and bearing wear are the two most common causes of motor
failure, but those conditions arise for many different reasons. This article demonstrates how to
detect the most common causes of winding insulation and bearing failure in advance.

Transient Voltage
Transient voltages can come from a number of sources either inside or outside of the plant.
Adjacent loads turning on or off, power factor correction capacitor banks or even distant weather
can generate transient voltages on distribution systems. These transients, which vary in
amplitude and frequency, can erode or cause insulation breakdown in motor windings.
Finding the source of these transients can be difficult because of the infrequency of the
occurrences and the fact that the symptoms can present themselves in different ways. For
example, a transient may appear on control cables that don‘t necessarily cause equipment
damage directly, but may disrupt operations.
Impact: Motor winding insulation breakdown leads to early motor failure and unplanned
downtime.

Voltage Imbalance
Three-phase distribution systems often serve single-phase loads. An imbalance in impedance or
load distribution can contribute to imbalance across all three of the phases. Potential faults may
be in the cabling to the motor, the terminations at the motor, andpotentially the windings
themselves.

This imbalance can lead to stresses in each of the phase circuits in a three-phase power system.
At the simplest level, all three phases of voltage should always have the same magnitude.

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Impact: Imbalance creates excessive current flow in one or more phases that then increases
operating temperatures–leading to insulation breakdown.

Harmonic Distortion
Simply stated, harmonics are any unwanted additional source of high frequency AC voltages or
currents supplying energy to the motor windings. This additional energy is not used to turn the
motor shaft but circulates in the windings and ultimately contributes to internal energy losses.
These losses dissipate in the form of heat, which, over time, will deteriorate the insulation
capability of the windings.
Some harmonic distortion of the current is normal on any part of the system serving electronic
loads. To start investigating harmonic distortion, use a power quality analyzer to monitor
electrical current levels and temperatures at transformers to be sure that they are not
overstressed. Each harmonic has a different acceptable level of distortion, which is defined by
standards such as IEEE 519-1992.
Impact: Decrease in motor efficiency results in added cost and an increase in operating
temperatures.

Reflections on drive output PWM signals

Variable frequency drives employ a pulse width modulation (PWM) technique to control the
output voltage and frequency to a motor. Reflections are generated when there is an impedance
mismatch between the source and load. Impedance mismatches can occur as a result of improper
installation, improper component selection or equipment degradation over time. In a motor drive
circuit, the peak of the reflection could be as high as the DC bus voltage level.
Impact: Motor winding insulation breakdown leads to unplanned downtime.

Sigma current
Sigma currents are essentially stray currents that circulate in a system. The sigma currents are
created as a result of the signal frequency, voltage level, capacitance and inductance in
conductors.
These circulating currents can find their way through protective earth systems causing nuisance
tripping or in some cases excess heat in windings. Sigma current can be found in the motor
cabling and is the sum of the current of the three phases at any one point in time.
In a perfect situation, the sum of the three currents would equal zero. In other words, the return
current from the drive would be equal to the current to the drive. Sigma current can also be
understood as asymmetrical signals in multiple conductors that can capacitively couple currents
into the ground conductor.
Impact: Mysterious circuit trip due to protective earth current flow.

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Operational overloads
Motor overload occurs when a motor is under excessive load. The primary symptoms that
accompany a motor overload are excessive current draw, insufficient torque and overheating.
Excessive motor heat is a major cause of motor failure. In the case of an overloaded motor
individual motor components including bearings, motor windings, and other components may be
working fine, but the motor will continue to run hot. For this reason, it makes sense to begin your
troubleshooting by checking for motor overload.
Because 30 % of motor failures are caused by overloading, it is important to understand how to
measure for and identify motor overloading.
Impact: Premature wear on motor electrical and mechanical components leading to permanent
failure.

Action when an electrical machine is flooded with seawater ?

1. Machine is disconnected from power sources and dismantled

2. All salt deposits washed out with freshwater
3. If deposited with oily bilge water, wash out with Electro Cleaner
4. Should be heated with lamp, and enclosed or covered up to retain the heat
5. Moisture should be escaped, by lifting the cover continuously or periodically
6. Hottest part of the machine shall not exceed 90°C, while heating
7. IR readings and temperatures taken regularly, until constant value reach about 1 mega
ohms
8. Then spray the machine with insulation vanish
9. Assemble and out in service with low load, if possible

Why drying out of electrical machine ?

 It is essential, when machine has been exposed to weather, or when accidentally

immersed.

Short, open and grounded circuits ?

Short circuit:

A low resistance path that actually shorten the intended path for the flow of current

Open circuit:

The path for the flow of current is broken. A switch s one method of creating an ―open‖
intentionally

Grounded circuit:

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A circuit that has come in contact with the earth, by coming in contact somewhere in itself, or by
a conductor which is connected with the earth.

What is shore connection on ships ?

 Shore connection box is provided at convenient position, to receive shore power supply,
so that ship‘s generators can be shut down, in port or during Dry Docking.

What are Lloyd’s requirement on shore connection ?

1. Connection box contains a circuit breaker or isolating switch with fuses

2. Provided full information of supply system, normal ship voltage and frequency for AC
current
3. Main Switch board must be provided with a link switch or a circuit breaker,
voltmeter, ammeter, and an indicator to show that the cable is energized
4. For 3-phase supply with earth neutral and earthing terminal must be provided, for
connecting the hull to shore side.
5. A phase sequence indicator is necessary to ensure correct connections
6. Means shall be provided for checking polarity, and terminals should be labeled

How will you check the frequency of shore power supply ?

1. Shore power supply connection box shows phase sequence of shore power generator
with bright and dark lights
2. Frequency can be check at Main Switchboard, after shore supply is ‗on‘ through link
switch or circuit breaker.

What are Common faults in DC Generator and Motors ?

1. Sparking at brushes
2. Overheating
3. Failure to excite

Causes of Sparking at Brushes ?

1. Wrong brush position

2. Dirty commutators
3. Brushes not properly bedded
4. Incorrect spring pressure on brushes
5. Wrong grade of brush
6. Overloading

Causes of Overheating ?

1. Overloading
2. Blocking up of ventilation passages with dirt

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Test for over current trip ?

By injecting current with injectors

Test for Reverse Power Trip ?

By reducing frequency

What is Ward Leonard System ?

1. Used for fine control of shunt motor speed from zero to full in either direction
2. Able to give the motor a robust torque characteristic
3. Can be used for motors of electric steering gears of ships with DC power
4. Used on ships with AC power for deck machinery such as windlass, mooring winch etc.
5. Working motor, which powers the steering gear, windlass or other equipment is a
DC machine, because speed control of these made easy

How Ward Leonard System works ?

1. A DC generator is driven by AC squirrel cage induction motor.

2. Output voltage of DC generator is applied as power supply to armature of working motor.
3. Speed and direction of working motor varies with magnitude and direction of applied
voltage
4. Output voltage of DC generator is increased or decreased by Potentiometer, as magnetic
field strength is altered by changing the field current to field windings of the generator
5. As output voltage of the generator varies, speed of the working motor also varies
6. Change of current flow direction, also by Potentiometer, through the field poles of
the generator will cause the change in direction of generated current, supplied to the
working motor and thereby also the running direction of the motor

How to control speed of AC motor ?

Adjusting number of poles by means of selector switch.

What are motor earthing symptoms ?

 440V, low insulation alarm

 Earth lamp signal

What are the effects of motor earthing ?

 Over heat
 Burn out
 Get the smell
 Noisy

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Specifications of fuses on ships ?

 Amperage of the circuit (AC/DC)

 Type of fuse wire (Tin or lead wire)
 Standard Wire Gauge (SWG)

Specifications of battery on ships ?

