The Avocado and Its Waste: An Approach

of Fuel Potential/Application

Marı́a Paz Domı́nguez, Karina Araus, Pamela Bonert, Francisco Sánchez,

Guillermo San Miguel, and Mario Toledo

Abstract With a global production exceeding 4 million tons per year in 2011,
avocado has become a major agroindustrial commodity. Most of the production and
the transformation industry is located in North and Central America, although
consumption is growing fast primarily in developed countries like the USA and
the European Union. The principal use of the avocado fruit is human consumption,
although other applications related to the production of cosmetics, nutritional
supplements and livestock feed have been reported.
Only the avocado pulp is employed for commercial applications, while other
fruit elements like the seed and peel have no practical use and are disposed of by
landfilling. Avocado seeds, which represent up to 26 wt % of the fruit mass, are
produced in large amounts in centralized avocado transformation plants. Despite
their high starch content, the seeds cannot be used for livestock feeding due to the
high concentration of polyphenols, which impart a bitter taste and may be toxic at
high levels. This chapter presents an introduction into the characteristics of avocado
seeds and its potential use as a fuel using different technologies. Information is
provided about the chemical, physical and thermal properties of the material.
Preliminary results are also included describing its thermochemical transformation
using a rotary kiln and a porous media reactor. Product yields and compositions are

M.P. Domı́nguez (*), F. Sánchez, and G. San Miguel

Departamento de Ingenierı́a Energética y Fluido Mecánica, Escuela Técnica Superior de
Ingenieros Industriales (ETSII), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, C/ José Gutiérrez Abascal
2, 28006 Madrid, Spain
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]
K. Araus and M. Toledo
Departamento de Ingenierı́a Mecánica, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa Marı́a, Av. España
1680, Valparaı́so, Chile
P. Bonert
Universidad Técnica Federico Santa Marı́a, Centro de Economı́a y Administraci
on de
Residuos Solidos, C/ General Bari No 699, Co Placeres, Valparaı́so, Chile

G. Lefebvre, E. Jiménez and B. Cabañas (eds.), Environment, Energy and Climate

Change II: Energies from New Resources and the Climate Change, Hdb Env Chem,
DOI 10.1007/698_2014_291, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
 M.P. Domı́nguez et al.

described for the gasification and pyrolysis of this material using different operating
conditions. The chapter also shows preliminary analysis regarding mechanical
densification for the production of pellets.

Keywords Avocado seeds, Energy, Gasification, Pellets, Pyrolysis, Valorization

Contents
1 Introduction
2 The Avocado: Botanical Aspect, Market and Research for Energy Uses
2.1 Botanical Aspect
2.2 The Avocado Market
2.3 Avocado and Energy: An Overview
3 Avocado Seed Characterization
3.1 Elemental Analysis
3.2 Proximate Analyses
3.3 Heating Values
3.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
4 Combustion/Reforming of Avocado Seeds in a Porous Media Reactor
4.1 Description of Technology
4.2 Methodology
4.3 Results
4.4 Conclusions
5 Torrefaction and Pyrolysis
5.1 Description of Technology
5.2 Methodology
5.3 Product Yields
5.4 Conclusions
6 Densification Analysis of Avocado Seed
6.1 Description of Technology
6.2 Methodology
6.3 Results
6.4 Conclusions
General Conclusions
References

1 Introduction

The avocado (Persea americana Mill.) is a highly nutritious subtropical fruit, with a
high content of unsaturated fats and vitamins [1]. With a production exceeding four
million tons in 2011, the industrial transformation of this fruit for the production of
guacamole and avocado oil generates large amounts of by-products, primarily
husks and seeds [2]. These residues may be used as forage for domestic animals,
although its nutrient value is limited [3]. This chapter presents an overview of the
avocado fruit including composition, botanical aspects and production and also an
analysis of the potential of using the by-products from its industrial transformation
(mainly the seed) as an energy source.
The Avocado and Its Waste: An Approach of Fuel Potential/Application

2 The Avocado: Botanical Aspect, Market and Research

for Energy Uses

2.1 Botanical Aspect

2.1.1 Botanical Description and Varieties

The avocado tree (P. americana Mill.) belongs to the family Lauraceae and to the
genus Persea. This species originates from Central America and has been widely
planted in many tropical and subtropical areas all over the world. Nowadays it is
also cultivated under irrigation in several warm dry areas like Mediterranean
countries and California. The avocado tree is characterized by a rapid growth
rate. It may reach 30 m in height, though specimens in orchards are usually
grown to a smaller size (usually below 8 m) so pruning and harvesting can be
done more readily [4]. The root system is usually shallow (
1 m). Leaves are
alternate, stalked and perennial [5]. Flowers are inconspicuous and occur in pani-
cles. Avocado exhibits a type of flowering behaviour known as “synchronous
dichogamy”: The flower can expose the female organ in the morning, so the stigma
is receptive to pollen for a couple of hours, closes itself and reopens as male in the
afternoon of the day after (type A) or opens as female in the afternoon and as male
in the morning of the following day (type B). This condition is not conducive to
self-pollination [4, 6]. The fruit (which is the harvestable product – the avocado
itself) is an ellipsoidal or ovate berry with one single seed.
There are three main botanical varieties of avocado: drymifolia (Mexican),
guatemalensis (Guatemalan) and americana (West Indian). P. americana var.
drymifolia is native to central Mexico, resists cold temperatures (down to 9 C)
and has small leaves with essential oils that provide them with a distinctive anise
flavour. The fruits are small (80–250 g) and contain a high percentage of lipids
(up to 30%, fresh matter basis – f.m.b.). Fruit skin is thin, smooth and, ordinarily,
pale green, and the pulp has very low fibre content. According to [5], more than ten
commercial varieties belong to this botanical variety. Among them are the follow-
ing: Puebla, Duke, Gottfried and Topa Topa (type A) and Zutano and Bacon
(type B).
Figure 1 shows a taxonomical adscription of various commercial varieties of
avocado. P. americana var. guatemalensis is native to Mexico and Guatemala,
resists mild winters (with minimum temperatures down to 5 C) and has big dark
green leaves. The fruit weight varies between 200 and 1,000 g. Lipid content in pulp
is around 20% (f.m.b.). Fruit skin is thick and hard, dark green or even dark purple.
According to [5] almost 40 commercial varieties belong to this botanical variety,
for example, Reed, Pinkerton and Mayapan (type A) and Edranol, Itzamna, Linda
and Nabal (type B).
 M.P. Domı́nguez et al.

