1 – Database System Architecture

Define the following terms.

Data
 Fact that can be recorded or stored.
 E.g. Person Name, Age, Gender and Weight etc.
Information
 When data is processed, organized, structured or presented in a given context so as to
make it useful, it is called information.
Database
 A Database is a collection of inter-related (logically-related) data.
 E.g. Books Database in Library, Student Database in University etc.
DBMS (Database Management System)
 A database management system is a collection of inter-related data and set of programs
to manipulate those data.
 DBMS = Database + Set of programs
 E.g. MS SQL Server, Oracle, My SQL, SQLite, MongoDB etc.
Metadata
 Metadata is data about data.
 Data such as table name, column name, data type, authorized user and user access
privileges for any table is called metadata for that table.
Data dictionary
 Data dictionary is an information repository which contains metadata.
 It is usually a part of the system catalog.
Data warehouse
 Data warehouse is an information repository which stored data.
 It is design to facilitate reporting and analysis.
Field
 A field is a character or group of characters that have a specific meaning.
 It is also called a data item. It is represented in the database by a value.
 For Example customer id, name, society and city are all fields for customer Data.
Record
 A record is a collection of logically related fields.
 For examples, collection of fields (id, name, address & city) forms a record for customer.
Explain disadvantages of file system (file processing systems)
compare to Database management system. OR
Explain disadvantages of conventional file-based system
compared to Database management system.
Data Redundancy
 It is possible that the same information may be duplicated in different files. This leads to
data redundancy.
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 1 – Database System Architecture
 Data redundancy results in memory wastage.
 For example, consider that some customers have both kinds of accounts - saving and
current. In this case, data about customers such as name, address, e-mail and contact
number will be duplicated in both files, saving accounts file and current account file.
 In other words, same information will be stored in two different locations (files). And, it
wastes memory.
Data Inconsistency
 Due to data redundancy, it is possible that data may not be in consistent state.
 For example, consider that an address of some customer changes. And, that customer has
both kinds of accounts. Now, it is possible that this changed address is updated in only
one file, leaving address in other file as it is. As a result of this, same customer will have
two different addresses in two different files, making data inconsistent.
Difficulty in Accessing Data
 Accessing data is not convenient and efficient in file processing system.
 For example, suppose, there is a program to find information about all customers. But,
what if there is a need to find out all customers from some particular city. In this case,
there are two choices here: One, find out all customers using available program, and then
extract the needed customers manually. Second, develop new program to get required
information. Both options are not satisfactory.
 For each and every different kind of data access, separate programs are required. This is
neither convenient nor efficient.
Limited Data Sharing
 Data are scattered in various files.
 Different files may have different formats. And these files may be stored in different
folders (directories) may be of different computers of different departments.
 So, due to this data isolation, it is difficult to share data among different applications.
Integrity Problems
 Data integrity means that the data contained in the database is both correct and
consistent. For this purpose, the data stored in database must satisfy certain types of
constraints (rules).
 For example, a balance for any account must not be less than zero. Such constraints are
enforced in the system by adding appropriate code in application programs. But, when
new constraints are added, such as balance should not be less than Rs. 5000, application
programs need to be changed. But, it is not an easy task to change programs whenever
required.
Atomicity Problems
 Any operation on database must be atomic. This means, operation completes either 100%
or 0%.
 For example, a fund transfer from one account to another must happen in its entirely.
But, computer systems are vulnerable to failure, such as system crash, virus attack. If a
system failure occurs during the execution of fund transfer operation, it may possible that

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 1 – Database System Architecture
amount to be transferred, say, Rs. 500, is debited from one account, but is not credited
to another account.
 This leaves database in consistent state. But, it is difficult to ensure atomicity in a file
processing system.
Concurrent Access Anomalies
 Multiple users are allowed to access data simultaneously (concurrently). This is for the
sake of better performance and faster response.
 Consider an operation to debit (withdrawal) an account. The program reads the old
balance, calculates the new balance, and writes new balance back to database. Suppose
an account has a balance of Rs. 5000. Now, a concurrent withdrawal of Rs. 1000 and Rs.
2000 may leave the balance Rs. 4000 or Rs. 3000 depending upon their completion time
rather than the correct value of Rs. 2000.
 Here, concurrent data access should be allowed under some supervision.
 But, due to lack of co-ordination among different application programs, this is not
possible in file processing systems.
Security Problems
 Database should be accessible to users in a limited way.
 Each user should be allowed to access data concerning his application only.
 For example, a customer can check balance only for his/her own account. He/She should
not have access for information about other accounts.
 But, in file processing system, application programs are added in an ad hoc manner by
different programmers. So, it is difficult to enforce such kind of security constraints.
Explain advantages (benefits) of DBMS over file management
system. OR
Explain purpose of database system.
Minimal Data Redundancy (Duplication)
 Due to centralized database, it is possible to avoid unnecessary duplication of
information.
 This leads to reduce data redundancy.
 It prevents memory wastage and reduces extra processing time to get required data.
Shared Data
 All authorized user and application program can share database easily.
Data Consistency
 Data inconsistency occurs due to data redundancy.
 With reduced data redundancy such type of data inconsistency can be eliminated.
 This results in improved data consistency.
Data Access
 DBMS utilizes a variety of techniques to retrieve data.
 Required data can be retrieved by providing appropriate query to the DBMS.
 Thus, data can be accessed in convenient and efficient manner.
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 1 – Database System Architecture
Data Integrity
 Data in database must be correct and consistent.
 So, data stored in database must satisfy certain types of constraints (rules).
 DBMS provides different ways to implement such type of constraints (rules).
 This improves data integrity in a database.
Data Security
 Database should be accessible to user in a limited way.
 DBMS provides way to control the access to data for different user according to their
requirement.
 It prevents unauthorized access to data.
 Thus, security can be improved.
Concurrent Access
 Multiple users are allowed to access data simultaneously.
 Concurrent access to centralized data can be allowed under some supervision.
 This results in better performance of system and faster response.
Guaranteed Atomicity
 Any operation on database must be atomic. This means, operation must be executed
either 100% or 0%.
 This type of atomicity is guaranteed in DBMS.
List and explain the applications of DBMS.
Airlines and railways
 Airlines and railways use online databases for reservation, and for displaying the schedule
information.
Banking
 Banks use databases for customer inquiry, accounts, loans, and other transactions.
Education
 Schools and colleges use databases for course registration, result, and other information.
Telecommunications
 Telecommunication departments use databases to store information about the
communication network, telephone numbers, record of calls, for generating monthly
bills, etc.
Credit card transactions
 Databases are used for keeping track of purchases on credit cards in order to generate
monthly statements.
E-commerce
 Integration of heterogeneous information sources (for example, catalogs) for business
activity such as online shopping, booking of holiday package, consulting a doctor, etc.
Health care information systems and electronic patient record
 Databases are used for maintaining the patient health care details in hospitals.