1. Voltage
2. Ampere/hour
3. Size
4. Type (Lead Acid or Alkaline)

TOPIC 3: AC MACHINES

Introduction
The operators of electrical drive systems are under continual pressure to reduce maintenance
costs and prevent unscheduled down times, which result in lost production and financial income.
Many operators now use on-condition based maintenance strategies in parallelwith conventional
planned maintenance schemes. This has reduced unexpected failures, increased the time between
planned shutdowns for standard maintenance and reduced operational costs. The operation of
electrical machines in an unsafe condition can also be avoided. Since the incidence of
unexpected failures is reduced the operator is able to exercise greater control in the prevention of
incidents which may have environmentally damaging consequences. In hazardous installations,
this requires continuous on-line monitoring to prevent a catastrophic failure.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
Introduction
An induction motor comprises a magnetic circuit interlinking two electric circuits
which are placed on the two main parts of the machine: (i) the stationary part called
the stator and (ii) the rotating part called the rotor. Power is transferred from one part to the other
by electromagnetic induction. For this induction machine is
referred as an electromechanical energy conversion device which converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy [1]. Rotor is supported on bearings at each end.
Generally, both the stator and rotor consist of two circuits: (a) an electric circuit to
carry current and normally made of insulated copper or insulated aluminum and
(b) a magnetic circuit, shown in Fig. 2.2, to carry the magnetic flux made of
laminated magnetic material normally steel (Fig. 2.1).

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2.2 Construction
(a) Stator
The stator, shown in Fig. 2.3, is the outer stationary part of the motor. It consists of
(i) the outer cylindrical frame, (ii) the magnetic path, and (iii) a set of insulatedelectrical
windings.
(i) The outer cylindrical frame: It is made either of cast iron or cast aluminum alloy or welded
fabricated sheet steel. This includes normally feet for foot mounting of the motor or a flange for
any other types of mounting of the motor.
(ii) The magnetic path: It comprises a set of slotted high-grade alloy steel laminations supported
into the outer cylindrical stator frame. The magnetic path is laminated to reduce eddy current
losses and heating.

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(iii) A set of insulated electrical windings: For a 3-phase motor, the stator circuit has three sets of
coils, one for each phase, which is separated by 120° and is excited by a three-phase supply.
These coils are placed inside the slots of the laminated magnetic path.
(b) Rotor
It is the rotating part of the motor. It is placed inside the stator bore and rotates coaxially with the
stator. Like the stator, rotor is also made of a set of slotted thin sheets, called laminations, of
electromagnetic substance (special core steel) pressed together in the form of a cylinder. Thin
sheets are insulated from each other by means of paper, varnish [2]. Slots consist of the electrical
circuit and the cylindrical electromagnetic substance acts as magnetic path. Rotor winding of an
induction motor may be of two types: (a) squirrel-cage type and (b) wound type. Depending
on the rotor winding induction motors are classified into two groups [1–3]:
(i) squirrel-cage type induction motor and (ii) wound-rotor type induction motor.
(i) Squirrel-cage type induction motor: Here rotor comprises a set of bars made
of either copper or aluminum or alloy as rotor conductors which are embedded

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in rotor slots. This gives a very rugged construction of the rotor. Rotor bars are connected on
both ends to an end ring to make a close path. Figure 2.4 shows a squirrel-cage type rotor.
(ii) Wound-rotor type induction motor: In this case rotor conductors are insulated windings
which are not shorted by end rings but the terminals of windings are brought out to connect them
to three numbers of insulated slip
rings which are mounted on the shaft, as shown in Fig. 2.5. External electrical connections to the
rotor are made through brushes placed on the slip rings. For the presence of these slip rings this
type of motor is also called slip ring
induction motor. Besides the above two main parts, an induction motor consists some other parts
which are named as follows:
(i) End flanges: There are two end flanges which are used to support the two bearings on both the
ends of the motor.
(ii) Bearings: There are two set of bearings which are placed at both the ends of the rotor and are
used to support the rotating shaft.
(iii) Shaft: It is made of steel and is used to transmit generated torque to the load.
(iv) Cooling fan: It is normally located at the opposite end of the load side, called non-driving
end of the motor, for forced cooling of the both stator and rotor.
(v) Terminal box: It is on top or either side of the outer cylindrical frame of stator to receive the
external electrical connections.
2.3 Operation
When the stator winding of an induction motor is connected to a three-phase supply, a uniform
rotating magnetic field is produced therein [3], which induces e.m.f. in the rotor which is free to
rotate coaxially with the stator core with the help of ball bearings. Rotor being short circuited,
either through the end rings or an external resistance, currents are produced due to this induced

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e.m.f. This currentinteracts with the rotating magnetic field to develop a torque on the rotor in
the direction of the rotating magnetic field. As the rotor is free to rotate, the torque will
cause it to move round in the direction of the stator field. This makes a three-phase induction
motor as self-starting.
In transforming this electrical energy into mechanical energy, in an induction motor some losses
occur which are as follows:
• Friction and windage losses, 5–15 %
• Iron or core losses, 15–25 %
• Stator losses, 25–40 %
• Rotor losses, 15–25 %
• Stray load losses, 10–20 %.
Full-load motor efficiency varies from about 85 to 97 %.
Induction motors are simpler, cheaper, and efficient. Among them squirrel-cage induction motor
is more rugged and work more efficiently compared to wound-rotor induction motor. If supply
voltage and frequency are constant, then a squirrel-cage induction motor runs at a constant speed
which makes it suitable for use in constant speed drive [1, 2]. Several standard designs of
squirrel-cage induction motors are available in the market to fulfill the requirements of different
starting and running conditions of various industrial applications. These are classified [4] as class
A,
class B, class C, and class D. In Table 2.1, a comparison of different classes of squirrel-cage
induction motors is presented.
2.4 Faults: Causes and Effects
Induction motors are rugged, low cost, low maintenance, reasonably small sized, reasonably high
efficient, and operating with an easily available power supply. They are reliable in operations but
are subject to different types of undesirable faults.From the study of construction and operation
of an induction motor, it reveals that the most vulnerable parts for fault in the induction motor
are bearing, stator winding, rotor bar, and shaft. Besides due to non-uniformity of the air gap
between stator-inner surface and rotor-outer surface motor, faults also occur. Different
studies have been performed so far to study reliability of motors, their performance, and faults
occurred [5, 6]. The statistical studies of IEEE and EPRI (Electric Power Research Institute) for
motor faults are cited in [7, 8]. Part of these studies was to specify the percentage of different
faults with respect to the total number of faults.
The study of IEEE was carried out on various motors in industrial applications. As per the IEEE
Standard 493-1997 the most common faults and their statistical occurrences are shown in Table
2.2. Under EPRI sponsorship, a study was conducted by General Electric Company on the basis
of the report of the motor manufacturer. As per their report the main motor faults are presented in
the table below.

Faults in induction motors can be categorized as follows:

(a) Electrical-related faults: Faults under this classification are unbalance supply voltage or
current, single phasing, under or over voltage of current, reverse phase sequence, earth fault,
overload, inter-turn short-circuit fault, and crawling.
(b) Mechanical-related faults: Faults under this classification are broken rotor bar, mass
unbalance, air gap eccentricity, bearing damage, rotor winding failure, and stator winding failure.

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(c) Environmental-related faults: Ambient temperature as well as external moisture will affect
the performance of induction motor. Vibrations of machine, due to any reason such as
installation defect, foundation defect, etc.,
also will affect the performance.