Lauraceae (family)

Persea (genus)

Persea americana (species)

Persea americana Persea americana Persea americana

var. drymifolia var. guatemalensis var. americana (Botanical variees)

Bacon Edranol Lorena

Duke Itzamna Peterson,
Goried Mayapan Pollock
Puebla Linda Simmonds
Topa-topa Nabal
Zutano Pinkerton
(Commercial variees)

Colin V-33 Booth 8 Gripiña Hall

Enger Chaquee Semil 44
Fuerte Colinred Trinidad
Hass Collison Winslowson

Fig. 1 Taxonomical adscription of some commercial varieties of avocado

P. americana var. americana is native to Central-South American lowlands and

does not resist temperatures below 2 C. The fruit weight oscillates between
250 and 2,500 g, and the lipid content in the pulp is low (between 5 and 15%, f.
m.b). Fruit skin is thin and flexible, smooth or rough, and green, yellow, or yellow-
reddish coloured. According to [5] almost 14 commercial varieties belong to this
botanical variety. Among them are the following: Peterson and Simmonds (type A)
and Lorena, Trapp and Pollock (type B).
Avocado tree has a high level of allogamy (cross-pollination) so many commer-
cial varieties were originated from hybridization between the previously described
varieties. Among them, the following stand out:
– Mexican x Guatemalan: Hass (type A) and Fuerte, Ettinger and Colin V-33 (type
B)
– Guatemalan x West Indian: Choquette, Colinred, Collison, Semil 44 and Trin-
idad (type A) and Booth 8, Gripiña, Hall and Winslowson (type B)
Their main characteristics are intermediate between those corresponding to the
parental varieties. Hass, the most important avocado variety in the world, is closely
related to the old Guatemalan variety Lion, and it is considered to be 85–90%
Guatemalan and 10–15% Mexican. Hass fruits are medium sized (150–400 g) with
The Avocado and Its Waste: An Approach of Fuel Potential/Application

a rough green skin that turns black when ripens. Pulp has lipid content between 15%
and 21% (f.m.b.) and very good organoleptic properties [5, 7]. Hass is the variety
used in all of the experimental sections of this chapter.

2.1.2 Agroecology

The main topics concerning avocado’s agroecology are summarized in an extensive

publication by [5]. Thermal requirements depend on varieties, as it has been
previously stated. Besides the extreme values mentioned above, optimal mean
temperatures for avocado growth are as follows: 5–17 C (P. americana var.
drymifolia), 4–19 C (P. americana var. guatemalensis) and 18–26 C
(P. americana var. americana). Concerning humidity, avocado tree has a very
good adaptability to low humidity climates, but adaptation depends on varieties,
according to the following order: drymifolia > guatemalensis > americana. There
are avocado plantations in rainfed areas where precipitation ranges between
665 and 2,000 mm/year, and water needs also depend on varieties according to
the same previous order. Wind barriers are commonly used in orchards because of
the sensibility of avocado trees to strong winds. When speed reaches values over
20 km/h, branches can be broken and flowers or fruits may drop. Some varieties are
more resistant to strong winds (Duke, Bacon), while others, like Zutano, are highly
sensitive. Regarding edaphic conditions, well-drained soils are required; otherwise,
diseases (rottenness) will attack the plantation. Loamy and sandy soil textures are,
therefore, preferred.

2.1.3 Propagation and Crop Management

Propagation of avocado plants is done using cuttings from selected varieties and
grafting on rootstocks that have higher tolerance to drought, salinity or diseases.
Plant density ranges between 100 and 462 plants/ha. Pruning is less intensive than
in other species, but shaping, maintenance and rejuvenation pruning are frequently
done in avocado orchards. Bark ringing of 2 or 3 branches per tree is sometimes
used to avoid alternation in fruit production (masting) and to enhance flower
occurring or fruit weight gain [5]. Fertilization requirements deeply depend on
the chosen variety and the soil composition, but in general terms, avocado is a crop
with a high demand of potassium [8]. Weeding is uncommonly needed once trees
have grown. In the meantime, mechanical and chemical procedures, as well as
mulching, can be used to fight weeds [9]. Phytochemicals are usually applied to
fight pests (insects) and diseases (among them, the most important is the rottenness
caused by the fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi var. cinnamomi Rands) [10, 11].
Harvest is done manually by cutting the stalk. Yields commonly range between
8 and 13 ton/(ha year).
 M.P. Domı́nguez et al.