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 1 – Database System Architecture
Digital libraries and digital publishing
 Databases are used for management and delivery of large bodies of textual and
multimedia data.
Finance
 Databases are used for storing information such as sales, purchases of stocks and bonds
or data useful for online trading.
Sales
 Databases are used to store product, customer and transaction details.
Human resources
 Organizations use databases for storing information about their employees, salaries,
benefits, taxes, and for generating salary checks.
Describe functions (responsibility, roles, and duties) of DBA to
handle DBMS.
DBA
 The full name of DBA is Database Administrator.
 Database Administrator is a person in the organization who controls the design and the
use of database.
Functions or Responsibilities of DBA are as under:
Schema Definition
 DBA defines the logical schema of the database.
 A schema refers to the overall logical structure of the database.
 According to this schema, database will be designed to store required data for an
organization.
Storage Structure and Access Method Definition
 DBA decides how the data is to be represented in the database.
 Based on this, storage structure of the database and access methods of data is defined.
Defining Security and Integrity Constraints
 DBA decides various security and integrity constraints.
 DDL (Data Definition Language) provides facilities to specifying such constraints.
Granting of Authorization for Data Access
 The DBA determines which user needs access to which part of the database.
 According to this, various types of authorizations (permissions) are granted to different
users.
 This is required to prevent unauthorized access of a database.
Liaison with Users
 DBA is responsible to provide necessary data to user.
 User should be able to write the external schema, using DDL (Data Definition Language).
Assisting Application Programmers
 DBA provides assistance to application programmers to develop application programs.

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 1 – Database System Architecture
Monitoring Performance
 The DBA monitors performance of the system.
 The DBA ensures that better performance is maintained by making change in physical or
logical schema if required.
Backup and Recovery
 Database should not be lost or damaged.
 The task of DBA is to backing up the database on some storage devices such as DVD, CD
or Magnetic Tape or remote servers.
 In case of failures, such as flood or virus attack, Database is recovered from this backup.
Explain three levels ANSI SPARC Database System. OR
Explain three level Data abstraction.
The ANSI SPARC architecture divided into three levels:
1) External level
2) Conceptual level
3) Internal level
External View A View B View C
Level

Conceptual
Level Conceptual View

Internal
Level Internal View

Three levels ANSI SPARC Database System

Internal Level
 This is the lowest level of the data abstraction.
 It describes how the data are actually stored on storage devices.
 It is also known as a physical level.
 The internal view is described by internal schema.
 Internal schema consists of definition of stored record, method of representing the data
field and access method used.
Conceptual Level
 This is the next higher level of the data abstraction.

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 1 – Database System Architecture
 It describes what data are stored in the database and what relationships exist among
those data.
 It is also known as a logical level.
 Conceptual view is defined by conceptual schema. It describes all records and
relationship.
External Level
 This is the highest level of data abstraction.
 It is also known as view level.
 It describes only part of the entire database that a particular end user requires.
 External view is describes by external schema.
 External schema consists of definition of logical records, relationship in the external view
and method of deriving the objects from the conceptual view.
 This object includes entities, attributes and relationship.
Explain Mapping. OR
Explain external and internal mapping. OR
What is mapping? Describe type of mapping.
Mapping
 The process of transforming requests and results between the three levels is called
mapping.
Types of Mapping
 Conceptual/Internal Mapping
 External/Conceptual Mapping
Conceptual/Internal Mapping
 It relates conceptual schema with internal schema.
 It defines correspondence between the conceptual schema and the database stored in
physical devices.
 It specifies how conceptual records and fields are presented at the internal level.
 If the structure of stored database is changed, then conceptual/internal mapping must be
changed accordingly and conceptual schema can remain invariant.
 There could be one mapping between conceptual and internal levels.
External/Conceptual Mapping
 It relates each external schema with conceptual schema.
 It defines correspondence between a particular external view and conceptual schema.
 If the structure of conceptual schema is changed, then external/conceptual mapping must
be changed accordingly and external schema can remain invariant.
 There could be several mappings between external and conceptual levels.

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 1 – Database System Architecture

Explain Data Independence.

Data Independence
 Data independency is the ability to modify a schema definition in one level without
affecting a schema definition in the next higher level.
Types of data independence
 Physical data independence
 Logical data independence
Physical data independence
 Physical data independence allows changing in physical storage devices or organization
of file without change in the conceptual view or external view.
 Modifications at the internal level are occasionally necessary to improve performance.
 Physical data independence separates conceptual level from the internal level.
 It is easy to achieve physical data independence.
Logical data independence
 Logical data independence is the ability to modify the conceptual schema without
requiring any change in application programs.
 Conceptual schema can be changed without affecting the existing external schema.
 Modifications at the logical level are necessary whenever the logical structure of the
database is altered.
 Logical data independence separates external level from the conceptual view.
 It is difficult to achieve logical data independence.
Explain Data Abstraction in DBMS.
 Database systems are made-up of complex data structures.
 To ease the user interaction with database, the developers hide internal irrelevant details
from users. This process of hiding irrelevant details from user is called data abstraction.
Explain different database users.
There are four different database users.
Application programmers
 These users are computer professionals who write application programs using some
tools. E.g. Software developers
Sophisticated users
 These users interact with system without writing program. They form their request in a
database query language. E.g. Analyst.
Specialized users
 These users write specialized database applications that do not fit into the traditional data
processing framework. E.g. Database Administrator.
Naive users
 These users are unsophisticated users who have very less knowledge of database system. 

