ANAPHY REVIEWER - produce movements for bones

NERVOUS SYSTEM
- brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory receptors
CHAPTER 1: THE HUMAN BODY: AN
- FAST ACTING control system
ORIENTATION
- Responds to internal & external s:muli
- SENSORY RECEPTORS – detects changes
ANATOMY - is the study of the structure and - Messages are sent to the CENTRAL NERVOUS
shape of the body (large body structures) SYSTEM – assesses informa:on & ac:vates
effector
PHYSIOLOGY - is the study of how the body and ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
its parts work or funcDon - secretes chemical molecules called
hormones into the blood
GROSS ANATOMY - is the study of anatomical - Body Func9ons controlled by hormones:
structures that can be seen by the naked eye o Growth
o Reproduc9on
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY - is the study of Dny o use of nutrients
anatomical structures such as 9ssues and cells - Endocrine Gland includes:
o Pituitary Gland
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION o Thyroid & Parathyroid
o Adrenal Gland
o Thymus
o Pancreas
o Pineal Gland
o Ovaries & Testes
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
- Heart – pumps blood; blood vessels –
transports blood to 9ssues
- Blood transports oxygen & carbon dioxide,
nutrients, & hormones
NASAL FLARING – nostrils widen while
breathing
RBC – hemoglobin & oxygen
WBC – fights infec9on
PLATELETS – for blood cloPng
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM PLASMA - liquid por9on of blood
- external covering of the body (skin)
including the hair and fingernails ARTERY – carries blood AWAY from the heart
- waterproofs the body (malinis)
- cushions and protects the deeper 9ssues VEINS – carries blood TOWARDS the heart
- sunlight = produces vitamin D (madumi)
- excretes salts in perspira9on (sweaDng)
- regulate body temperature LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
- Sensory receptors located in the skin alert - lympha9c vessels, lymph nodes, lymphoid
us to what is happening at the body surface. organs
SKELETAL SYSTEM (206 BONES) - returning leaked fluids to bloodstream
- bones, car9lages, and joints - lymph nodes/other lymphoid organs help to
- supports the body & provides a framework cleanse the blood
that causes movement - house WBC involved in immunity – resist
- protects vital organs (ex. Skull) against infec9on
- sites where blood cells are formed ARTERY/VEINS – maliit
- acts as a storehouse for minerals (CALCUIM) ARTERIOLES/VENULES – Malaki
MUSCULAR SYSTEM (620 MUSCLES) CELL has a SEMI PERMEABLE MEMBRANE
- to contract, or shorten for movements to occurs – allows small par9cles to pass through
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 4. DIGESTION – breakdown & absorp9on of
- nasal passage, pharynx, larynx, trachea, nutrients
bronchi, lungs 5. METABOLISM – chemical reac9ons within
- supplies oxygen; remove carbon dioxide the body
- ALVEOLI – allows exchange of gasses - - Breaks down complex to
- ASPIRATION - something enters your airway smaller molecules
or lungs - - Build larger from smaller
molecules
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - - Produces ATP
- Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small &
large intes9ne, rectum, accessory organs 6. EXCRETION – eliminates excreta (waste)
- Breaks down food through urine, feces, sweat
- Allows nutrient absorp9on to blood 7. REPRODUCTION – occurs on cellular
- Eliminates indiges9ble material (feces) organism level
CARBS/SUGAR – glucose o Cellular – new cells are used for growth
PROTIEN – amino acids and repair
FATS – faUy acids o Organism – reproduc9ve system
handles the task
URINARY SYSTEM 8. GROWTH – increases the cell size or body
- Kidney, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra size (increase no. of cells)
- Eliminates nitrogenous waste
- Maintains acid-base balance SURVIVAL NEEDS
- Regulates water & electrolyte balance 1. NUTRIENTS – chemicals used for
- Regulate normal blood pressure (renin) energy and cell building (carbs,
proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals)
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM – produce offspring 2. OXYGEN – required for chemical
reac9on
- - coopera9on of respiratory
& cardiovascular
3. WATER – 60% to 80% of body weight
- - most abundant chemical
- - fluid base for se/excre9on
4. NORMAL BODY TEMP – 37°C or 98.6 F
Below – can make a reac9on slow
and stop
Above - chemical reac9ons
proceeds to rapidly
5. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE – must be
appropriate for gas exchange
MAINTAINING LIFE: NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS
1. MAINTAINING BOUNDARIES – separates LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY ANATOMICAL
“inside” from “outside” POSITION – standard posi9on used to avoid
2. MOVEMENT – locomo9on (loc to another) confusion
- - Movement of substance - - posi9on regardless of the actual body
3. RESPONSIVENES (irritability) – ability to posi9on
sense change & react
VasoconstricDon - narrowing of blood ORIENTATIONAL & DIRECTIONAL TERMS
vessels (taas bp) SUPERIOR (cephalic) – upper part; above
VasodilaDon – widening of blood vessels INFERIOR (caudal) -lower part; below
(baba bp) ANTERIOR (ventral) – in front of
SepDcemia – infec9on in blood POSTERIOR (dorsal) – behind
MEDIAL – midline of the body
LATERAL – away from the midline of the body MEDIASTINUM – separates lungs into lep
INTERMEDIATE – a more medial & more lateral and right cavi9es
SUPERFICIAL (external) – at body surface - ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY – inferior to
DEEP (internal) – more internal diaphragm
- ABDOMINAL CAVITY – stomach, liver,
intes9ne & other organs
- PELVIC CAVITY – reproduc9ve organs,
bladders, rectum
OTHER BODY CAVITIES