Fig. 2 Anatomy of the

Exocarp
avocado berry
(skin)
Endocarp

Seed

Mesocarp
(pulp)

2.1.4 Fruit Morphology and Chemical Composition

Avocado is a berry consisting of a single carpel and a single seed [6]. It may show
different shapes (elliptical, ovate, spherical, oblate, rhomboidal, globular, etc.) and
many different colours (pale green, dark green, yellowish green, yellow, reddish
yellow, light purple, dark purple and black). From a botanical point of view, the
skin represents the berry’s exocarp, the edible pulp is the mesocarp and the thin
layer coating the seed is the endocarp, as shown in Fig. 2. The seed itself consists of
two fleshy cotyledons, plumule, hypocotyl, radicle and two thin seed coats adhering
to each other [6].
The relative proportion of the different parts varies greatly. Among the com-
mercial varieties above-mentioned (and considering fresh weight), skin percentage
ranges between 3% (Choquette) and 13.5% (Booth 8), pulp between 64% (Puebla)
and 80% (Choquette), and seed between 10% (Nabla, Pinkerton, Lorena) and 26%
(Zutano). Regarding Hass, the relative proportion is about 8.[Link]% (skin/pulp/
seed) [5].
To the best of our knowledge, avocado skin composition has been poorly
researched. Sadir [12] reported the following values for Wagner variety skin:
4.2% sugars, 3.9% proteins, 12.7% lipids, 24.1% fibre and 3.9% ashes (dry matter
basis – d.m.b.). Bressani et al. [13] studied the composition of lyophilized skin from
several varieties (both native and commercial) and reported the following mean
values for major components: 9.8% moisture, 73.7% carbohydrates, 4.0% proteins,
4.4% lipids, 51.9% crude fibre and 4.0% ashes. Moisture average value in fresh
matter was 66.6%. It seems probable that, due to chosen methods, fibre and
carbohydrate contents overlap. Concerning Hass variety, values in the same report
were 14.5% moisture, 62.0% carbohydrates, 8.3% proteins, 9.1% lipids, 50.7%
crude fibre and 6.1% ashes.
Pulp is mainly composed of water (65–77%) and lipids (3–32%), mainly tri-
glycerides. In Hass avocado, the most important fatty acids are oleic (47–59% of
total fatty acids), palmitic (17–23%), linoleic (13–26%) and palmitoleic (9–10%)
[7, 14, 15]. Carbohydrates represent about 8.6% of total fresh weight (6.8% fibre,
The Avocado and Its Waste: An Approach of Fuel Potential/Application

Table 1 Chemical composition of lyophilized avocado seeds according to Bressani et al. [13],
2009 (%, d.m.b.)
Pool of varieties Hass
Peeled seed Tegumenta Peeled seed Tegumenta
Moisture before lyophilization 60.5 61.5 60.1 60.1
Moisture 8.7 10.2 7.7 11.5
Carbohydrates 71.9 74 79.5 74.4
Proteins 4.8 5.7 3.4 5.8
Lipids 4.6 3 5.5 3.9
Crude fibre 3.9 29.9 4.0 26.5
Ashes 3.4 3.9 4.2 4.4
a
Tegument relative weight was always below 5% of whole seed weight (f.m.b.)

0.3% sugars and 0.11% starch, according to [7]). The protein content is about 2%
[6, 7]. Ashes represent about 1.77% (f.m.b), and potassium is, by far, the most
important element [507 mg/100 g, a content almost ten times higher than phospho-
rous (54 mg/100 g), which is the second most important element] [7].
Regarding seeds, Bressani et al. [13] studied the composition of lyophilized
peeled seeds and peel (tegument) from several varieties (both native and commer-
cial) and reported values showed in Table 1 for major components. Weatherby and
Sorber [16] were more specific about carbohydrate composition when they studied
drymifolia and Fuerte peeled seeds and determined values for sucrose (1.2–1.9%, d.
m.b.), arabinose (4.1–4.5%, d.m.b.), total sugars (4.5–7.3%, d.m.b.) and starch
(57.2–59.9%, d.m.b.). The crude fibre content found by these latest authors was
significantly higher (7.3–9.1%), closer to those values reported by Bora et al. [17]
for Fuerte unpeeled seeds (11.6%, d.m.b.). The lipid content, however, was plainly
lower (1.7–2.2% d.m.b).
Concerning minor compounds, total polyphenols and tannins in avocado seeds
have received increasing attention due to their antioxidant properties [18]. Bressani
et al. [13] reported average values of 448 mg catechol/100 g (d.m.b.) and 259 mg
tannic acid/100 g (d.m.b.) for both groups of components, respectively, in a pool of
avocado varieties. For Hass avocado, values of 602.5  278.51 mg catechol/100 g
(d.m.b.) and 332.82  61.49 mg tannic acid/100 g (d.m.b.) were found.

2.2 The Avocado Market

The international market for avocado fruit and its derivates (primarily guacamole
and avocado oil) has been growing rapidly in the last decade. Data about produc-
tion, exports and imports of this fruit are available from the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) ([Link]
go/to/home/E).
 M.P. Domı́nguez et al.