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 1 – Database System Architecture
 These users interact with the system by using one of the application programs that have
been written previously.
 Examples, e.g. Clerk in bank
Differentiate the DA and DBA.
DA (Data Administrator) DBA (Database Administrator)
The data administrator is a person in the The database administrator is a person in the
organization who controls the data of the organization who controls the design and the
database. use of the database.
DA determines what data to be stored in DBA provides necessary technical support for
database based on requirements of the implementing a database.
organization.
DA is involved more in the requirements DBA is involved more in the design,
gathering, analysis, and design phases. development, testing and operational phases.
DA is a manager or some senior level person DBA is a technical person having knowledge of
in an organization who understands database technology.
organizational requirements with respect to
data.
DA does not need to be a technical person, but
DBA does not need to be a business person,
any kind of knowledge about database but any kind of knowledge about a
technology can be more beneficiary. functionality of an organization can be more
beneficiary.
DA is a business focused person, but, he/she DBA is a technically focused person, but,
should understand more about the database he/she should understand more about the
technology. business to administer the databases
effectively.
Explain Database System Architecture.
Components of a DBMS
These functional units of a database system can be divided into two parts:
1. Query Processor Units (Components)
2. Storage Manager Units
Query Processor Units:
Query processor unit deal with execution of DDL (Data Definition Language) and DML (Data
Manipulation Language) statements.
 DDL Interpreter — Interprets DDL statements into a set of tables containing metadata.
 DML Compiler — Translates DML statements into low level instructions that the query
evaluation engine understands.
 Embedded DML Pre-compiler — Converts DML statements embedded in an
application program into normal procedure caIls in the host language.
 Query Evaluation Engine — Executes low level instructions generated by DML
compiler.

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 1 – Database System Architecture
Storage Manager Units:
Storage manager units provide interface between the low level data stored in database and
the application programs & queries submitted to the system.
 Authorization Manager — Checks the authority of users to access data.
 Integrity Manager — Checks for the satisfaction of the integrity constraints.
 Transaction Manager — Preserves atomicity and controls concurrency.
 File Manager — Manages allocation of space on disk storage.
 Buffer Manager — Fetches data from disk storage to memory for being used.
In addition to these functional units, several data structures are required to implement physical
storage system. These are described below:
 Data Files — To store user data.
 Data Dictionary and System Catalog — To store metadata. It is used heavily, almost
for each and every data manipulation operation. So, it should be accessed efficiently.
 Indices — To provide faster access to data items.
 Statistical Data — To store statistical information about the data in the database. This
information is used by the query processor to select efficient ways to execute a query.

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 1 – Database System Architecture

naive users sophisticated

application database
(tellers, agents, users
programmers administrator
web-users) (analyst)

use write use use

application application query administra-

interfaces program tool tion tool

compiler and DDL

DML queries
linker interpreter

application
DML compiler
program object
and organizer
code

query evaluation
engine
query processor

buffer manager file manager authorization transaction

and integrity manager
manager

storage manager

disk storage

indices data dictionary

data statistical data

Database System Architecture

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 1 – Database System Architecture

Explain database system 3 tier architecture with clear diagram

in detail.
 Most widely used architecture is 3-tier architecture.
 3-tier architecture separates it tier from each other on basis of users.

user Presentation Tier

client

application client

network Application Tier

application server
server
Database Tier
database system

2 tier v/s 3 tier architecture

Database (Data) Tier
 At this tier, only database resides.
 Database along with its query processing languages sits in layer-3 of 3-tier architecture. 
 It also contains all relations and their constraints.
Application (Middle) Tier
 At this tier, the application server and program, which access database, resides. 
 For a user this application tier works as abstracted view of database.
 Users are unaware of any existence of database beyond application. 
 For database-tier, application tier is the user of it.
 Database tier is not aware of any other user beyond application tier.
 This tier works as mediator between the two.
User (Presentation) Tier
 An end user sits on this tier.
 From a user’s aspect, this tier is everything.
 He/she doesn't know about any existence or form of database beyond this layer. 
 At this layer multiple views of database can be provided by the application. 
 All views which are generated by an application, resides in application tier.

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 2 – Data Models

Define the following terms.

Entity
 An entity is a thing or object or person in the real world that is distinguishable from all
other object.
 E.g. book, student, employee, college etc…
Entity sets
 An entity set is a set of entities of same type that share the same properties or
attributes.
 E.g. the set of all students in a college can be defined as entity set student.
Relationship
 Relationship is an association (connection) between several entities.
 Relationship between 2 entities is called binary relationship.
 E.g. book is issued by student where book and student are entities and issue is relation.
Relationship set
 Relationship set is a set of relationships of the same type.
Attributes
 Attributes are properties hold by each member of an entity set.
 E.g. entity is student and attributes of student are enrollmentno, name, address, cpi etc
Types of attributes
 Simple attribute: It cannot be divided into subparts. E.g. cpi, rollno
 Composite attribute: It can be divided into subparts. E.g. name (first-name, middle-
name, last-name), address.
 Single valued attribute: It has single data value. E.g. enrollmentno, birthdate
 Multi valued attribute: It has multiple data value. E.g. phoneno (may have multiple
phones).
 Stored attribute: It’s value is stored manually in database. E.g. birthdate
 Derived attribute: It’s value is derived or calculated from other attributes. E.g. age (can
be calculated using current date and birthdate).
Descriptive attributes
 A relationship may also have attributes like an entity. These attributes are called
descriptive attributes.
 E.g. Student gets degree certificate on 14th March 2011. Student and Degree are
entities, gets certificate is relation and certificate date is an attribute of relationship.

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 2 – Data Models

student-name
Issue date

Branch certi-no name

student-id

student issue degree certificate

Recursive relationship set

 The same entity set participates in a relationship set more than once then it is called
recursive relationship set.
 E.g. an employee entity participated in relationship under with department entity as an
employee as well manager also.