ORAL & DIGESTIVE CAVITY – teeth, tongue;

con9nuous w/diges9ve organs to anus
NASAL CAVITY – within/posterior to the nose ;
part of respiratory
ORBITAL CAVITIES – skull house the eyes and
present them in an anterior posi9on
MIDDLE EAR CAVITIES – 9ny bones that transmit
sound vibra9ons to the hearing receptors.

BODY PLANES & SECTIONS HOMEOSTASIS

SECTION – internal structures of the body – body’s ability to maintain stable internal
PLANE – through the body wall or organ; made condi9ons even though the outside world
along imaginary like is con9nuously changing.
SAGITTAL SECTION – cut along lengthwise or – Homeo – the same; stasis – standing s9ll
longitudinal plane of the body
MEDIAN (midsagi`al) SECTION – right & lep CONTROL SYSTEMS
parts are equal RECEPTORS monitors and responds to changes in
FRONTAL (coronal) SECTION -anterior & environment. It responds to such changes, called
posterior parts are cut sDmuli, by sending informa9on (input) to the
TRANSVERSE (cross0 SECTION – superior & second component, the control center.
inferior parts Informa9on flows from the receptor to the control
center along the efferent pathway. The
BODY CAVITIES CONTROL CENTER - analyzes the informa9on;
DORSAL BODY CAVITY determines response/course of ac9on.
- CRANIAL BODY CAVITY – space in skull/ EFFECTOR, provides the means for the control
brain center’s response (output) to the s9mulus.
- SPINAL CAVITY – cranial cavity to end of the Informa9on flows from the control center to the
spinal cord effector along the afferent pathway
VENTRAL BODY CAVITY
- THORACIC CAVITY – separated from the rest FEEDBACK – influence the s9mulus
of the ventral cavity NEGATIVE FEEDBACK – reducing the amount of
DIAPHRAGM – dome-shaped muscle change
POSITIVE FEEDBACK – increasing the amount of FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
change A – vision
D – regulates calcium
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE E – wound healing; fer9lity
- As we age, our body organs become less K – blood cloPng & bones
efficient, and our internal condi9ons
become less and less stable PROTEINS
- Construc9on materials for body 9ssues
- Increase osmo9c pressure (stop flow)
CHAPTER 2: BASIC CHEMISTRY - Vital role in cell func9on
- Building blocks called amino acids
MATTER – anything that occupies space & has
mass CHAPTER 3: CELLS AND TISSUES