Faults shown in Table 2.3 are in broad sense; stator fault may be of different kinds, and different
types of faults may occur in rotor itself. For identification, faults in induction motors may be
listed as follows—(i) broken bar fault, (ii) rotor mass unbalance fault, (iii) bowed rotor fault, (iv)
bearing fault, (v) stator winding fault, (vi) single phasing fault, etc. Besides, the phenomenon
called crawling when motor does not accelerate up to its rated speed but runs at nearly one-
seventh of its synchronous speed is also considered as a fault of an induction motor. Faults listed
(i)–(iii) are in general stated as rotor fault which contributes about 8–9 % of the total motor fault.
In this work, broken bar fault, rotor mass unbalance fault, stator winding fault, single phasing
fault, and crawling are considered.
In an induction motor multiple faults may occur simultaneously and in that case determination of
the initial problem is quite difficult [10]. Effects of such faults in induction motor result in
unbalanced stator currents and voltages, oscillations in torque, reduction in efficiency and torque,
overheating, and excessive vibration [11]. Moreover, these motor faults can increase the
magnitude of certain harmonic components of currents and voltages. Induction motor
performance may be affected by any of the faults. In the next few paragraphs, causes and effects
of different faults
in induction motors are discussed.
2.5.2 Causes of Broken Rotor Bar
There are a number of reasons for which rotor faults may occur in an induction motor [12]. It has
been observed that in squirrel-cage induction motor rotor asymmetry occurs mainly due to
manufacturing defect, such as during the brazing process nonuniform metallurgical stresses may
occur in cage assembly which led to failure during rotation of the rotor. Also heavy end rings of
rotor result in large centrifugal forces which may cause extra stresses on the rotor bars. Because
of any of the reasons rotor bar may get damage which results in asymmetrical distribution
of rotor currents. Also, for such asymmetry or for long run of the motor if any of the rotor bar
gets cracked overheating will occur in the cracked position which may lead to breaking of the
bar. Now if one of the bars breaks, the side bars will carry higher currents for which larger
thermal and mechanical stresses may happen on these side bars. If the rotor continues to rotate in
this condition, the side bars may also get cracked [13]—thus damage may spread, leading to
fracture of multiple bars of the rotor. This cracking may occur at various locations of the rotor,
such as in bars, in end rings, or at the joints of bars and end rings. Possibility is more at the joints
of bars and end rings. Moreover, possibilities of crack increase if motor start-up time is long and
also if motor is subject to frequent starts and stops
2.5 Broken Rotor Bar Fault
2.5.1 General Description of Broken Rotor Bar

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The squirrel cage of an induction motor consists of rotor bars and end rings. If one or more of the
bars is partially cracked or completely broken, then the motor is said to have broken bar fault.
Figure 2.6 shows rotor and parts of broken rotor bar.The main causes of rotor broken bar of an
induction motor can be mentioned, pointwise, as follows:
• manufacturing defects
• thermal stresses
• mechanical stress caused by bearing faults
• frequent starts of the motor at rated voltage
• due to fatigue of metal of the rotor bar.

2.5.3 Effect of Broken Rotor Bar

Cracked or broken bar fault produces a series of sideband frequencies [15, 16], in the stator
current signature given by

where f is the supply frequency, s is the slip, and k is an integer.

This has been demonstrated as ripple effect in [16], which explains that the lower
side band at f(1–2s) is the strongest which will cause ripples of torque and speed at a frequency
of 2sf and this in turn will induce an upper side band at f(1 + 2s) and this effect will continue to
create the above series of sidebands, i.e., f(1 ± 2ks).Magnitude of this lower sideband f(1 − 2s)
over the fundamental can be used as an indicator of rotor broken bar fault [17].

2.6 Rotor Mass Unbalance

From the knowledge of construction of motor it is known that rotor is placed inside the stator
bore and it rotates coaxially with the stator. In a healthy motor, rotor is centrally aligned with the
stator and the axis of rotation of the rotor is the same as the geometrical axis of the stator. This
results in identical air gap between the outer surface of the rotor and the inner surface of the
stator. However, if the rotor is not centrally aligned or its axis of rotation is not the same as the
geometrical axis of the stator, then the air gap will not be identical and the situation is referred as
air-gap eccentricity. In fact air-gap eccentricity is common to rotor fault in an induction motor.
Air-gap eccentricity may occur due to any of the rotor faults like rotor mass unbalance fault,
bowed rotor fault, etc. Due to this air-gap eccentricity fault, in an induction motor
electromagnetic pull will be unbalanced. The rotor side where the
air gap is minimum will experience greater pull and the opposite side will experience lower pull
and as a result rotor will tend to move in the greater pull direction across that gap [18]. The
chance of rotor pullover is normally greatest during the starting period when motor current is
also the greatest. In severe case rotor may rub
the stator which may result in damage to the rotor and/or stator [19]. Air-gap eccentricity can
also cause noise and/or vibration.

2.6.1 General Description of Rotor Mass Unbalance

This rotor mass unbalance occur mainly due to manufacturing defect, if not may occur even after
an extended period of operation, for nonsymmetrical addition or subtraction of mass around the
center of rotation of rotor or due to internal misalignment or shaft bending due to which the

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center of gravity of the rotor does not coincide with the center of rotation. In severe case of rotor
eccentricity, due to unbalanced electromagnetic pull if rotor rubs the stator then a small part of
material of rotor body may wear out which is being described here as subtraction of mass,
resulting in rotor mass unbalance fault. Figure 2.7 shows rotor mass unbalance fault.

2.6.2 Classification of Mass Unbalance

There are three types of mass unbalanced rotor:
(a) Static mass unbalanced rotor
(b) Couple unbalance rotor
(c) Dynamic unbalance rotor.
2.6.2.1 Static Mass Unbalanced Rotor
For this fault shaft rotational axis and weight distribution axis of rotor are parallel but offset, as
shown in Fig. 2.8. Without special equipment this type of eccentricity is difficult to detect [20].
2.6.2.2 Couple Unbalance Rotor
It is shown in Fig. 2.9. If this fault occurs then the shaft rotational axis and weight distribution
axis of rotor intersect at the center of the rotor. Fig. 2.8

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2.6.2.3 Dynamic Unbalance Rotor

It is shown in Fig. 2.10. If this fault occurs then shaft rotational axis and weight distribution axis
of rotor do not coincide. It is the combination of coupling unbalance and static unbalance.
The main causes of rotor mass unbalance in an induction motor can be mentioned, pointwise, as
follows:
• manufacturing defect
• internal misalignment or shaft bending
• it may occur after an extended period of operation, for nonsymmetrical addition or subtraction
of mass around the center of rotation of rotor.

2.6.3 Effect of Rotor Mass Unbalance

If in an induction motor rotor mass unbalance occurs, its effect will be as follows:
• Mass unbalance produces dynamic eccentricity which results in oscillation inthe air gap length.
• Oscillation in the air gap length causes variation in air gap flux density, and hence variation in
induced voltage in the winding.
• Induced voltage causes current whose frequencies are determined by the frequency of the air
gap flux density harmonics. The stator current harmonics [21, 22]is given by

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2.7 Bearing Fault

Two sets of bearings are placed at both the ends of the rotor of an induction motor to support the
rotating shaft. They held the rotor in place and help it to rotate freely by decreasing the frictions.
Each bearing consists of an inner and an outer ring called races and a set of rolling elements
called balls in between these two races.
Normally, in case of motor, inner race is attached to the shaft and load is transmitted through the
rotating balls—this decreases the friction. Using lubricant (oil or grease) in between the races
friction is further decreased. Figure 2.11 shows a typical ball bearing and Fig. 2.12 shows a
dissected ball bearing.
Any physical damage of the inner race or in the outer race or on the surface of the balls is termed
as bearing fault. In terms of induction motor failure, bearing is the weakest component of an
induction motor. It is the single largest cause of fault in induction motor. As per the study of
IEEE and EPRI, given in Table 2.3, 41–42 % of induction motor faults are due to bearing failure
[7, 9]. Fig. 2.11

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Causes and effects of bearing failure:

1. Excessive loads, tight fits, and excessive temperature rise: all of these can anneal the two races
and ball materials. They can also degrade, even destroy, the lubricant. If the load exceeds the
elastic limit of the bearing material, brinelling occurs.
2. Fatigue failure: this is due to long run of the bearings. It causes fracture and subsequently
removal of small discrete particles of materials from the surfaces of races or balls. This type of
bearing failure is progressive, that is, if once initiated will spread when further operation of
bearings takes place. For this bearing failure, vibration and noise level of motor will increase
[23].
3. Corrosion: this results if bearings are exposed to corrosive fluids (acids, etc.) or corrosive
atmosphere. If lubricants deteriorate or the bearings are handled carelessly during installation,
then also corrosion of bearings may take place[23]. Early fatigue failure may creep in due to
corrosion.
4. Contamination: it is one of the leading factors of bearing failure. Lubricants get contaminated
by dirt and other foreign particles which are most often present in industrial environment. High
vibration and wear are the effects of
contamination.
5. Lubricant failure: for restricted flow of lubricant or excessive temperature this takes place. It
degrades the property of the lubricant for which excessive wear of balls and races takes place
which results in overheating. If bearing temperature gets too high, grease (the lubricant) melts
and runs out of bearing. Discolored balls and ball tracks are the symptoms of lubricant failure.