Degree of relationship
 The degree of a relationship is the number of entity types that participate in the
relationship.
 The three most common relationships in ER models are Unary, Binary and Ternary.
 A unary relationship is when both participant entities in the relationship are the same
entity.
 Example: Subjects may be prerequisites for other subjects.
subject

is prerequisite for

 A binary relationship is the relationship between two different entities.

 The University might need to record which teachers taught which subjects.

teacher teaches subject

 A ternary relationship is the relationship between three different entities.

 The University might need to record which teachers taught which subjects in which
courses.

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 2 – Data Models

teacher teaches subject

course

Explain various mapping cardinality (cardinality constraint).

Mapping cardinality (cardinality constraints)
 It represents the number of entities of another entity set which are connected to an
entity using a relationship set.
 It is most useful in describing binary relationship sets.
 For a binary relationship set the mapping cardinality must be one of the following types:
 One to one
 One to many
 Many to one
 Many to many
One-to-one relationship
A B

A1 B1

A2 B2

A3 B3

A4 B4

s
 An entity in A is associated with at most (only) one entity in B and an entity in B is
associated with at most (only) one entity in A.

customer-name customer-address

customer-city loan-no amount

customer-id

customer borrower loan

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 2 – Data Models
 A customer is connected with only one loan using the relationship borrower and a loan
is connected with only one customer using borrower.
One-to-many relationship
A B

A1 B1

A2 B2

A3 B3

A4 B4

 An entity in A is associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in B and an entity
in B is associated with at most (only) one entity in A.

customer-name customer-address

loan-no amount
customer-id customer-city

customer borrower loan

 In the one-to-many relationship a loan is connected with only one customer using
borrower and a customer is connected with more than one loans using borrower.

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 2 – Data Models
Many-to-one relationship
A B

A1 B1

A2 B2

A3 B3

A4 B4

 An entity in A is associated with at most (only) one entity in B and an entity in B is

associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in A.

customer-name customer-address

customer-city loan-no amount

customer-id

customer borrower loan

 In a many-to-one relationship a loan is connected with more than one customer using
borrower and a customer is connected with only one loan using borrower.
Many-to-many relationship
A B

A1 B1

A2 B2

A3 B3

A4 B4

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 2 – Data Models
 An entity in A is associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in B and an entity
in B is associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in A.

customer-name customer-address

customer-city loan-no amount

customer-id

customer borrower loan

 A customer is connected with more than one loan using borrower and a loan is
connected with more than one customer using borrower.

Explain various participation constraints.

Participation constraints
 It specifies the participation of an entity set in a relationship set.
 There are two types participation constraints
 Total participation
 Partial participation
Total participation
 In total participation, every entity in the entity set participates in at least one
relationship in the relationship set.
 It specifies that every entity in super class must be member of some of its sub class.
 E.g. participation of loan in borrower is total because every loan must be connected to a
customer using borrower.
 It is indicated by double line.
Partial participation
 In partial participation, some entities may not participate in any relationship in the
relationship set.
 It specifies that an entity may not belong to any sub class.
 E.g. participation of customer in borrower is partial because every customer is not
connected to loan using borrower.
 It is indicated by single line.

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 2 – Data Models

customer-name customer-address

customer-city loan-no amount

customer-id

customer borrower loan

Partial Participation Total Participation

Explain weak entity set with the help of example.

Weak entity set
 An entity set that does not have a primary key is called weak entity set.
 The existence of a weak entity set depends on the existence of a strong entity set.
 Weak entity set is indicated by double rectangle.
 Weak entity relationship set is indicated by double diamond.
 The discriminator (partial key) of a weak entity set is the set of attributes that
distinguishes between all the entities of a weak entity set.
 The primary key of a weak entity set is created by combining the primary key of the
strong entity set on which the weak entity set is existence dependent and the weak
entity set’s discriminator.
 We underline the discriminator attribute of a weak entity set with a dashed line.
 E.g. in below fig. there are two entities loan and payment in which loan is strong entity
set and payment is weak entity set.
 Payment entity has payment-no which is discriminator.
 Loan entity has loan-no as primary key.
 So primary key for payment is (loan-no, payment-no).

payment-date

amount payment-no loan-amount

loan-no

loan loan-payment payment

Strong Entity
Weak Entity Relationship Weak Entity

7
 2 – Data Models

Explain the Superclass and Subclass in E-R diagram with the

help of example.
Superclass
 A superclass is an entity from which another entity can be derived.
 A superclass is a generic entity set which has a relationship with one or more subclasses.
 For example, an entity set account has two subsets saving_account and
current_account. So an account is superclass.
 Each member of subclass is also a member of superclass. So any saving account or a
current account is a member of entity set account.
Subclass
 A subclass is an entity that is derived from another entity.
 A class is a subset of entities in an entity set which has attributes distinct from those in
other subset.
 For example, entities of the entity set account are grouped in to two classes
saving_account and current_account. So saving_account and current_account are
subclasses.
superclass
account

sublass saving account current account

Explain the difference between Specialization and

Generalization in E-R diagram.
Specialization Generalization
It will work in Top-down approach. It will work in Bottom-up approach
The process of creating sub-groupings within an The process of creating groupings from
entity set is called specialization. various entity sets is called generalization.
Specialization is a process of taking a sub set of Generalization is a process of taking the
higher level entity set to form a lower-level union of two or more lower-level entity sets
entity set. to produce a higher-level entity set.
Specialization starts from a single entity set; it Generalization starts from the number of
creates different low-level entity set using some entity sets and creates high-level entity set
different features. using some common features.