ELEMENTS - fundamental units of maUer CELLS

- - 96% of the body is made from these 4 - Structural units of all living things
elements - 50 – 100 trillion cells
Oxygen oxida9on of glucose and other SOMATIC CELLS / SEX CELLS
(O) food fuels, during which cellular - egg & sperm
energy (ATP) is produced.
Carbon carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, OVERVIEW OF THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
(C) and nucleic acids. THE CELL THEORY
Hydrogen component of most organic - A cell is the basic structural and func9onal
(H) molecules; as an ion (charged unit of living organisms; proper9es of life.
atom), it influences the pH of - The ac9vity of an organism depends on the
body fluids. collec9ve ac9vi9es of its cells.
Nitrogen component of proteins and - According to the principle of
(N) nucleic acids (gene9c material) complementarity, the ac9vi9es of cells are
Calcium – for muscle contrac9on, neural dictated by their structure (anatomy), which
transmission and blood cloPng determines func9on (physiology).
Phosphorus – present in nucleic acid & many - Con9nuity of life has a cellular basis.
Proteins; forms parts of the high-energy MOST CELLS ARE COMPOSED OF: (60% water)
compound ATP 1. Oxygen 3. Hydrogen
Potassium - conduc9on of nerve impulses and for 2. Carbon 4. Nitrogen
muscle contrac9on. PARTS OF CELL
Sulfur - component of proteins 1. Nucleus – control center; contains DNA
Sodium - important for water balance, conduc9on (building proteins & cell reproduc9on)
of nerve impulses, and muscle contrac9on 3 REGIONS
Chlorine - most abundant extracellular anion Nuclear Envelope
Magnesium - cofactor for enzyme ac9vity in a - Consists of a double membrane that bounds
number of metabolic reac9ons. the nucleus
Iodine - to make func9onal thyroid hormones. - Contains nuclear pores that allow for
Iron - component of the hemoglobin molecule exchange of material with the rest of the cell
(transports oxygen within red blood cells) and - Encloses the jellylike fluid called the
enzymes. TEMPERATURE – turn more rapidly & nucleoplasm
collide more forcefully Nucleolus
- Nucleus contains one or more dark-staining
RED - nutrients nucleoli
WHITE - infec9on - Sites of ribosome assembly
PLATELETS - cloPng - Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm
through nuclear pores to serve as the site of
protein synthesis
 ChromaDn SMOOTH ER - lack of ribosomes; Func9ons in
- Composed of DNA lipid metabolism; Detoxifica9on of drugs and
- ScaUered throughout the nucleus and pes9cides
present when the cell is not dividing GOLGI APPARATUS
- Condenses to form dense, rodlike bodies - Modifies and packages proteins arriving from
called chromosomes when the cell divides the rough ER via transport vesicles
2. Plasma Membrane LYSOSOMES
- Transparent barrier for cell contents - La9n word “lysis” means ”to destroy”
- Contains cell contents - Membranous “bags” that contain diges9ve
- Separates cell contents from outside enzymes
o Hydrophilic (“water loving”) polar PERIXOSOMES
“heads” are oriented on the inner and - Break down free radicals (highly reac9ve
outer surfaces of the membrane chemicals)
o Hydrophobic (“water fearing”) nonpolar - Free radicals are converted to hydrogen
“tails” form the center (interior) of the peroxide and then to water
membrane CYTOSKELETON
NOTE!!! Protein in water affects osmosis - La9n word “cyto” means cell; cytology –
Glycogen stored form of glucose study of cell
Glycoproteins are branched sugars aUached to - Provides the cell with an internal framework
proteins that abut the extracellular space that determines cell shape
Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, s9cky, sugar-rich area on
the cell’s surface CELL EXTENSION
3. Cytoplasm - Cilia move materials across the cell surface
- material outside the nucleus and inside the (to move mucus)
plasma membrane - Flagella propel the cell (only flagellated cell in
- Site of most cellular ac9vi9es the human body is sperm)
- Includes cytosol, inclusions, and organelles - Microvilli are 9ny, fingerlike extensions of
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF CYTOPLASM the plasma membrane (Increase surface area
1. Cytosol: Fluid that suspends other for absorp9on)
elements and contains nutrients
and electrolytes CELLS THAT CONNECTS BODY PARTS
2. Inclusions: Chemical substances, FIBROBLAST
such as stored nutrients or cell o “blast” means to build
products, that float in the cytosol o Secretes cable-like fibers
3. Organelles: Metabolic machinery ERYTHROCYTES
of the cell that perform func9ons o “erythro” means red; “cyte” means cell
for the cell o Carries oxygen in the bloodstream
CELLS THAT COVER AND LINE BODY ORGANS
MITOCHONDRIA o EPITHELIAL CELL – packs together in
- POWERHOUSE of the cell sheets; Intermediate fibers resist tearing
- Carry out reac9ons in which oxygen is used to during rubbing or pulling
break down food into ATP molecules CELLS THAT MOVE ORGANS AND BODY PARTS
RIBOSOMES o SKELETAL MUSCLE & SMOOTH MUSCLE
- Made of protein and ribosomal RNA CELLS - Contrac9le filaments allow cells
- Sites of protein synthesis in the cell to shorten forcefully
ENDOPLASMIC RETEICULUM (ER) CELLS THAT STORES NUTRIENTS
- Fluid-filled funnels (canals) that carry o FAT CELLS - Lipid droplets stored in
substances within the cell cytoplasm
ROUGH ER – abundant in cells that make and
export of proteins
CELLS THAT FIGHTS DISEASE TYPES OF DIFFUSION
o WBC such as the macrophage(kumakain) SIMPLE DIFFUSION - small enough to pass
“phago” means “to eat” through membrane pores
o Digests infec9ous microorganisms 1. OSMOSIS - simple diffusion of water
CELL THAT GATHERS INFORMATION AND across a selec9vely permeable membrane
CONTROLS BODY FUNCTIONS Isotonic soluDons have the same
o NERVE CELLS or neurons solute; no visible changes in the cell
CELLS OF REPRODUCTION Hypertonic soluDons contain more
o OOCYTE – female solutes than the cells do; the cells will
o SPERM – male begin to shrink
- Built for swimming to the egg for fer9liza9on Hypotonic soluDons contain fewer
solutes (more water) than the cells do;
CELLS HAVE THE ABILITY TO: cells will plump
o Metabolize FACILITATED DIFFUSION - Transports lipid-
o Digest food insoluble and large substances
o Dispose of wastes
o Reproduce PASSIVE PROCESSES
o Grow FILTRATION - Water and solutes are forced
o Move through a membrane by fluid, or hydrosta9c,
o Respond to a sDmulus pressure