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6. Misalignment of bearings: for this, wear in the surfaces of balls and races takes place which
results in rise in temperature of the bearings.It is observed that for any of the bearing failures,
normally friction increases which causes rise in temperature of the bearings and increase in
vibration of the concerned machine. For this, bearing temperature and vibration can provide
useful information regarding bearing condition and hence machine health [23, 24].
2.8 Stator Fault
Stator of an induction motor is subjected [25] to various stresses such as mechanical,electrical,
thermal, and environmental [18]. Depending upon the severity of these stresses stator faults may
occur. If for a well-designed motor operations and maintenance are done properly, then these
stresses remain under control. The stator
faults can be classified as (i) faults in laminations and frame of stator and (ii) faults in stator
winding. Out of these the second one is the most common stator fault.
As per the study of IEEE and EPRI, given in Table 2.3, 28–36 % of induction motor faults are
stator winding fault [7, 9]. Majority of these faults are due to a combination of above stresses.
2.8.1 Stator Winding Fault
This fault is due to failure of insulation of the stator winding. It is mainly termed as inter-turn
short-circuit fault. Different types of stator winding faults are (i) short circuit between two turns
of same phase—called turn-to-turn fault, (ii) short circuit between two coils of same phase—
called coil to coil fault, (iii) short circuit between turns of two phases—called phase to phase
fault, (iv) short circuit between turns of all three phases, (v) short circuit between winding
conductors and the stator core—called coil to ground fault, and (vi) open-circuit fault when
winding gets break.
Different types of stator winding faults are shown in Fig. 2.13. Short-circuit winding fault shows
up when total or a partial of the stator windings get shorted.
Open-circuit fault shows up when total or a partial of the stator windings get disconnected and no
current flows in that phase/line (Figs. 2.14 and 2.15).

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2.8.2 Causes and Effects of Stator Winding Faults

(i) Mechanical Stresses—these are due to movement of stator coil and rotor striking the stator
[25]. Coil movement which is due to the stator current ( as force is proportional to the square of
the current [26])may loosen the topsticks and also may cause damage to the copper conductor
and its insulation.
Rotor may strike the stator due to rotor-to-stator misalignment or due to shaft deflection or due to
bearing failure and if strikes then the striking force will cause the stator laminations to puncture
the coil insulation resulting coil to
ground fault. High mechanical vibration may disconnect the stator winding producing the open-
circuit fault [27].

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(ii) Electrical Stresses—these are mainly due to the supply voltage transient.This transient arises
due to different faults (like line-to-line, line-to-ground, or three-phase fault), due to lightning,
opening, or closing of circuit breakers
or due to variable frequency drives [25]. This transient voltage reduces life of stator winding and
in severe case may cause turn-to-turn or turn-to-ground fault.
(iii) Thermal stresses—these are mainly due to thermal overloading and are the main reason,
among the other possible causes, for deterioration of theinsulation of the stator winding. Thermal
stress happens due to over current
flowing due to sustained overload or fault, higher ambient temperature,obstructed ventilation,
unbalanced supply voltage, etc. [25]. A thumb rule is there which states that winding temperature
will increase by 25 % in the
phase having the highest current if there is a voltage unbalance of 3.5 % per phase [18]. Winding
temperature will also increase if within a short span of time a number of starts and stops are
made in the motor. What may be the
reason, if winding temperature increases and the motor is operated over its temperature limit, the
best insulation may also fail quickly. The thumb rule, in this regard, states that for every 10 °C
increase in temperature above the
stator winding temperature limit, the insulation life is reduced by 50 % [28,18]. Table 2.4 shows
the effect of rise of temperature above ambient on the insulation of winding [18].
(iv) Environmental stresses—these stresses may arise if the motor operates in a hostile
environment with too hot or too cold or too humid. The presence of foreign material can
contaminate insulation of stator winding and also may
reduce the rate of heat dissipation from the motor [29], resulting reduction in

insulation life. Air flow should be free where the motor is situated, otherwise the heat generated
in the rotor and stator will increase the winding temperature which will reduce the life of
insulation.

2.9 Single Phasing Fault

This is a power supply-related electrical fault in case of an induction motor. For a three-phase
motor when one of the phases gets lost then the condition is known as single phasing.

2.9.1 Causes of Single Phasing Fault

Single phasing fault in an induction motor may be due to
• A downed line or a blown fuse of the utility system.
• Due to an equipment failure of the supply system.
• Due to short circuit in one phase of the star-connected or delta-connected motor.

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2.9.2 Effects of Single Phasing Fault

Effects of single phasing fault are as follows:
• For single phasing fault motor windings get over heated, primarily due to flow of negative
sequence current.
• If during running condition of the motor single phasing fault occurs motor continues to run due
to the torque produced by the remaining two phases and this torque is produced as per the
demand by the load—as a result healthy phases may be over loaded and hence over heated
resulting in critical damage to the motor itself.
• A three-phase motor will not start if a single phasing fault already persists in the supply line.

2.10 Crawling
It is an electromechanical fault of an induction motor. When an induction motor, though the full-
load supply is provided, does not accelerate but runs at a speed nearly one-seventh of its
synchronous speed, the phenomenon is known as crawling.

2.10.2 Causes of Crawling

Crawling is caused by the 7th harmonic. The 7th harmonic is introduced due to abnormal
magneto motive force. Another reason is high harmonic content in the power supply to the
motor.

2.10.3 Effects of Crawling

Following are the effects of crawling:
• Motor under loaded condition will not accelerate up to its normal speed.
• Loaded motor will remain running at a speed nearly one-seventh of the synchronous speed.
• There will be much higher stator current.
• Motor vibration and noise will be high.

2.11 Over Voltage, Under Voltage, Overload, and Blocked Rotor

Over and under voltages occur due to change of voltage level at supply end. Over voltage causes
stress on insulation, whereas under voltage causes excessive line current increasing temperature
of the winding. These faults are normally detected by over/under voltage relays. Overload occurs
due to increase of mechanical load above the rating of the motor. At excessive mechanical load,
rotor fails to rotate and gets blocked. This situation is equivalent to short circuit. Normally,
overload and blocked rotor are protected by over current relay or simply fuse.

2.12 Condition Monitoring and Its Necessity

Induction motors are the main workhorse of industrial prime movers due to their ruggedness, low
cost, low maintenance, reasonably small size, reasonably high efficiency, and operating with an
easily available power supply. About 50 % of the total generated power of a nation is consumed
by these induction motors [30]. This statistics gives an idea regarding the use of huge number of
induction motors, but they have some limitations in their operating conditions. If these
conditions exceed then some premature failure may occur in stator or/and rotor. This failure, in
many applications in industry, may shut down, even, the entire industrial process resulting loss
of production time and money. Hence, it is an important issue to avoid any kind of failure of
induction motor. Operators and technicians of induction motors are under continual pressure to

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prevent unscheduled downtime and also to reduce maintenance cost of motors.Maintenance of

electrical motors can be done in three forms: breakdown
maintenance, fixed-time maintenance, and condition-based maintenance.