8
 2 – Data Models

Explain Specialization and Generalization in E-R diagram with

example.
 For all practical purposes, generalization and specialization is inversion of each other.
Specialization
 A top-down design process that creates subclasses based on some different
characteristics of the entities in the superclass.
 An entity set may include sub groupings of entities that are distinct in some way from
other entities in the set.
 For example, a subset of entities within an entity set may have attributes that are not
shared by all the entities in the entity set.
 Consider an entity set person, with attributes name, street and city.
 A person may be further classified as one of the following:
 customer
 Employee
 For example, customer entities may be described further by the attribute customer-id,
credit-rating and employee entities may be described further by the attributes
employee-id and salary.
 The process of designating sub groupings within an entity set is called specialization. The
specialization of person allows us to distinguish among persons according to whether
they are employees or customers.
 Now again, employees may be further classified as one of the following:
 officer
 teller
 secretary
 Each of these employee types is described by a set of attributes that includes all the
attributes of entity set employee plus additional attributes.
 For example, officer entities may be described further by the attribute office-number,
teller entities by the attributes station-number and hours-per-week, and secretary
entities by the attribute hours-per-week.
 In terms of an E-R diagram, specialization is depicted by a triangle component labeled
ISA.
 The label ISA stands for “is a” and represents, for example, that a customer “is a”
person.
 The ISA relationship may also be referred to as a superclass subclass relationship.
Generalization
 A bottom-up design process that combines number of entity sets that have same
features into a higher-level entity set.
 The design process proceed in a bottom-up manner, in which multiple entity sets are
synthesized into a higher level entity set on the basis of common features.

9
 2 – Data Models
 The database designer may have to first identify a customer entity set with the
attributes name, street, city, and customer-id, and an employee entity set with the
attributes name, street, city, employee-id, and salary.
 But customer entity set and the employee entity set have some attributes common. This
commonality can be expressed by generalization, which is a containment relationship
that exists between a higher level entity set and one or more lower level entity sets.
 In our example, person is the higher level entity set and customer and employee are
lower level entity sets.
 Higher level entity set is called superclass and lower level entity set is called subclass. So
the person entity set is the superclass of two subclasses customer and employee.
 Differences in the two approaches may be characterized by their starting point and
overall goal.

name street city

person

salary ISA credit-rating

employee customer

ISA

officer teller secretary

officer-number hours-worked

station-number hours-worked

Explain types of constraints on specialization and

Generalization.
 There are mainly two types of constraints apply to a specialization/generalization:
Disjoint Constraint
 Describes relationship between members of the superclass and subclass and indicates
whether member of a superclass can be a member of one, or more than one subclass.

10
 2 – Data Models
 It may be disjoint or non-disjoint (overlapping).
1. Disjoint Constraint
 It specifies that the subclasses of the specialization must be disjointed (an entity can be
a member of only one of the subclasses of the specialization).
 Specified by ‘d’ in EER diagram or by writing disjoint.
2. Non-disjoint (Overlapping)
 It specifies that is the same entity may be a member of more than one subclass of the
specialization.
 Specified by ‘o’ in EER diagram or by writing overlapping.

Participation Constraint
 Determines whether every member in super class must participate as a member of a
subclass or not.
 It may be total (mandatory) or partial (optional).
1. Total (Mandatory)
 Total specifies that every entity in the superclass must be a member of some subclass in
the specialization.
 Specified by a double line in EER diagram.
2. Partial (Optional)
 Partial specifies that every entity in the super class not belong to any of the subclass of
specialization.
 Specified by a single line in EER diagram.
 Based on these two different kinds of constraints, a specialization or generalization can
be one of four types
 Total, Disjoint
 Total, Overlapping
 Partial, Disjoint
 Partial, Overlapping.

Explain aggregation in E-R diagram.

 The E-R model cannot express relationships among relationships.
 When would we need such a thing at that time aggregation is used.
 Consider a database with information about employees who work on a particular
project and use a number of machines doing that work.

11
 2 – Data Models
work

hours hours
name id number name id number

emp work project emp work project

uses work uses

machinery machinery
uses

id id
machinery
Fig. A Fig. B

 Relationship sets work and uses could be combined into a single set. We can combine
them by using aggregation.
 Aggregation is an abstraction through which relationships are treated as higher-level
entities.
 For our example, we treat the relationship set work and the entity sets employee and
project as a higher-level entity set called work.
 Transforming an E-R diagram with aggregation into tabular form is easy. We create a
table for each entity and relationship set as before.
 The table for relationship set uses contains a column for each attribute in the primary
key of machinery and work.

Explain the steps to reduce the ER diagram to ER database

schema.
Step 1: Entities and Simple Attributes:
 An entity type within ER diagram is turned into a table. You may preferably keep the
same name for the entity or give it a sensible name but avoid DBMS reserved words as
well as avoid the use of special characters.
 Each attribute turns into a column (attribute) in the table. The key attribute of the entity
is the primary key of the table which is usually underlined. It can be composite if
required but can never be null.

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 2 – Data Models
 It is highly recommended that every table should start with its primary key attribute
conventionally named as TablenameID.
 Consider the following simple ER diagram:

PersonID Person
Phone

Name
Address Email

 The initial relational schema is expressed in the following format writing the table
names with the attributes list inside a parentheses as shown below
 Persons( personid, name, address, email )
Person
personid name address Email

 Persons and Phones are Tables and personid, name, address and email are Columns
(Attributes).
 personid is the primary key for the table : Person

Step 2: Multi-Valued Attributes

 A multi-valued attribute is usually represented with a double-line oval.

PersonID Person
Phone

 If you have a multi-valued attribute, take that multi-valued attribute and turn it into a
new entity or table of its own.
 Then make a 1:N relationship between the new entity and the existing one.
 In simple words.
 1. Create a table for that multi-valued attribute.
 2. Add the primary (id) column of the parent entity as a foreign key within
the new table as shown below:
 First table is Persons ( personid, name, address, email )
 Second table is Phones ( phoneid , personid, phone )
 personid within the table Phones is a foreign key referring to the personid of Persons
Phone
phoneid personid phone

13
 2 – Data Models
Step 3: 1:1 Relationship

WifeID Wife Name

Have

PersonID Person
Phone

Name
Address Email

 Let us consider the case where the Person has one wife. You can place the primary key
of the wife table wifeid in the table Persons which we call in this case Foreign key as
shown below.
 Persons( personid, name, address, email , wifeid )
 Wife ( wifeid , name )
 Or vice versa to put the personid as a foreign key within the wife table as shown below:
 Persons( personid, name, address, email )
 Wife ( wifeid , name , personid)
 For cases when the Person is not married i.e. has no wifeID, the attribute can set to
NULL
Persons Wife
personid name address email wifeid wifeid name