2.2.1 Production

Commercial production of avocado in 2011 exceeded 4 millions of tons

(4,276,592 ton), with the Hass variety being the most popular. American countries
remain the largest producers of this fruit, but contribution from African, European
and Asian countries is growing rapidly. As shown in Fig. 3, Mexico was by far the
main producer, representing 29.6% of the world’s market.

2.2.2 Exports and Imports

Mexico is also the largest exporter of avocados, with nearly 350,000 ton/year. This
represented around 40% of the world market in 2011. As shown in Fig. 4, four other
countries (Chile, the Netherlands, Peru and Spain) have export volumes between
120,000 and 70,000 tons, representing in combination an additional 40%. The top
ten exporters accumulated around of 90% of the 800,000 ton exported in 2011.
The USA imported over 415,000 ton of avocados in 2011, representing 36% of
the world’s imports. This was followed at a distance by the Netherlands, France,
Japan, Canada, the UK, Spain and Germany. The Netherlands and France
represented the second most important group of importers, with a 20% of the
worldwide market (Fig. 5).

2.2.3 Avocado Uses

Most of the avocado in the world is commercialized by the retailer and food
industry for human consumption, either directly as fresh fruit or after processing
in the form of different avocado derivates (guacamole, sauces, avocado oil,
flavouring agents, etc.). Avocado oil is also employed for cosmetic applications.
These products derive from the pulp of the avocado, while the rest of the fruit (peel,
seed) has no commercial use and is managed as a waste.

2.3 Avocado and Energy: An Overview

Waste derived from the transformation of avocado fruits may be used for its energy
content, which may become an additional source of revenues for this industry and
may also reduce the environmental burden associated with this commercial activity.
These wastes are produced in large amounts in centralized avocado transformation
plants. This section provides a review about the potential of using avocado
by-products derived from its industrial transformation as an energy resource.
The Avocado and Its Waste: An Approach of Fuel Potential/Application

Rwanda 143.281; 3%

Chile 156.247; 4%

Brazil 160.376; 4%

Kenya 201.478; 5%

Peru 212.857; 5%

Colombia 215.095; 5%

USA 238.544; 6%

Indonesia 275.953; 6%

Dominican Rep. 295.081; 7%

Mexico 1.264.141; 29%

Fig. 3 Main producers of avocado worldwide (values in ton/year) (Faostat 2014)

Other 59.566; 7%

France 12.640; 2%

USA 17.919; 2%

Dominican Rep. 19.877; 2%

Israel 35.744; 4%

Spain 70.866; 9%

Peru 81.431; 10%

Netherlands 82.980; 10%

Chile 102.820; 12%

Mexico 347.209; 40%

Fig. 4 Main exporters of avocado (values in ton/year) (Faostat 2014)

Other 147.206 ; 15%

Italy 14.459; 2%

Australia 14.695; 2%

Germany 29.167; 3%

Spain 29.686; 3%

UK 34.850; 4%

Canada 36.127; 4%

Japan 37.173; 4%

France 87.858; 9%

Netherlands 104.936; 11%

USA 415.416; 43%

Fig. 5 Main importers of avocado (values in ton/year) (Faostat 2014)

 M.P. Domı́nguez et al.

2.3.1 Avocado Pulp Oil

The pulp in avocado fruits contains high concentrations of triglyceride oils. How-
ever, this oil is not suitable for widespread utilization as cooking oil due to its strong
bitter taste [19]. In the 1980s a few publications were produced aimed at optimizing
the production and application of avocado oil. Werman and Neeman [20] analysed
the effect of different parameters on the extraction of avocado pulp oil by centrif-
ugal processing including temperature, pH and NaCl concentration. Potential
applications of avocado oils in the cosmetic industry are discussed in [21].
The use of avocado pulp oils for the production of biodiesel has been reported in
various publications. Cabrera et al. [22] present a preliminary analysis of yields,
composition and energy properties of biodiesel produced from different tropical
fruits, including avocado. The experimental results evidence the production of
high-quality methyl esters from crude avocado oils. This paper describes lower
heating values and higher viscosity values in the avocado fuel, compared to
conventional diesel. Giraldo and Moreno-Piraján [23] describe the benefits of
using lipases to improve the yields in the synthesis of biodiesel from avocado
pulp oil. Knothe [24] provides a chemical characterization of methyl esters from
an avocado oil biodiesel.

2.3.2 Avocado Seed Oil

Some articles report the production of triglyceride oils and biodiesel from avocado
seeds. Weatherby and Sorber [16] present a complete analysis of the chemical
composition of avocado seed. The authors suggest that human consumption of these
oils requires a pretreatment to minimize its bitter astringent taste. Rachimoellah
et al. [25] provide results for biodiesel production from avocado seed oil using
homogeneous catalysts. Characterization of the resulting biodiesel shows that it
satisfies the quality standards required for diesel.

2.3.3 Other Uses of Avocado Seed

Another use for avocado seed relates to the production of carbonized materials and
adsorbents. Elizalde-González et al. [26] describe the pore characteristics and
adsorption capacity of chars and activated carbons produced from this material.
Activated carbons from avocado seeds showed improved adsorption characteristics
than the ones produced from corncob and plum kernels. Alvares et al. [27] describe
that activated carbons from avocado seeds exhibited high phenol adsorption
capacity.
The Avocado and Its Waste: An Approach of Fuel Potential/Application

3 Avocado Seed Characterization

Avocado seeds from ripe fruits of the Hass variety were produced in Malaga
(Spain). The samples were cut and milled, homogenized and characterized for its
chemical, fuel and thermal properties. These same samples were also employed to
investigate energy transformation and valorization using different technologies:
combustion/gasification in a porous media reactor, pyrolysis in a rotary kiln and
mechanical densification using a pelletizer. The following sections show prelimi-
nary results from these analyses and trials.