MEMBRANE TRANSPORT TISSUES

SOLUTION – homogenous mixture of 2 - Groups of cells with similar structure and
components func9on
SOLVENT - dissolving medium (main
solvent is water) EPITHELIAL TISSUE
SOLUTE - components in smaller Loca9ons:
quan99es within a solu9on § Body coverings - Cover and line body
INTRACELLULAR FLUID surfaces
- Solu9on containing gases, nutrients, and § Body linings - form sheets with one free,
salts dissolved in water the apical, and anchored surface, the
LYMPH – fluids basement membrane
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID (intersDDal fluid) § Glandular Dssue - Avascular (no blood
- Contains thousands of ingredients, such as supply); regenerates easily if well
nutrients, hormones, neurotransmiUers, nourished
salts, waste products Func9ons;
§ Protec9on
TWO BASIC METHODS OF TRANSPORT § Absorp9on
PASSIVE – energy is NOT needed § Filtra9on
ACTIVE – energy is NEEDED CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
- SIMPLE – one layer
DIFFUSION - STRATIFIED – more than one layer
- There is movement from high concentra9on SHAPE OF CELLS
to low concentra9on - SQUAMOUS – flaUened; like fish scales
- KineDc energy (energy of mo9on) causes - CUBOIDAL – cube-shaped; like dine
the molecules to move about randomly - COLUMNAR – shaped like columns