OR

Persons Wife
personid name address email wifeid name personid

14
 2 – Data Models
Step 4: 1:N Relationships

HouseID House Name

Address
Has

PersonID Person
Phone

Name
Address Email

 For instance, the Person can have a House from zero to many, but a House can have
only one Person.
 In such relationship place the primary key attribute of table having 1 mapping in to the
table having many cardinality as a foreign key.
 To represent such relationship the personid as the Parent table must be placed within
the Child table as a foreign key.
 It should convert to :
 Persons( personid, name, address, email )
 House ( houseid, name , address, personid)
Persons House
personid name address email houseid name address personid

Step 5: N:N Relationships

CountryID Country Name

Has

PersonID Person
Phone

Name
Address Email

15
 2 – Data Models
 For instance, The Person can live or work in many countries. Also, a country can have
many people. To express this relationship within a relational schema we use a separate
table as shown below:
 It should convert into :
 Persons( personid, name, address, email )
 Countries ( countryid, name)
 HasRelat ( hasrelatid, personid , countryid)
Persons Countries
personid name address email countryid name

HasRelat
hasrelatid personid countryid

What is E-R model (Entity-Relationship) model (diagram) also

draw various symbols using in E-R diagram.
E-R model
 Entity-relationship (ER) model/diagram is a graphical representation of entities and their
relationships to each other with their attributes.

16
 2 – Data Models

What is a Database Models?

 A database model is a type of data model that defines the logical structure of a
database.
 It determine how data can be stored, accessed and updated in a database management
system
 The most popular example of a database model is the relational model, which uses a
table-based format.
 Type of Database Models are:
1. Hierarchical Model
2. Network Model
3. Entity-relationship Model
4. Relational Model
5. Object-oriented database model

1. Hierarchical Model
 The hierarchical model organizes data into a tree-like structure, where each record has a
single parent or root.
department

student professor

17
 2 – Data Models
 The hierarchy starts from the Root data, and expands like a tree, adding child nodes to
the parent nodes.
 In hierarchical model, data is organized into tree-like structure with one-to-many
relationship between two different types of data, for example, one department can
have many professors and many students.

2. Network Model
 This is an extension of the hierarchical model, allowing many-to-many relationships in a
tree-like structure that allows multiple parents.

B C

D E F

3. Entity-relationship Model
 In this database model, relationships are created by dividing object of interest into
entity and its characteristics into attributes.

customer-name customer-address

customer-city loan-no amount

customer-id

customer borrower loan

4. Relational Model
 In this model, data is organized in two-dimensional tables and the relationship is
maintained by storing a common attribute.

18
 2 – Data Models
Rno StudentName Age SubjectID SubjectName Teacher
1 Raj 21 1 DBMS Patel
2 Meet 22 2 DS Shah

Rno SubjectID Marks

1 1 98
1 2 95
2 1 95
2 2 90
5. Object-oriented database model
 This data model is another method of representing real world objects.
 It considers each object in the world as objects and isolates it from each other.
 It groups its related functionalities together and allows inheriting its functionality to
other related sub-groups.

What is Integrity Constraints?

 Integrity constraints are a set of rules. It is used to maintain the quality of information.
 Integrity constraints ensure that the data insertion, updating, and other processes have
to be performed in such a way that data integrity is not affected.
 Thus, integrity constraint is used to guard against accidental damage to the database.
 Various Integrity Constraints are:
1. Check
 This constraint defines a business rule on a column. All the rows in that
column must satisfy this rule.
 Limits the data values of variables to a specific set, range, or list of values.
 The constraint can be applied for a single column or a group of columns.
 E.g. value of SPI should be between 0 to 10.
2. Not null
 This constraint ensures all rows in the table contain a definite value for the
column which is specified as not null. Which means a null value is not
allowed.
 E.g. name column should have some value.

19
 2 – Data Models
3. Unique
 This constraint ensures that a column or a group of columns in each row
have a distinct (unique) value.
 A column(s) can have a null value but the values cannot be duplicated.
 E.g enrollmentno column should have unique value.
4. Primary key
 This constraint defines a column or combination of columns which uniquely
identifies each row in the table.
 Primary key = Unique key + Not null
 E.g enrollmentno column should have unique value as well as can’t be null.
5. Foreign key
 A referential integrity constraint (foreign key) is specified between two
tables.
 In the referential integrity constraints, if a foreign key column in table 1
refers to the primary key column of table 2, then every value of the foreign
key column in table 1 must be null or be available in primary key column of
table 2.

20
 3 – Relational Query Language

Explain keys.
Super key
 A super key is a set of one or more attributes (columns) that allow us to identify each
tuple (records) uniquely in a relation (table).
 For example, the enrollment_no, roll_no, semester with department_name of a student
is sufficient to distinguish one student tuple from another. So {enrollment_no} and 
{roll_no, semester, department_name} both are super key.
Candidate key
 Candidate key is a super key for which no proper subset is a super key. 
 For example, combination of roll_no, semester and department_name is sufficient to
distinguish one student tuple from another. But either roll_no or semester or
department_name alone or combination of any two columns is not sufficient to
distinguish one student tuple from another. So {roll_no, semester, department_name} is
candidate key.
 Every candidate key is super key but every super key may not candidate key. 
Primary key
 A Primary key is a candidate key that is chosen by database designer to identify tuples
uniquely in a relation.
Alternate key
 An Alternate key is a candidate key that is not chosen by database designer to identify
tuples uniquely in a relation.
Foreign key
 A foreign key is a set of one or more attributes whose values are derived from the
primary key attribute of another relation.
What is relational algebra? Explain relational algebraic
operation.
 Relational algebra is a language for expressing relational database queries.
 Relation algebra is a procedural query language.
 Relational algebraic operations are as follows:

Selection:-
 Operation: Selects tuples from a relation that satisfy a given condition.
It is used to select particular tuples from a relation.
It selects particular tuples but all attribute from a relation.
 Symbol: σ (Sigma)
 Notation: σ(condition) <Relation>
 Operators: The following operators can be used in a condition.
=, !=, <, >, <=,>=, Λ(AND), ∨(OR)

1
 3 – Relational Query Language
 Consider following table

Student
Rno Name Dept CPI
101 Ramesh CE 8
108 Mahesh EC 6
109 Amit CE 7
125 Chetan CI 8
138 Mukesh ME 7
128 Reeta EC 6
133 Anita CE 9

 Example: Find out all the students of CE department.