AC GENERATOR/ALTERNATOR

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Classification of the major faults of electrical machines and their symptoms

Most of the surveys of failures in electrical rotating machines indicate that in general,
failures are dominated by bearing and stator winding failures with rotor winding problems being
less frequent. The reported percentage failures by components for the sample was as follows
-bearing related 41 %
-stator related 37 %
-rotor related 10 %
-others 12%
The major faults of electrical machines can broadly be classified as the following:
a) Stator faults resulting in the opening or shorting of one or more of a stator phase winding,
b)abnormal connection of the stator windings,
c)broken rotor bar or cracked rotor end-rings,
d)static and/or dynamic air-gap irregularities,
e)bent shaft (dynamic eccentricity) which can result in a rub between the rotor and stator,
causing serious damage to stator core and windings

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f)shorted rotor field winding, and

g)bearing and gearbox failures.

These faults produce one or more ofthe symptoms as given below:

a)Unbalanced air-gap voltages and line currents,
b)Increased torque pulsations,
c)decreased average torque,
d)increased losses and reduction in efficiency, and
e)excessive heating.

The diagnostic methods to identify the above faults may involve several different types
of fields of science and technology. They can be described as:
a)electromagnetic field monitoring, search coils, coils wound around motor shafts (axial flux
related detection),
b)temperature measurements,
c)infrared recognition,
d)radio frequency (RF) emissions monitoring,
e)noise and vibration monitoring,
f)chemical analysis,
g)acoustic noise measurements,
h)motor current signature analysis (MCSA),
i)model, artificial intelligence and neural network based techniques.

Of the above types of faults 1) the stator or armature faults, ii) the broken bar and end
ring faults of induction machines, iii) bearing, iv) the eccentricity related faults are the
most prevalent ones and thus demand special attention in our research.
Various types of faults and their detection techniques.

A.Bearing faults
The majority of electrical machines use ball or rolling element bearings. Each of these
bearings consists of two rings, one inner and the other outer. A set of balls or rolling
elements placed in raceways rotate inside these rings. Even under normal operating conditions
with balanced load and good alignment, fatigue failures may take place. These faults may lead to
increased vibration and noise levels. Flaking or spalling of bearings might occur when fatigue
causes small pieces to break loose from the bearing.
Other than the normal internal operating stresses, caused by vibration, inherent eccentricity, and
bearing currents due to solid state drives, bearings can be spoiled by many other external causes
such as:
a)contamination and corrosion caused by pitting and sanding action of hard and abrasive minute
particles or corrosive action of water, acid etc.
b)improper lubrication; which includes both over and under lubrication causing
heating and abrasion.
c)Improper installation of bearing. By improperly forcing the bearing onto the shaft or
in the housing (due to misalignment) indentations are formed in the raceways (brinelling).
Though almost 40-45% of all motor failures is bearing related, very little has been reported in
literature regarding bearing related fault detection. Bearing faults might manifest themselves as

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rotor asymmetry faults, which are usually covered under the category of eccentricity related
faults.

B.Stator or armature faults

These faults are usually related to insulation failure. In common parlance they are generally
known as phase-to-ground or phase-to –phase faults. It is believed that these faults start as
undetected turn-to-turn faults, which finally grow and culminate into major ones. Almost 30-
40% of all reported induction motor failures falls in this category. Armature or stator insulation
can fail due to several reasons. Primaries among these are:
a)high stator core or winding temperatures,
b)slack core lamination, slot wedges and joints.
c)Loose bracing for end winding.
d)Contamination due to oil, moisture and dirt.
e)Short circuit or starting stresses
f)Electrical discharges
g)Leakage in cooling systems

There are a number of techniques to detect these faults. [Penman 1997] was able to detect turn to
turn faults by analysing the axial flux component of the machine using a large coil wound
concentrically around the shaft of the machine. Even the fault position could be detected by
mounting four coils symmetrically in the four quadrants of the motor at a radius of about half the
distancefrom the shaft to the stator endwinding. [Tolyiat 1995] has shown through both modelli
ng and experimentation that these faults result in asymmetry in the machine impedance causing
the machine to draw unbalance phase currents. This is the result of negative sequence curr
ents flowing in the line as also have been shown in [Williamson 1984]. However, negative
sequence currents can also be caused by voltage unbalance, machine saturation etc. [Kliman
1996] model these unbalance which also includes instrument asymmetries. It is reported that
with these modifications it is possible even to detect a one turn ―bolted‖ fault out of a total 648
turns. Statistical process control (SPC) techniques have also been applied to detect stator faults
C.Broken rotor bar and end ring faults
Unlike stator design, cage rotor design and manufacturing has undergone little change over the
years. As a result rotor failures now account for around 5-10% of total induction motor failures.
Cage rotors are of two types:cast and fabricated. Previously cast rotors were only used in small
machines. However, with the advent of cast ducted rotors; casting technology can be used even
for the rotors of machines in the range of 3000 kW. Fabricated rotors are generally found in
larger or special application machines. Cast rotors though more rugged than the fabricated type
, can almost never be repairedonce faults like cracked or broken rotor bars develop in them.

The reasons for rotor bar and end ring breakage are several. They can be caused by:
a)thermal stresses due to thermal overload and unbalance, hot spots or excessive losses, sparking
(mainly fabricated rotors).
b)Magnetic stresses caused by electromagneticforces unbalanced magnetic pull, electromagnetic
noise and vibration.
c)Residual stresses due to manufacturing problems.

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d)Dynamic stresses arising from shaft torques,centrifugal forces and cyclic stresses.
e)Environmental stresses caused by for example contamination and abrasion of rotor material
due to chemicals or moisture.
f)Mechanical stresses due to loose laminations, fatigued parts, bearing failure etc. [Kliman
1988], [Thomson 1988], [Filippetti 1996], [Elkasabgy 1992] used spectrum analysis of machine
line current (MCSA) to detect broken bar faults. They investigate the sideband components
around the fundamental for detecting broken bar faults. [Elkasabgy 1992] has also shown that
broken bar faults can also be detected by time and frequency domain analysis of induced
voltages in search coils placed internally around stator tooth tip and yoke and externally on
motor frame. Following the work of [Penman 1986], detection of these faults is also possible by
frequency domain analysis of shaft flux or more generallyaxial leakage flux which is monitored
by using an external search coil wound around the shaft of a machine. Modelling of rotor bar and
end ring faults have been described by [Tolyiat 1995]. Broken bar detection using state and
parameter estimation techniques have also been reported [Cho 1992]. However, the current
spectrum and the parameter estimation approach have been compared and the former has been
found more efficient [Filipetti 1994].
D.Eccentricity related faults
Machine eccentricity is the condition of unequal air-gap that exists between the stator
and rotor [Vas 1993], [Cameron 1986]. When eccentricity becomes large, the resulting
unbalanced radial forces (also known as unbalanced magnetic pull or UMP) can cause stator to
rotor rub, and this can result in the damage of the stator and rotor. There are two types of air-gap
eccentricity: the static air-gap eccentricity and the dynamic air-gap eccentricity. In the case of th
e static air-gap eccentricity, the position of the minimal radial air-gap length is fixed in space.
Static eccentricity may be caused by the ovality of the stator core or by the incorrect positioning
of the rotor or stator at the commissioning stage. If the rotor-shaft assembly is sufficiently stiff,
the level of static eccentricity does not change. In case of dynamic eccentricity, the
centre of the rotor is not atthe centre of the rotation and the position of minimum air-gap rotates
with the rotor. This misalignment may be caused due to several factors such as a bent
rotor shaft, bearing wear or misalignment, mechanical resonance at critical speed, etc. Dynamic
eccentricity in a new machine is controlled by the total indicated reading (TIR) or ―run-out‖ of
the rotor [Thomson 1997]. An air-gap eccentricity of up to 10 % is permissible. However,
manufacturers normally keep the total eccentricity level even lower to minimise UMP and to
reduce vibration and noise. The presence of static and dynamic eccentricity can be detected using
motor current signature analysis - MCSA [Vas 1993], [Cameron 1986]. Modelling based
approaches to detect eccentricity related components in line current have been described in
[Nandi 1998-1], [Nandi 1998-2]. The simulation results obtained through the models are also
well supported by permeance analysis and experimental results. Vibration signals can also be
monitored to detect eccentricity-related faults. The high frequency vibration components for sta
tic or dynamic eccentricity are given by [Cameron 1986]. Time stepping finite element methods
have been employed recently to compare simulated results withexperimentally obtained static
eccentricity components in line currents [Barbour 1997]. Static eccentricity has also been
modelled using Winding Function Approach [Toliyat 1996]. Other approaches, such as
monitoring the stator voltage and Current Park‘s Vector [Cardoso 1993] to detect eccentric
ity in induction motor, can also be found in literature. [Tolyiat 1997] has provided simulation
and experimental results for synchronous machines with dynamic eccentricity related faults.