CHEMICAL REACTIONS CONNECTIVE TISSUE

KINETIC ENERGY - Found everywhere in the body to connect
SIZE OF PARTICLES – the smaller the faster body parts
TEMPERATURE – higher temp the faster - Includes the most abundant and widely
CONCENTRATION – concentrated is faster distributed 9ssues
 FUNCTIONS LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
o Protec9on - Areolar - Sop, pliable 9ssue like “cobwebs”
o Support - Adipose (fat) - Insulates the body; Protects
o Binding some organs; Serves as a site of fuel storage
- ReDcular - Delicate network of interwoven
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX - Nonliving material that fibers with re9cular cells
surrounds living cells Loca9ons
TWO MAIN ELEMENTS OF EXTRACELLULAR o Lymph nodes
MATRIX o Spleen
1. GROUND SUBSTANCE - mostly water, along o Bone marrow
with adhesion proteins and polysaccharide
molecules MUSCLE TISSUES
2. FIBERS - Func9on is to contract, or shorten, to
o Collagen (white) fibers produce movement
o Elas9c (yellow) fibers
o Re9cular fibers (a type of collagen) SKELETAL
- aUached to the skeleton and pull on bones or
BONE (osseous 9ssue) skin and produces gross body movements or
- Osteocytes (bone cells) siPng in lacunae facial expression
(cavi9es) - voluntarily controlled
- Hard matrix of calcium salts CARDIAC
- Large numbers of collagen fibers - involuntarily controlled
Func9on is to protect and support the body - found only in the heart
CARTILAGE SMOOTH (VISCERAL)
- Less hard and more flexible than bone - involuntarily controlled
- Chondrocyte (car9lage cell) is the major cell - Found in walls of hollow organs
type - PERISTALSIS - series of wave-like muscle
TYPES contrac9ons
1. HYALINE CARTILAGE - Most widespread
type of car9lage NERVOUS TISSUE
Loca9ons: - to receive and conduct
Trachea o Irritability – respond to internal/external
AUaches ribs to the breastbone o ConducDvity - transmit impulses and
Covers ends of long bones react to s9mulants.
En9re fetal skeleton prior to birth TISSUE REPAIR
Epiphyseal (growth) plates in long bones 1. Regenera9on - Replacement of destroyed
2. ELASTIC CARTILAGE (not pictured)- 9ssue by the same kind of cells
Provides elas9city 2. Fibrosis - Repair by dense (fibrous)
Loca9on: connec9ve 9ssue (scar 9ssue)
supports the external ear
3. FIBROCARTILAGE - Highly compressible NOTE!!
Loca9on: EPITHELIAL TISSUE – regenerates easily
forms cushion like discs between vertebrae SKELETAL MUSCLE – regenerates poorly
of the spinal column
Whether regeneraDon or fibrosis occurs depends
DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE - Main matrix on:
element is collagen fiber 1. Type of 9ssue damaged
LOCATIONS: 2. Severity of the injury
- Tendons—aUach skeletal muscle to bone CLEAN CUTS (incisions) heal more successfully
- Ligaments—aUach bone to bone at joints than ragged tears of the 9ssue
and are more elas9c than tendons
- Dermis—lower layers of the skin
EVENTS OF TISSUE REPAIR - Secrete a lubrica9ng fluid to cushion organs
InflammaDon sets the stage moving against each other during muscle
- Capillaries become very permeable ac9vity
- CloPng proteins migrate into the area from
the bloodstream INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM (skin)
- A clot walls off the injured area - Sweat glands
GranulaDon Dssue forms - Oil glands
- Growth of new capillaries - Hair
- Rebuild collagen fibers - Nails
FUNCTIONS
- Insulates (conserva9on of body heat) and
CHAPTER 4: SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES cushion deeper body organs
- Aids in loss or reten9on of body heat as
BODY MEMBRANES -structure that covers body controlled by the nervous system
membranes - Aids in excre9on of urea and uric acid
- Synthesizes vitamin D
EPITHELIAL MEMBRANE Protects the enDre body from:
- Are simple organs o Mechanical damage (bumps and cuts)
- Covering and lining membranes o Chemical damage (acids and bases)
CUTANEOUS (skin) o Thermal damage (heat or cold)
- Dry membrane o Ultraviolet (UV) radia9on (sunlight)
- Outermost protec9ve boundary o Microbes (bacteria)
EPIDERMIS o Desicca9on (drying out)
DERMIS EPIDERMIS – outer layer
MUCOUS (mucosae) (lungs) - Hard & tough
- Moist membrane - Stra9fied squamous epithelium
- open to the exterior body surface DERMIS – sandwiched between epidermis & hypo
- adapted for absorp9on or secre9on - Connec9ve 9ssue
CONSTRUCTION LAYERS OF DERMIS
Epithelium types depends on site PAPILLARY LAYER
Loose connec9ve 9ssue (lamina propria) - On palm and sole surfaces, papillae increase
SEROUS (serosae) (internal) fric9on and gripping ability
- Line open body cavi9es that are closed to the - Fingerprints are iden9fying films of sweat
exterior of the body RETICULAR LAYER
- separated by serous fluid, with a visceral - Blood vessels
(loob) and parietal (labas) layer - Sweat and oil glands
- Deep pressure receptors
SPECIFIC SEROUS MEMBRANES HYPODERMIS – subcutaneous layer
Peritoneum - anchors the skin to underlying organs
- Abdominal cavity - not technically part of the integumentary
Pleura system
- Around the lungs - Composed mostly of adipose 9ssue
Pericardium (peri means heart) - Serves as a shock absorber and insulates
- Around the heart deeper 9ssues

CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE – INTACT SKIN

SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES (joints)
- Line fibrous capsules surrounding joints MELANIN – pigment produces by melanocytes
- Line bursae - Color is yellow – brown – black
- Line tendon sheaths MERKEL CELLS
- Associated with sensory nerve endings
- serve as touch receptors – MERKEL DISCS
Three pigments contribute to skin color § Release sweat that also contains
o Melanin faUy acids and proteins
Yellow, reddish brown, or § Play a minimal role in body
black pigments temperature regula9on
o Carotene NAIL
§ Orange-yellow pigment from - Lack of pigment makes nails colorless
some vegetables
o Hemoglobin Sty- kuli9w
§ Red coloring from blood cells
in dermal capillaries HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES OF SKIN
§ Oxygen content determines Athlete’s foot
the extent of red coloring - Caused by fungal infec9on (Tinea pedis)
§ CYANOSIS - bluish - Itchy, red peeling skin between the toes
Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles
Redness(erythema) - Caused by inflamma9on of hair follicles
- due to embarrassment, inflamma9on, - Carbuncles are clusters of boils caused by
hypertension, fever, or allergy bacteria
Pallor (blanching) Cold sores (fever blisters)
- due to emo9onal stress, anemia, low blood - Caused by human herpesvirus 1
pressure, impaired blood flow to an area - Blisters itch and s9ng
Jaundice (yellow cast) Contact dermaDDs
- indicates a liver disorder - Caused by exposure to chemicals that
- Bruises (black and blue marks) —hematomas provoke allergic responses
- Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN ImpeDgo
- Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands - Caused by bacterial infec9on
o Sebaceous glands (secretes sebum-oil) Psoriasis
o Sweat glands - Triggered by trauma, infec9on, hormonal
- Hair changes, or stress
- Hair follicles - Red, epidermal lesions covered with dry,
- Nails silvery scales that itch, burn, crack, or
- Sebaceous (oil) glands some9mes bleed
o Located all over the skin except for palms
and soles ANAPYHLAXIS - Severe allergic
o Produce sebum (oil)
§ Makes skin sop and moist BURNS
§ Prevents hair from becoming - Tissue damage and cell death caused by heat,
briUle electricity, UV radia9on, or chemicals
§ Kills bacteria
- Sweat (sudoriferous) glands HYPOVOLEMIC SHOCK - ↓ blood volume ↓ body
o Produce sweat fluids (suka/tae)
o Widely distributed in skin CARDIOGENIC SHOCK – heart failure; can’t pump
Eccrine glands oxygen to brain & vital parts
Produce acidic sweat ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK – severe allergy
- Water, salts, vitamin C, traces of metabolic PSYCHOGENIC SHOCK – severe reac9on
waste
- Func9on in body temperature regula9on CHAPTER 5: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
- Apocrine glands Parts of the skeletal system
§ Ducts empty into hair follicles in the - Bones (skeleton)
armpit and genitals - Joints
§ Begin to func9on at puberty - Car9lages
- Ligaments
Two subdivisions of the skeleton FORMATION, GROWTH, AND REMODELING
- Axial skeleton OSSIFICATION - is the process of bone forma9on
- Appendicular skeleton
FUNCTIONS MAJOR PHASES OF OSSIFICATION
- Support the body - OSTEOBLASTS (bone-forming cells) cover
- Protect sop organs hyaline car9lage model with bone matrix
o Skull & vertebrae = brain & spinal cord - Apposi9onal growth
o Rib cage = thoracic cavity organs o Bones grow in width
- AUached skeletal muscles allow movement o OSTEOBLASTS in the periosteum add
- Store minerals and fats bone matrix to the outside of the
o Calcium and phosphorus diaphysis