σDept=“CE” (Student)
 Output: The above query returns all tuples which contain CE as department name.
Output of above query is as follows

Student
Rno Name Dept CPI
101 Ramesh CE 8
109 Amit CE 7
133 Anita CE 9
Projection:-
 Operation: Selects specified attributes of a relation.
It selects particular attributes but all unique tuples from a relation.
 Symbol: ∏ (Pi)
 Notation: ∏ (attribute set) <Relation>
 Consider following table

Student
Rno Name Dept CPI
101 Ramesh CE 8
108 Mahesh EC 6
109 Amit CE 7
125 Chetan CI 8
138 Mukesh ME 7
128 Reeta EC 6
133 Anita CE 9

 Example: List out all students with their roll no, name and department name. 
∏Rno, Name, Dept (Student)
2
 3 – Relational Query Language
 Output: The above query returns all tuples with three attributes roll no, name and
department name.
Output of above query is as follows
Student
Rno Name Dept
101 Ramesh CE
109 Amit CE
125 Chetan CI
138 Mukesh ME
133 Anita CE

 Example: List out students of CE department with their roll no, name and department. 
∏Rno, Name, Dept (σDept=“CE” (Student))
 Output: The above query returns tuples which contain CE as department with three
attributes roll no, name and department name.
Output of above query is as follows
Student
Rno Name Dept
101 Ramesh CE
109 Amit CE
133 Anita CE
Division:-
 Operation: The division is a binary relation that is written as R1 ÷ R2.
 Condition to perform operation: Attributes of R2 is proper subset of attributes of R1.
 The output of the division operator will have attributes =
All attributes of R1 – All attributes of R2
 The output of the division operator will have tuples =
Tuples in R1, which are associated with the all tuples of R2
 Symbol: ÷
 Notation: R1 ÷ R2
 Consider following table
Project Work
Task Student Task
Database1 Shah Database1
Database2 Shah Database2
Shah Compiler1
Vyas Database1
Vyas Compiler1
Patel Database1
Patel Database2

3
 3 – Relational Query Language
 Example: Find out all students having both tasks Database1 as well as Database2.
∏(student, Task)(Work) ÷ ∏(Task)(Project)
 Output: It gives name of all students whose task is both Database1 as well as Database2.
Output of above query is as follows
Student
Shah
Patel

Cartesian product:-
 Operation: Combines information of two relations.
It will multiply each tuples of first relation to each tuples of second relation.
It is also known as Cross product operation and similar to mathematical
Cartesian product operation.
 Symbol: X (Cross)
 Notation: Relation1 X Relation2
 Resultant Relation :
 If relation1 and relation2 have n1 and n2 attributes respectively, then resultant
relation will have n1 + n2 attributes from both the input relations.
 If both relations have some attribute having same name, it can be distinguished
by combing relation-name.attribute-name.
 If relation1 and relation2 have n1 and n2 tuples respectively, then resultant
relation will have n1*n2 tuples, combining each possible pair of tuples from both
the input relations.

R R×S
A 1 A 1 A 1
B 2 A 1 D 2
D 3 A 1 E 3
B 2 A 1
S
B 2 D 2
A 1 B 2 E 3
D 2 D 3 A 1
E 3 D 3 D 2
D 3 E 3
 Consider following table
Emp Dept
Empid Empname Deptname Deptname Manager
S01 Manisha Finance Finance Arun
S02 Anisha Sales Sales Rohit
S03 Nisha Finance Production Kishan

4
 3 – Relational Query Language
 Example:
Emp × Dept
Empid Empname Emp.Deptname Dept.Deptname Manager
S01 Manisha Finance Finance Arun
S01 Manisha Finance Sales Rohit
S01 Manisha Finance Production Kishan
S02 Anisha Sales Finance Arun
S02 Anisha Sales Sales Rohit
S02 Anisha Sales Production Kishan
S03 Nisha Finance Finance Arun
S03 Nisha Finance Sales Rohit
S03 Nisha Finance Production Kishan

Join:-
Natural Join Operation (⋈)
 Operation: Natural join will retrieve information from multiple relations. It works in
three steps.
1. It performs Cartesian product
2. Then it finds consistent tuples and inconsistent tuples are deleted
3. Then it deletes duplicate attributes
 Symbol:  To perform a natural join there must be
one common attribute (column) between
 Notation: Relation1 Relation2
two relations.
 Consider following table
Emp Dept
Empid Empname Deptname Deptame Manager
S01 Manisha Finance Finance Arun
S02 Anisha Sales Sales Rohit
S03 Nisha Finance Production Kishan
 Example:
Emp ⋈ Dept  Empname, Manager (Emp ⋈ Dept)
Empid Empname Deptname Manager Empname Manager
S01 Manisha Finance Arun Manisha Arun
S02 Anisha Sales Rohit Anisha Rohit
S03 Nisha Finance Arun Nisha Arun

5
 3 – Relational Query Language

The Outer Join Operation

 In natural join some records are missing if we want that missing records than we have to
use outer join.
 The outer join operation can be divided into three different forms:
1. Left outer join ( )
2. Right outer join ( )
3. Full outer join ( )
 Consider following tables
College Hostel
Name Id Department Name Hostel_name Room_no
Manisha S01 Computer Anisha Kaveri hostel K01
Anisha S02 Computer Nisha Godavari hostel G07
Nisha S03 I.T. Isha Kaveri hostel K02

Left outer join ( )

 The left outer join returns all the tuples of the left relation even through there is no
matching tuple in the right relation.
 For such kind of tuples having no matching, the attributes of right relation will be
padded with null in resultant relation.
 Example : College Hostel
College Hostel
Name Id Department Hostel_name Room_no
Manisha S01 Computer Null Null
Anisha S02 Computer Kaveri hostel K01
Nisha S03 I.T. Godavari hostel G07

Right outer join ( )