3.1 Elemental Analysis

The results were obtained using a Thermo Finnigan Flash EA (model 1112)
elemental analyser. Values represent the average of duplicate analyses, expressed
as percentage of the original sample mass (dry matter basis) (Table 2).
The results show that the avocado seeds present a high quantity of carbon and
oxygen and low percentage of hydrogen and nitrogen. This composition is in
agreement with the high starch concentration in the avocado seeds described in
Sect. 2.1.4.

3.2 Proximate Analyses

Values are expressed as mass percentage in wet matter basis for humidity and dry
matter determinations and in dry matter basis for the other parameters. The results
represent the mean values of duplicate determinations. Table 3 also shows the
standardized methods employed.

3.3 Heating Values

Heating values were determined according to standard method ASTM D-240.

Table 4 shows the average results of duplicate determinations on wet and dry
matter basis.

Table 2 Elemental analysis Value (wt %)

(dry matter ash free basis) of
avocado seeds Carbon 48.3  0.2
Hydrogen 7.5  0.1
Nitrogen <0.5
Oxygen 43.4  0.2
 M.P. Domı́nguez et al.

Table 3 Proximate analysis Value (wt %) Standard method

of avocado seeds a
Humidity 45.3 EN 14774-1:2010 [28]
Dry mattera 54.7 EN 14774-1:2010 [28]
Volatile solidsb 78.7 EN 15148:2009 [29]
Ashb 2.6 EN 14775:2009 [30]
Fixed carbonb 18.7 By difference
a
Wet basis
b
Dry basis

Table 4 Heating values of Wet basis Dry basis

avocado seeds
High heating value (MJ/kg) 7.7 16.6
Low heating value (MJ/kg) 5.7 14.6

3.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)

The TGA analysis was conducted under flowing (55 mL/min) nitrogen, with a
heating rate of 10 C/min to a maximum temperature of 900 C using a TA Instru-
ment TGA/DTA, model TGA 2050. The seeds were dried prior to TGA analysis at
70 C for 24 h.
The results shown in Fig. 6 describe two areas of mass loss. The first one (A), at
temperatures around 100 C, relates to moisture content. The second (B), at tem-
peratures between 250 and 350 C, relates primarily to thermal degradation of
starch, the main polymeric component of the avocado seeds [16, 17]. The thermal
degradation of other structural polymers (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) is
masked by the prevalence of the peak corresponding to starch.

4 Combustion/Reforming of Avocado Seeds in a Porous

Media Reactor

4.1 Description of Technology

Inert porous media reactors represent a more efficient alternative to free flame
combustion systems for the energy utilization of gas fuels. The reactor is filled with
an inert media through which the flame is transmitted. The result is the formation of
a flame front (combustion wave) formed by small flames, which is transferred from
one end of the other of the reactor. This flame front improves heat transfer capacity
of the system, resulting in reduced pollutant emissions and increased efficiency
compared to free flame systems [31].
Various papers describe the adaptation of inert porous media technology to
different fuels and operating conditions [32]. A special case involves hybrid
filtration combustion, where solid fuels are incorporated into the inert porous
The Avocado and Its Waste: An Approach of Fuel Potential/Application

120 1
0,9
100 B Weight [%] 0,8
Deriv. Weight [d%/dºC] 0,7
80

[d%/dºC]
0,6
[%]

60 0,5
0,4
40
0,3
0,2
20
A 0,1
0 0
0 100
0 75 150200
225 300 400
300 375 450500525 600 700
600 675 750800825 900
Temperature (ºC)

Fig. 6 TGA-DTA analysis of avocado seed

media for improved combustion conditions and energy valorization of the solid fuel
[33–35]. Flame propagation in the heterogeneous media is more complex, resulting
in higher process temperature and propagation velocities. This section shows
preliminary results from a combustion/reforming process conducted in a hybrid
filtration system. Avocado seeds are added to the inert porous media and the
combustion process is enriched with addition of methane.

4.2 Methodology

The hybrid filtration combustion system consists of a 340 mm long quartz tube with
an internal diameter of 40 mm which is covered with insulation. In hybrid config-
uration (Fig. 7), the tube is filled with a uniformly mixed aleatory alumina spheres
(5.6 mm diameter) and avocado seeds (cut to at a similar alumina sphere size) with
volume fraction of 50%. The packed bed formed in this way occupied 130 mm of
the tube length with a porosity of 40%. In conventional configuration the tube is
filled only with alumina spheres.
Air and natural gas (96% methane), metered using Aalborg mass flow control-
lers, are premixed and introduced into the reactor through the distribution grid at the
reactor bottom. The upstream propagating combustion wave was initiated with a
lighter at the reactor exit which opens to the atmosphere, and the wave was turned
off when it reached the reactor bottom. In all cases the alumina spheres were slowly
shifted downwards occupying the space of the avocado seeds pellets consumed by
the moving combustion wave. It was found that in all cases the avocado seeds
pellets were completely consumed.
 M.P. Domı́nguez et al.