o Fat in the internal marrow cavity o OSTEOCLASTS in the endosteum remove
- Blood cell forma9on (hematopoiesis) bone from the inner surface of the
diaphysis
206 bones for adults - Bone growth is controlled by hormones, such
214 bones for kids as growth hormone and sex hormones
- Calcium ion regula9on
Two basic types of osseous (bone) Dssue § Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
1. Compact bone § Released when calcium ion
Dense, smooth, and homogeneous levels in blood are low
2. Spongy bone § Ac9vates osteoclasts (bone-
Small needlelike pieces of bone destroying cells)
Many open spaces § Osteoclasts break down
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES bone and release calcium
- LONG – longer than they are wide; spongey ions into the blood
bones at ends (all the bones in limbs) § HYPERCALCEMIA (high blood
- FLAT – thin & flaUened (chest) calcium levels) prompts calcium
- SHORT – cube-shaped (carpal & tarsal) storage to bones by osteoblasts
- IRREGULAR – irregular shape (hip bone)
BONE FRACTURE
Long bone anatomy FRACTURE – break in a bone
- DIAPHYSIS (SHAFT) CLOSED (simple) – does not penetrate
o Makes up most of bone’s length OPEN (compound) – penetrates through
o Composed of compact bone
- EPIPHYSIS (ENDS) CLOSED REDUCTION
o spongy bone enclosed by thin layer of - bones are manually coaxed into posi9on by
compact bone physician’s hands
- ARTICULAR CARTILAGE OPEN REDUCTION
o Decreases fric9on at joint surfaces - bones are secured with pins or wires during
surgery
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF SPONGY BONE Healing 9me is 6–8 weeks
- Composed of small, needlelike pieces of bone
called trabeculae and open spaces AXIAL SKELETON
- open spaces are filled by marrow, blood - forms the longitudinal axis of the body
vessels, and nerves
1. SKULL
STRUCTURE OF BONE - Cranium bones enclose the brain
ORGANIC PARTS (collagen fibers) - Facial bones
- bone make bone flexible and have great o Hold eyes in anterior posi9on
tensile strength o Allow facial muscles to express feelings
CALCUIM SALTS - Mandible – freely movable joint
- make bone hard to resist compression
8 CRANIAL BONES PROTECT THE BRAIN SECONDARY CURVATURES
1 Frontal bone § Spinal curvatures of the cervical
2 Occipital bone and lumbar regions
3 Ethmoid bone § Develop aper birth
4 Sphenoid bone § Form an S-shaped curvature in
5, 6 Parietal bones (pair) adults
7, 8 Temporal bones (pair)
THORACIC CAGE
14 FACIAL BONES - Bony thorax, or thoracic cage, protects
1, 2 Maxillae (pair) organs of the thoracic cavity
3, 4 Pala9ne bones (pair) § Consists of three parts
5, 6 Lacrimal bones (pair) 1. Sternum
7, 8 Zygoma9c bones (pair) 2. Ribs
9, 10 Nasal bones (pair) § True ribs (pairs 1–7)
11 Vomer bone § False ribs (pairs 8–12)
12, 13 Inferior nasal conchae (pair) § Floa9ng ribs (pairs 11–12)
14 Mandible 3. Thoracic vertebrae

PARANASAL SINUSES
- Hollow por9ons of bones surrounding the
nasal cavity
- Func9ons of paranasal sinuses
o Lighten the skull
o Amplify sounds made as we speak

HYOID BONE
- The only bone that does not ar9culate with
another bone
- Serves as a movable base for the tongue

VERTEBRAL COLUMN (Spine)

- Vertebral column provides axial support
o Extends from skull to the pelvis
- 26 vertebral bones are separated by
intervertebral discs
o 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck
o 12 thoracic vertebrae are in the chest
region
o 5 lumbar vertebrae are associated with
the lower back
o Sacrum (formed by fusion of 5
vertebrae)
o Coccyx (formed by fusion of 3–5
vertebrae)

PRIMARY CURVATURES
§ Spinal curvatures of the thoracic
and sacral regions
§ Present from birth
§ Form a C-shaped curvature in
newborns