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All kinds of faults in an alternator and their protection.

We can divide alternator faults in two type -Internal fault, External fault. There is internal Fault
like 1.Stator Winding Fault (most severe), 2.Excitation circuit fault or failure of rotor field,
3.Unbalanced loading. On the other hand, there is external fault like 3.Failure of prime Mover,
4.Over current, 5.Over / under Voltage, 6.Over Speed; 7.over / under frequency.8. Loss of
synchronism or pulling out of step . 9.Over or under frequency fault of alternator(newly added).

01. Stator winding fault.

It is the most severe fault and considered most important for alternator protection. This vital
protection of alternator stator is Differential circulating current scheme or Mertz price
differential current protection scheme of alternator is discussed in a separate post.

02. Alternator Prime Mover failure fault or reverse power fault-

What is prime mover in an alternator-We know about prime mover. Its the mechanical system
that rotates the rotor in alternator or just in simple word runs the alternator. Typical prime
movers are diesel or gas engines, steam turbine, wind – tidal force, water flow static force in
hydro electric plant with dam etc.Now that we understand about prime mover, it is clearly
understandable that any time a prime mover might fail to keep the alternator running. The root
causes are so simple like fuel flow shut up in gas /diesel engine, inadequate water flow in hydro
electric plants etc.

The effect of prime mover failure in an alternator– we can imagine the situation, an alternator
is coupled with prime mover running, and it is directly connected to the grid or some parallel
electrical bus supplying power. When the prime mover fails, it is still connected to the live
electric bus. Then the alternator fails to supply power but starts receiving power from live
electric bus. This time the synchronous alternator takes power acts as an synchronous motor and
run the engines or turbine in uncontrolled high speed. This is called reverse power.

Severity of reverse power: For gas turbine and any hydroelectric system the turbine installed is
capable of running in very high speeds, so when high speed occurs due to reverse power, any
technician can decouple the circuit breaker. But for diesel / engine system, the reverse power is
so dangerous, as the over speed limit of engines re nominal like 120% of rated speed. As
example our plant‘s Wartsila engines rated speed was 750 RPM, and its high speed limit was
840/880 RPM.

Remedy -A reverse power relay is recommended.But this relay should have time delay to avoid
false trip in case of short time system disturbance,phase swinging and fluctuation in
synchronization.Thus when a reverse power problem occurs, the first thing is to decouple the
corresponding circuit breaker to disconnect the alternator from live line. If it is stuck, then shut
down the whole bus, if that too is not possible then shut the whole power plant for engine based
power plant only.

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03. Over current fault on an alternator.

Causes of over current fault on an alternator is the Partial breakdown of internal winding
insulation, Overload on the supply system.Over current protection for alternator is
unnecessary because of high internal impedance of alternator, Modern design concept of
alternator is to set high internal impedance of alternator.Thus if over current fault occurs,due to
high internal impedance alternator can withstand short circuit for a while.It can manually
disconnect from the bus.

False tripping on an alternator by over current protection relay is need to be considered as

this might disconnect alternator from bus for some fault out side of plant.This will cause
interruption of continuous operation, so over current relay used must have time delay.

04. Over voltage protection of an alternator:

If we talk about over voltage of an alternator, its internal over voltage. Over volatge fault of an
alternator is very rare, as the excitation current that controls the voltage has closed supervision
with AVR, automatic voltage regulator system.

However, if somehow alternator suddenly disconnected from the load, its speed exceeds rated
speed, over voltage might occur. So an over voltage relay is recommenced to install where
alternator rpm is not closely supervised.

05. Unbalanced loading of an Alternator

This is not a direct fault, just a symptom of some severe faults. But we can summarize those
faults in one fault category to apply a common protection scheme for it. First of all, unbalanced
loading means there are different current in three phases of alternator. In normal condition, the
difference in phase current varies +/- 5% , but when this difference exceeds- then it is
unbalanced condition. As it is stated earlier that this unbalanced is not itself a fault, does not
apply any ham but the cause of unbalanced is harmful like grounding of one phase, or short
circuit of phase to phase.

To sense and protect the unbalanced loading a simple conception is used that the three phase
current is equal in magnitude but 120 degree separate by phase angle. So when we vectorically
sum up three phase current- the result is zero. Thus we can apply some simple instrument
transformer to watch out the summation of three phase to zero, if by some means there is some
value other than zero that is not in the range of tolerable, then this circuit can send a trip signal.

The below circuit foloow the above conception. See the secondaries of three CT‘s are shorted, so
the sum of normal phase currents is zero, no current in the trip coil. By some instance if there is
some unbalanced, then there will be some current in the secondary, that will eventually sen trip
signal.

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Unbalanced loading fault

protection of an alternator with a protection relay.

06. Stator inter turn protection of alternator

This specific protection is for alternators with multiple coils turns like in double phase winding
used in large steam turbine alternators. The concept is that this protection scheme covers the
stator coil inter turn to turn short circuit, not coil to coil(phase to phase) or coil to ground(phase
to ground). Its like a local fault in one of the coil.

The protection scheme to cover stator inter turn fault is simply basissing the theory of differential
theory. In normal condition, the two coil or multi coils individually carry same magnitude of
current but with a phase displacement. If this current is summed up in a common circuit then the
result will be zero. So we can just place some CT‘s with their secondaries shorted and primaries
with individual coils. If some fault persists, then there will be current in the secondaries which
will energize the trip circuit.

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07. Loss of Synchronism or pulling out of step fault of alternator

This type of fault we used to see in power plant. Suddenly one of alternator shut down and in
protection relay fault log display shows ―Loss of sysnchronism‖.

To understand this fault we can have some brief theory. As in all electrical rotating machine, the
common working principle is that there is some disalignment generated between two flux- rotor
flux & stator flux. Thus a force is exerted to straighten this dis alignment-which is harnessed as
working force.

Fp=resultant air-gap flux per pole

Fw = mmf of the dc field winding
Drf = electrical phase angle between magnetic axes of Fp & Fw

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The adjustment of the rotor to its new

angular position following a load change

As the prime-mover torque is increased, the magnitude of Drf must increase until the
electromechanical torque balances the shaft torque. The readjustment process is actually a
dynamic one, requiting a change in the mechanical speed of the rotor.