Fig. 7 Schematic Ceramic Shell Gases sampling port

representation of the porous
media reactor
Alumina Spheres

Avocado Seed Reaction

340 [mm]
T1-T2:30 [mm] Zone
130 [mm]

Heat insulation

Mixing chamber

Air+CH4

The axial temperature distribution of the reactor is measured by two S-type

thermocouples. These thermocouples are housed in a multibore ceramic shell 8 mm
in diameter. A data acquisition system was used to read and record the tempera-
tures. The error in the wave velocity measurements performed based on displace-
ment of thermal profile along the reactor length was 10%. Chemical composition of
the output gases was measured using a PerkinElmer (Clarus 500) Gas Chromato-
graph, equipped with a thermal conductivity detector (TCD). The accuracy of
chemical sampling was close to 10%.

4.3 Results

Figure 8 shows the flame propagation velocities and the process temperatures
observed when the porous media reactor was operated in conventional and hybrid
configurations, as a function of the gas fuel equivalence ratio (φ). The results
illustrate the lowest flame propagation velocity in conventional operation of the
reactor at φ ¼ 0.6 (0.00143 cm/s). The flame propagation profile changed with the
incorporation of biomass to exhibit a minimum at φ ¼ 1.0 (0.0023 cm/s). Regard-
ing process temperature, the experimental results show minimum values at φ ¼ 1.0
in both configurations. This may be associated with the progressive contribution of
endothermic processes and reactions (volatilization and steam reforming) reached
at that equivalence ratio. Comparatively lower minimum temperatures were
observed when the reaction zone contained biomass (817 C compared to 920 C
in conventional configuration), which may be associated with the evolution of water
and volatile products. Maximum process temperatures in both configurations were
found at φ ¼ 1.2 (above 1,053 C), which has been attributed to predominance of
exothermic reactions.
The Avocado and Its Waste: An Approach of Fuel Potential/Application

Flame Propagation Velocity cm/s

Flame Propagation Process Temperatures

Velocities

Temperature °C
φ φ

Fig. 8 Flame propagation velocities and process temperatures as a function of gas fuel equiva-
lence ratios (φ)

Hydrogen Carbon Monoxide Carbon Dioxide

Concentration % v/v

Fig. 9 Gas concentrations as a function of gas fuel equivalence ratios (φ)

The concentration of methane in the evolved gases was negligible at φ
1.0.

However, methane levels of 1.3 and 5.7 % v/v were observed at φ ¼ 1.2 when
operating in conventional and hybrid configuration, respectively.
Figure 9 shows the formation of H2, CO and CO2 as a function of the equiva-
lence ratio. The results show that the concentration of hydrogen is below detection
limits when operating the reactor in conventional configuration. In contrast, hydro-
gen concentrations in the range between 0.6 and 3.6 % v/v were observed when
operating in hybrid mode, with a minimum at φ ¼ 0.8. Regarding carbon monoxide,
the experiments show very low concentrations in the case of conventional opera-
tion, with a maximum of 0.75 % v/v at φ ¼ 0.8. In contrast, operation in hybrid
configuration generated higher carbon monoxide concentrations, with a maximum
at φ ¼ 0.6 (2.8 % v/v) and minimum at φ ¼ 0.8 (1.0 % v/v). Carbon dioxide
concentrations remained within 1.8 and 3.2 % v/v when operating the reactor in
conventional configuration. These values were higher (between 3.2 and 4.5% v/v)
as a result of incorporating biomass into the reactor, with a maximum at φ ¼ 0.6.
The results show similar trends that the results of other researches with this
technology [33, 34], but is not possible to comparison with other studies in avocado
seed, because for this material no results reported.
 M.P. Domı́nguez et al.

4.4 Conclusions

The experimental results show that incorporation of biomass (avocado seeds) into a
porous media reactor operating with methane/air mixtures results in a notable
alteration of its operating conditions in terms of process temperature, flame prop-
agation velocity and gas composition. The presence of biomass resulted in an
increase in the concentration of syngas-related gases (H2, CO) and also CO2,
primarily when operating at high gas fuel equivalence ratios.

5 Torrefaction and Pyrolysis

5.1 Description of Technology

Biomass is a renewable energy source, which can mitigate the greenhouse effect
because carbon dioxide (CO2) levels emitted into the atmosphere during combus-
tion are compensated when absorbed during photosynthesis; furthermore, their use
could reduce dependence on fossil fuels [36, 37]. The biomass is mainly composed
of natural polymers like cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin [38]. It is available in a
diverse array of forms and types: animal refuse, forestry, industrial and urban
residues and agriculture waste [39]. Currently, there is a worldwide interest in
biomass, which is focusing on the conversion of its fuel in the production of heat
and electricity [40].
Potential of biomass to be used as an alternative to fossil fuels is mainly reduced
by its low energy density, high costs associated with transportation and storage [41,
42], and disadvantages relating to characteristics of the raw biomass, such as high
moisture content, hygroscopic behaviour and large particle size [43]. However,
these disadvantages can be resolved by subjecting the raw biomass to thermal
pretreatments, e.g. torrefaction and pyrolysis [39, 43]. During the torrefaction
process, the biomass is heated at temperatures between 200 C and 300 C, at
atmospheric conditions and in the absence of oxygen (O2). Several pieces of
research have reported that torrefied biomass has various advantages over the raw
biomass, such as increased calorific, reduction in moisture content, hydrophobic
behaviour, easy particle size reduction (milling), densification biomass and easy
storage and transport [44–50]. Pyrolysis is defined as a thermal decomposition of
biomass, when exposed to temperatures between 400 C and 800 C and in the
absence of O2. Depending on the operating conditions, it may favour the production
of biochar (solid products), bio-oil (liquid products) and syngas (gaseous products).
Bio-oil may be transported and stored more readily and may be used in different
energy applications (boilers, furnaces, internal combustion engines, turbines)
[51–54].
The literature has reported recent research on energy recovery from several
waste (biomass) sources, derived from human consumption or food industries,
The Avocado and Its Waste: An Approach of Fuel Potential/Application

e.g. olive seeds [55–59]. Specifically, research on energy recovery of avocado seeds
using torrefaction or pyrolysis has not been reported, considering that their seed is
10–13 % wt. of fresh fruit and is discarded after consumption [26]. The aim of this
study is to investigate the potential of avocado seeds as a fuel, through thermo-
chemical conversion of biomass using a rotary furnace under an inert atmosphere
and at temperatures in the range of 150–900 C. Yields of solid, liquid and gas
fractions for each experimental condition were determined gravimetrically, and
furthermore the experimental results were discussed.

5.2 Methodology

Avocado (P. americana Mill.) seeds were supplied by a Spanish restaurant (Punto
MX, Madrid). The biomass sample was ground by a knife mill (Retsch GM 200).
The initial moisture content of sample was 51 % wt., and it was measured in a
thermobalance (PCE-MB Series). The samples were oven dried for 24 h at 40 C to
decrease their moisture content at values between 8 and 15 % wt. (ASTM E1756-
08) for analysis by torrefaction or pyrolysis.
Torrefaction and pyrolysis experiments were performed in a rotary furnace
(Fig. 10) by batch operation. The sample of biomass (150 g) was charged in the
reactor vessel (a quartz cylinder with 470 mm L 150 mm ID) in each experiment.
The rotation speed used was 3 rpm and the biomass was heated at a rate of 10 C/
min from room temperature to a desired temperature (range from 150 C to 900 C)
under a nitrogen flow rate of 0.2 L/min. The temperature in the reactor vessel was
set using an electric furnace controlled by a PID controller. The residence time at
the torrefaction or pyrolysis temperature was 15 min. Previously the system was
purged with 0.2 L/min of preheated nitrogen for 15 min. Depending on the
temperature at which the experiment was performed (torrefaction or pyrolysis),

Fig. 10 Rotary furnace and experimental setup for the thermal treatment of avocado seeds
 M.P. Domı́nguez et al.

the resulting products were a gas, a liquid, and a solid. The liquid phase was
collected into a glass flask placed in an ice-cooled condenser (cold trap). The
exhausted solid phase was collected into the reactor. Yields of liquid and solid
products were obtained gravimetrically, and yields of gaseous products were
calculated by difference.

5.3 Product Yields

Figure 11 shows the product yields obtained during the torrefaction and pyrolysis of
avocado seeds at different temperatures. The experimental results showed a gradual
transformation of the original biomass into the different fractions: liquid, solid and
gas.
The results show a reduction in the solid fraction yield with temperature as a
result of progressive thermal degradation of the biomass. At temperatures between
150 C and 250 C, most of the condensable fraction is formed by water. In that
temperature range, the biomass is subjected to drying and dehydration reactions.
Thermal degradation of the polymeric constituents of the avocado seeds (mainly
starch but also cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose) takes place primarily at tem-
peratures between 250 C and 500 C, resulting in the formation of a condensable
and a gas fraction. In that temperature range, the solid fraction yield is reduced from
90% to 25% wt. At temperatures above 500 C, product yields (solid, liquid and gas)
remained relatively constant (21–24 % wt. approximately), which suggests com-
pletion of the thermal degradation process. Characterization of the chemical,
physical and fuel properties of the resulting products is ongoing at present.

Solid Liquid Gas

100

80
Yield [ wt%]

60

40

20

0
150 200 250 275 300 350 400 500 700 900
Temperature [ºC]

Fig. 11 Thermal treatment of avocado seed: effect of temperature on product yields

The Avocado and Its Waste: An Approach of Fuel Potential/Application

5.4 Conclusions

Preliminary results describe the thermal behaviour of avocado seeds during

torrefaction and pyrolysis in a rotary kiln. Preliminary results suggest that there
may be a commercial potential for large-scale production of charcoal and liquid
fuels from avocado seeds by torrefaction and pyrolysis.

6 Densification Analysis of Avocado Seed

6.1 Description of Technology

One of the major drawbacks of biomass, when compared to fossil fuel, is its low
energy density. Mechanical densification is a technology based on the use of
pressure and mild temperatures to compact the biomass and, therefore, increase
its density. There are two commercial products based on biomass densification:
briquettes and pellets. According to Spanish standard UNE-EN_14961-1 ¼ 2011
[60], briquettes have cylindrical or prismatic shape and a length between 50 and
400 mm (with diameters that usually range between 25 and 125 mm). Pellets have
cylindrical shape, their length ranges between 3.15 and 50 mm and their diameters
range between 6 and 25 mm.
The densification process that leads to the production of pellets is known as
pelletization. Pressure, temperature, moisture content and the presence or absence
of binders are the critical operation conditions [61]. This section studies the
mechanical behaviour of pellets produced from different proportions of avocado
seed and California pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) sawdust.