As can be seen from Fig, an increase in prime-mover torque will result in a corresponding
increase in the torque angle. When Drf becomes 90 °, the electromechanical torque reaches its
maximum value, known as the pull-out torque. Any further increase in prime-mover torque
cannot be balanced by a corresponding increase
in synchronous electromechanical torque, with the result that synchronism will no longer be
maintained and the rotor will speed up. This phenomenon is known as loss of synchronism or
pulling out of step.

As remedy– Under these conditions, the generator is usually disconnected from the external
electrical system by the automatic operation of circuit breakers, and the prime mover is quickly
shut down to prevent dangerous over speed. The value of the pull-out torque can be increased by
increasing either the field current or the resultant air-gap flux. However, this cannot be done
without limit; the field current is limited by the ability to cool the field winding, and the air-gap
flux is limited by saturation of the machine iron.

08. Over frequency & Under frequency fault and protection for alternator

The frequency has a constant stable value, defined by the equation (Ns=120f/p). But frequency
varies causing over and under frequency fault. Over or under frequency has its own severe effect
on both the load side and generating equipment side, We are talking here about the generating set
– alternator. The first thing we like to know why the over or under frequency occurs.

The frequency variation created by the load demand(excess or less then generation). Say
when a generating station producing power that equals the net consumption plus the loss, then
the system will be stable. But when the load demand is higher then production, that is production

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is low then use/demand then frequency will be low, on the other hand when the load demand is
less then production or production is excess then frequency will be higher.

We can summarize over & under frequency in a mathematical concept to understand and
memorize as below-
Production > Load demand = frequency high
Production < Load demand = frequency low
Production = Load demand = frequency stable.

The remedy or protection of over and under protection is simple. When under frequency occurs
that is more power consumer then the covering capacity, then the only solution is to effect load
shedding or increase the power generation. For over frequency the only solution is to lower the
power generation. A relay can be used to automatically control the loading, unloading of
generator or effect the load shedding.

What are the various faults in 3 phase induction motor?

Induction motor faults may be classified into faults on stator and rotor. The most common type
of failures are:

 Stator faults resulting in the opening or shorting of one or more of stator phase windings
starting from inter-turn short circuits.
 Abnormal connection of the stator windings resulting in unbalanced air-gap voltages and
lines currents and increase in torque pulsations resulting in high vibrations
 Broken rotor bar or cracked rotor end-rings
 Static and or dynamic air-gap irregularities
 Bent shaft (akin to dynamic eccentricity) which can result in a rub between the rotor and
stator
 Bearing and gearbox failures

Common Faults in both AC and DC Motors

If an electrical motor is thought to have a problem, there are five common areas where the fault
may lie. The initial problem (and most common issue with malfunctioning motors) may be with

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the power circuit or quality of the power supply. Breakages can also happen when there are
faults with insulation or an air gap, along with possible defects with the motor‘s stator or rotor.

Here, we review some common problems with AC and DC motors and their possible
causes:

The Motor Is Not Mounted Correctly

Inadequate mounting of the motor can lead to defects when it is not correctly levelled as part of
the installation process. If the housing is not properly bolted to the rest of the assembly or the
surroundings, uneven stresses may arise. This is sometimes called ‗soft foot‘ and leads to
irregular operation, distortion of the bearings and physical failure over time. To correct this,
stainless steel shims may be used under high feet or parts of the base to level them.

The Motor is Clogged With Dust

In physically dirty environments, the accumulation of dust inside a motor can lead to short-
circuiting. In dusty conditions, it is important to keep the surrounding area clean and to employ
DIP (dust ingress protection) measures. For preference, motors with IP dust ratings of 5 (limited
ingress – no harmful deposit) or 6 (totally protected against dust) are the most reliable in these
type of operating conditions.

Water is Inside the Motor

Water ingress is a similar hazard – if liquids get into the terminal box or stator coils, short-
circuiting will occur and the motor will burn out. In damp, humid or wet areas, sufficient
protection measures need to be deployed.

The Motor is Overheating

Overheating can occur if the motor is too small for the task, not fit for purpose or if changes to
the load occur. High ambient temperatures are also a cause of overheating. Protection circuitry
against over-temperature operation is recommended, so that if the motor overheats it shuts down.
Booster fans can help, along with variable speed drives.

The Motor Has Been Stored Incorrectly

Storage for extended periods in one position means that internal bearings can etch into the metal
of the shaft. Therefore, it is advisable to rotate the shaft a quarter of a turn (ninety degrees) every
month. Similar problems can occur with bearings etching marks into the motor shaft when there
is vibration, so storage on cushioned mats is recommended.

Finally, to minimise failures, regular preventative maintenance inspections and tasks should be
carried out. Power supply circuitry should include overload protection to remove transient
voltage spikes.

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TOPIC 4:DISCHARGE LAMPS

For applications where high brightness is required to illuminate large areas, for indoor plant
growing and for other similar cases, a specific type of bulbs are required. The most common of
these are:

 Fluorescent lights(used indoors);

 LED lights(while LED bulbs are also widely used as household lighting, there are
special high wattage LED lights suitable for illuminating large areas);
 HID or high intensity discharge lights(which we will cover in this article).

There are three main categories of light bulbs:

 Incandescent bulbs that emit light by heating tungsten filament until it starts to glow
(incandescent and halogen bulbs);
 Gas discharge lamps that produce light by creating an electric discharge through ionised
gas (high intensity discharge bulbs and low intensity discharge bulbs);
 Light-emitting diodes where light is generated by passing current through a
semiconductor material (LED lights).

While almost anyone knows what are incandescent bulbs, not so many know what are gas
discharge lamps, although they had (and still have) an important role in indoor and outdoor
lighting. Some gas discharge lamps may look more similar to incandescent lights, while others,
such as fluorescent lights, can have completely different size and shape.

The working principle of gas discharge lamps is very different from incandescent bulbs, instead
of heating a filament to produce light (which is not very effective, because a lot of energy gets
wasted as heat), they produce light by creating an electric discharge through an ionised gas.
This allows to create light at various colors, depending on the type of gas used in the lamp or the
inner coating of the tube, and also notably improves the efficiency and lifetime of the bulb. Gas
discharge lamps also require special ballasts to control current flow supplied to the lamp.

Gas discharge lamps can be separated into two categories by the pressure of the gas inside of the
lamp – high pressure gas discharge lamps and low pressure gas discharge lamps.

High pressure discharge lamps

High pressure discharge lamps contain pressurized gases such as argon, xenon, neon, krypton,
mercury, sodium and others inside a small arc tube located in the lamp. Gas inside high pressure
discharge lights has similar or higher pressure (up to 30 Bar and more) than atmosphere (approx.
1 Bar) and some of these lamps operate at very high temperatures up to 3000° C (5400° F).
Because of the high pressure and intense discharge, these lights can be made in a smaller size
than low pressure discharge lamps.

Thanks to their power and brightness, high pressure discharge lamps are used to illuminate large
indoor and outdoor areas such as stadiums, arenas, warehouses, parking lots, shops and others.

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Examples of high pressure discharge lamps are mercury vapor lamps, high pressure sodium
vapor lamps and metal halide lamps.

Low pressure discharge lamps

Low pressure discharge lamps have gas inside the bulb in much lower pressure (about 30 milli
Bar for fluorescent lights) than atmospheric pressure (approx. 1 Bar) and they operate at
moderate temperatures at about 40° C (104° F).

Low pressure discharge lamps are known for their high energy efficiency, so bulbs such as
fluorescent and compact fluorescent are commonly used in household and office lighting. Some
examples of low pressure discharge lamps are previously mentioned fluorescent lamps, low
pressure sodium lamps (which are one of the most efficient artificial light sources) and neon
lights.

High intensity discharge lamps is another category of gas discharge lamps. These lights work
by creating an electric arc between electrodes (usually made from tungsten) located in a semi-
transparent or transparent arc tube. The most common examples of high intensity discharge
lamps are metal halide lamps, sodium vapor lamps, mercury vapor lamps and xenon arc lamps.