6.2 Methodology

The raw materials were ground and sieved to a particle size below 3.15 mm and
dried to a moisture content of 10  0.3%. The pellets were produced in an exper-
imental laboratory scale pelletizer. This device generates pellets by compacting
biomass between two blunt needles made of steel in a cylindrical die provided with
a heating jacket. Pressure, temperature and residence time can be controlled
(Fig. 12).
The experimental conditions were as follows: die diameter, 8 mm; pressure,
919 bar; temperature, 80 C; and residence time, 3 min. Table 5 shows the pellets
analysed in this trial with their respective mixing ratios [wt%] for avocado seed and
pine sawdust. Total weight of each pellet was about 1 g. The results represent
average values of triplicate values. The length and the diameter of the pellets were
measured using a digital calliper. Weight was determined using a calibrated scale.
 M.P. Domı́nguez et al.

Fig. 12 Laboratory scale

pelletizer

Table 5 Mixing ratios of pellets and identification name

Biomass
Avocado seed (%) Pine sawdust (%) Identification code
0 100 0.A/100.P
10 90 10.A/90.P
30 70 30.A/70.P
50 50 50.A/50.P
70 30 70.A/30.P
90 10 90.A/10.P
100 0 100.A/0.P

Density was calculated considering the cylindrical shape of the pellets. Durability
analyses were performed according to standard UNE-EN 15210-1 [62], by the
determination of the remaining mass of pellets after mechanical stress.
The Avocado and Its Waste: An Approach of Fuel Potential/Application

Fig. 13 Average densities 1400

of pellets produced from
pinewood and avocado
seeds 1300

Density [kg/m3]
1200

1100

1000
0 20 40 60 80 100
Avocado in pellet mixture [%]

6.3 Results

6.3.1 Compaction Analysis

Average density of produced pellets is shown in Fig. 13. The results show that
pellets produced from avocado seeds exhibited a higher mass density (1,378 kg/m3)
than those produced from pinewood (1,058 kg/m3). A correlation between the
avocado seed content in the pellet and its mass density was also observed. Ligno-
cellulosic tissues are known to exhibit lower mass densities than starch.

6.3.2 Durability Analysis

Durability results in Fig. 14 show some degree of variability. The values suggest
that pellets made of 100% avocado seed had less durability than all the other ones.
On the other hand, a high percentage of avocado seed in the mixture (50–90%)
seems to enhance durability. This effect could be a consequence of the binding
properties of starch, which may only become clear when the biomass mixture
contains a certain amount of lignocellulosic constituents. When seed percentage
reaches 100%, those properties may not be enough to compensate the lack of rigid
structures that woody tissues provide, and so, durability decreases. These structures
(dead cell walls) may play the same role that corrugated steel rods inside reinforced
concrete beams: providing them with better mechanical resistance. Further research
is ongoing on this matter.

6.4 Conclusions

Results on densification and durability show that avocado pellets exhibit good
densification but high fragility. Mixing avocado seed with a lignocellulosic biomass
 M.P. Domı́nguez et al.

Fig. 14 Average durability 100

of pellets produced from
pinewood and avocado 80
seeds

Durability [%]
60

40

20

0
0 10 30 50 70 90 100
Avocado in pellet mixture [%]

(pine sawdust) decreases pellet density but increases durability. If avocado seed
pellets are intended to be used in industrial processes, further research is needed to
optimize the mixing ratio and production conditions.

General Conclusions
– The concentration of starch in avocado seeds is significantly higher than in
other plant seeds (like olive stone) which affects its use in energy
applications.
– Avocado production is growing rapidly around the world with Mexico
being the main producer and exporter and the USA the main importer.
Hass is the variety most commercialized around the world.
– The pulp is the only part of the fruit that has commercial value while the
rest of the fruit (peel, seed) is managed as a waste. Very little research has
been conducted to evaluate the energy potential of avocado by-products
(peel and seed).
– The experimental results show that incorporation of biomass (avocado
seeds) into a porous media reactor operating with methane/air resulted in
an increase in the concentration of syngas-related gases (H2, CO) and also
CO2, primarily when operating at high gas fuel equivalence ratios.
– Regarding torrefaction and pyrolysis, preliminary results suggest that
there may be a commercial potential for large-scale production of charcoal
and liquid fuels from avocado seeds.
– Mixing avocado seed with a lignocellulosic biomass (pine sawdust) results
in a reduction in the density of the resulting pellets but an increase in its
durability, compared with avocado seeds.
In general, the size of the avocado market, the yield and quality of the
by-products generated from the industrial transformation of avocados
(mainly peel and seed) and the preliminary results obtained for energy
valorization and densification of avocado seeds show a notable energy poten-
tial of this waste. Further research is necessary to produce conclusive results.
The Avocado and Its Waste: An Approach of Fuel Potential/Application

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the European Commission for financial support
under Marie Curie Actions (Grant Agreement no 318927) and to Universidad Politécnica de
Madrid for financial support under Project AL13-PID-16 for Research Activities with Latin
America. We are also grateful to restaurant Punto MX (Madrid, Spain) and to Frumaco SL
(Málaga, Spain) for provision of avocado seeds.

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