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HIGH INTENSITY DISCHARGE LAMPS

What are HID lights?

Philips metal halide HID bulb

HID or hight intensity discharge lights are a type of gas discharge lamps which produce light by
creating an electric arc between two electrodes through an ionised gas. Electrodes, gas and metal
salts (for some HID lamps) are hermetically sealed inside a special arc discharge tube made from
quartz or sintered alumina.

HID lamps also have an outer glass bulb that protects the inner parts of the bulb, blocks
ultraviolet light on some bulbs types, keeps more heat inside the bulb and protects people
around, if the lamp was to explode and break.

HID lamps don‘t need any coating inside its tubes because the arc itself emits visible light,
unlike fluorescent lights that have phosphor coating that glows when UV light strikes it.

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However, few metal halide and lots of mercury vapor lamps have phosphor coating inside the
bulb to improve the light spectrum and color rendering of the lamp.

High intensity discharge light bulbs come in wattages from 25 watts for self ballasted metal
halide lamps and 35 watts for high intensity sodium vapor lamps to 1000 watts for high intensity
mercury vapor and sodium vapor lamps and 1500 watts for metal halide lamps.

One thing that differs gas discharge lamps from other type of bulbs such as halogen is that they
require special control gear called ballast to operate. Ballast performs certain functions such
as regulates the amount of current supplied to the inner tube of the bulb, ignites the light and
supports other functions such as dimming the lamp.

How do HID lights work?

The working principle of each type of high intensity discharge lamp is a bit different, but they
share some similarities that will be covered next. For how each specific type of HID light works,
head to the paragraphs dedicated specifically to each type of HID lamp (Mercury vapor lamp |
Metal halide lamp | High pressure sodium lamp).

1. Every HID lamp consists of an arc tube which is filled with gas, what type of gas is
used depends on the type of HID lamp, for example metal halide lamp can contain a
starting gas such as argon, mercury and metal salts, while a high pressure sodium lamp
can contain a xenon gas, mercury and sodium. Inside the arc tube are two main
electrodes(mostly made from tungsten), the tube itself is usually made from quartz to
withstand the excessive heat that develops while the lamp operates. Most bulbs have an
outer glass to improve protection and efficiency of the bulb.There is also a ballast for
each HID lamp that controls the current that gets passed to both electrodes, ballasts are
required to start the lamp and ensure it operates correctly.
2. The first step for light to work is to start a current flow between both tungsten
electrodes through the gas. Because there is a high pressure inside the arc, a very high
voltage is required to start the current flow. On some HID lamps a special igniter is used
that pulses the arc tube with high voltage until it strikes. When the current flow between
both electrodes has been established, the voltage is reduced. The current is controlled by
the ballast of the lamp.

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3.

How HID lights work. Source – the internet.

An arc is created between both electrodes that will be used to vapourize mercury,
sodium, metal salts(or other substances depending on the type of the lamp) inside the
quartz tube and produce intense light.

4. The gas inside the tube is ionised and acts as a conductor. Free electrons flow between
both electrodes in the electric field and collide with gas molecules, knocking electrons
into a higher level, when they go back into the previous level, they emit energy in form of
radiation. The color of the light will depend on the type of metal vapor used in the lamp.
What differs low pressure discharge and high pressure discharge lamps is that the second

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ones have much higher concentration of excited molecules in the tube, so in result they
can produce much brighter light.
5. When the arc has been created and lamp is operating, the temperature and pressure
inside the tube builds, which also heats the metal salts located in the tube, this
eventually increases the intensity and brightness of the light produced by the lamp.
Most HID lamps such as sodium vapor require few minutes of start-up time until the heat
and pressure inside the tube is high enough for the lamp to reach the maximum brightness
(in case of sodium vapor lights for sodium to vaporise).
6. The color and intensity of the light and also the efficacy of the lamp will depend on
various factors such as the type of gas (xenon, argon etc.) and metals (mercury, sodium
etc.) used in the lamp and the heat and pressure inside the tube. To improve the color of
the lamp other metal salts can also be used inside the tube.
7. If HID lamp has been running for a while and reached its optimal temperature and then is
turned off, most HID lamps cannot be instantly turned on again, as they need to cool
down before they will re-strike, the cooling process can take even up to 10 or 20 minutes
depending on the type of HID lamp.
8. HID lamps generally have good life span, especially when compared to halogen or
incandescent lights. The average lifespan of mercury vapor lamps is about 24000 hours,
of metal halide about 10000 – 15000 hours and of high intensity sodium vapor lamps
about 10000 – 24000 hours. The lifespan of a HID lamp depends on the total amount of
on time and number of on/off cycles, similar to other gas lamps.

At the end of the life, HID bulbs start to act differently, for example, some bulbs, as they
get older, require higher voltage to maintain an electric arc between electrodes which
increases the heat inside the tube. In a result, the fixture turns off and needs to cool down
before it can turn on again. This process will repeat more frequently as the lamp gets
older.Also, when a HID lamp gets closer to the end of its life, it can start to loose color of
the emitted light or in other words, start to fade. The process also happens because the
lamp needs higher voltage to operate, which increases the temperature inside the
discharge tube and results in a failure of the lamp.

an electric lamp in which an enclosed gas or vapor glows or causes a phosphor coating on the
lamp's inner surface to glow.
Incandescence was employed in Tungsten Filament lamps. Halides were employed to reduce
blackening of the bulb. Lumniescence and Fluorescence increase efficiency far beyond
incandescence. Discharge of electricity through a tube containing a conducting medium leading
to electron Flow is employed in Lumniescence. This calls for an abundant supply of electrons.

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Electron Emission Electron emission is a process by which abundant supply of electrons is

obtained. Electric Field Emission is employed in Cold cathode Lamps. Electrons are pulled out
by application of High Potential. Thermionic Emission is employed in Hot cathode Lamps.
Electrons are emitted even at a low voltage by heating. Barium / strontium oxide on a base of
iron or Tungsten is used as Cathode. Photo electric Emission: Striking with Light Radiation of
Photons, emission is achieved. Thus gas / vapor made Luminous by an electric discharge. Color /
intensity of light are dependent on Gas / vapor employed. Intensity is proportional to the current.
Commonly used gases are Neon, Mercury and Sodium. Cold Cathode needs large energy
consumption at the cathode with decreased efficiency. This may lead to disintegration of cathode
with high velocity positive ions due to large Potential drop at the cathode. Blackening of cathode
does occur. They have Long Discharge Tubes with Low voltage Lamps. Mercury Vapor Lamps
give light of Bluish Green, deficient in red rays. In this case color rendering (CRI) improves at
high Pressures. Considerable distortion in colors occurs. Mercury – oxide coated Cathodes
(Electrodes) are employed. In a typical discharge lamp coated tungsten wire electrodes with
Strontium Oxide or Barium oxide coating are located at the opposite ends of a glass tube.

Mercury Vapor Lamp

Arc is a Constant Current Phenomenon. The starting electrodes are connected to lower electrode

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through a resistance (R). Arc tube contains Mercury at the desired vapor pressure. Pure Argon
initiates arc prior to vaporization as pressure is increased – Radiation moves into visible
spectrum. Standard Rating are 100,250, ......3000 W with a typical illumination of 35 lm / W.
Arc initiation takes place at 20V at about 5A. Argon arc lasts for 2 min with a bluish Glow. At
about 137 V, 3.2 A – Mercury vaporizes and takes over. Run up time or arc initiation time is up
to 30 minutes. Lowest run up time is around 2 minutes. Ballast is a reactor in series that limits
the current. Typical Power factor ≈0.65 – 0.7 capacitors added across the Lamp improve power
factor to 0.94.

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