 The right outer join returns all the tuples of the right relation even though there is no
matching tuple in the left relation.
 For such kind of tuples having no matching, the attributes of left relation will be padded
with null in resultant relation.
 Example : College Hostel

College Hostel
Name Id Department Hostel_name Room_no
Anisha S02 Computer Kaveri hostel K01
Nisha S03 I.T. Godavari hostel G07
Isha Null Null Kaveri Hostel K02

6
 3 – Relational Query Language
Full outer join ( )
 The full outer join returns all the tuples of both of the relations. It also pads null values
whenever required.
 Example : College Hostel

College Hostel
Name Id Department Hostel_name Room_no
Manisha S01 Computer Null Null
Anisha S02 Computer Kaveri hostel K01
Nisha S03 I.T. Godavari hostel G07
Isha Null Null Kaveri Hostel K02

Set Operators
 Set operators combine the results of two or more queries into a single result.
 Condition to perform set operation:
 Both relations (queries) must be union compatible :
 Relations R and S are union compatible, if
 Both queries should have same (equal) number of columns, and
 Corresponding attributes should have the same data type.
 Types of set operators:
1. Union
2. Intersect (Intersection)
3. Minus (Set Difference)

Union
 Operation: Selects tuples those are in either or both of the relations.
 Symbol : U (Union)
 Notation : Relation1 U Relation2
 Example :
R S RUS
A 1 A 1 A 1
B 2 C 2 B 2
D 3 D 3 C 2
F 4 E 4 D 3
E 5 F 4
E 5
E 4

7
 3 – Relational Query Language
 Consider following tables
Emp Cst
Id Name Id Name
1 Manisha 1 Manisha
2 Anisha 2 Anisha
3 Nisha 4 Isha
 Example:
∏Name (Emp) U ∏Name (Cst)
Name
Manisha
Anisha
Nisha
Isha

Intersection
 Operation: Selects tuples those are common in both relations.
 Symbol : ∩ (Intersection)
 Notation : Relation1 ∩ Relation2
 Example
R S R∩S
A 1 A 1 A 1
B 2 C 2 D 3
D 3 D 3
F 4 E 4
E 5

 Consider following tables

Emp Cst
Id Name Id Name
1 Manisha 1 Manisha
2 Anisha 2 Anisha
3 Nisha 4 Isha
 Example:
∏Name (Emp) ∩ ∏Name (Cst)
Name
Manisha
Anisha

8
 3 – Relational Query Language

Difference:-
 Operation: Selects tuples those are in first (left) relation but not in second (right)
relation.
 Symbol : — (Minus)
 Notation : Relation1 — Relation2
 Example :
R S R—S
A 1 A 1 B 2
B 2 C 2 F 4
D 3 D 3 E 5
F 4 E 4
E 5

 Consider following tables

Emp Cst
Id Name Id Name
1 Manisha 1 Manisha
2 Anisha 2 Anisha
3 Nisha 4 Isha
 Example:
∏Name (Emp) - ∏Name (Cst)
Name
Nisha

∏Name (Cst) - ∏Name (Emp)

Name
Isha

Rename:-
 Operation: It is used to rename a relation or attributes.
 Symbol: ρ (Rho)
 Notation: ρA(B) Rename relation B to A.
ρA(X1,X2….Xn)(B) Rename relation B to A and its attributes to X1, X2, …., Xn.

9
 3 – Relational Query Language
 Consider following table

Student
Rno Name Dept CPI
101 Ramesh CE 8
108 Mahesh EC 6
109 Amit CE 7
125 Chetan CI 8
138 Mukesh ME 7
128 Reeta EC 6
133 Anita CE 9

 Example: Find out highest CPI from student table.

∏CPI (Student) — ∏A.CPI (σ A.CPI<B.CPI (ρA (Student) X ρB (Student)))
 Output: The above query returns highest CPI.
Output of above query is as follows

CPI
9
Aggregate Function:-
 Operation: It takes a more than one value as input and returns a single value as output
(result).
 Symbol: G
 Notation: G function (attribute) (relation)
 Aggregate functions: Sum, Count, Max, Min, Avg.
 Consider following table

Student
Rno Name Dept CPI
101 Ramesh CE 8
108 Mahesh EC 6
109 Amit CE 7
125 Chetan CI 8
138 Mukesh ME 7
128 Reeta EC 6
133 Anita CE 9

 Example: Find out sum of all students CPI.

G sum (CPI) (Student)
Output: The above query returns sum of CPI.
Output of above query is as follows

10
 3 – Relational Query Language
sum
51

 Example: Find out max and min CPI.

G max (CPI), min (CPI) (Student)
Output: The above query returns sum of CPI.
Output of above query is as follows

max min
9 6

What is the difference between Open source and Commercial

DBMS.
Open source DBMS Commercial DBMS
DBMS, which is available in the market at free DBMS, which is available in the market at a
of cost. certain price.
The code of open source DBMS product can be The code of commercial DBMS product cannot
viewed, shared or modified by the community. be view, share or modify by the community.
There are chances of malfunctioning with code The security is high and code is not accessible
as source code is open. to unauthorized person.
Examples: MySQL, MongoDB, SQLite etc Examples: Microsoft SQL Server, IBM Db2 etc

Consider following schema and represent given statements in

relation algebra form.
* Branch(branch_name,branch_city)
* Account(branch_name, acc_no, balance)
* Depositor(customer_name, acc_no)
(i) Find out list of customer who have account at ‘abc’ branch.
∏customer_name (σbranch_name=“abc” (Depositor ⋈ Account))

(ii) Find out all customer who have an account in ‘Ahmedabad’ city and balance
is greater than 10,000.
∏customer_name (σ Branch.branch_city=“Ahmedabad” Λ σ Account.balance >10000 (Branch ⋈ Account ⋈ Depositor))

(iii) find out list of all branch name with their maximum balance.
∏branch_name , G max (balance) (Account)

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 4 –Relational Database Design

Define functional dependency. OR

Explain different types of FD with the help of example.
Functional Dependency
 Let R be a relation schema having n attributes A1, A2, A3,…, An.
 Let attributes X and Y are two subsets of attributes of relation R.
 If the values of the X component of a tuple uniquely (or functionally) determine the
values of the Y component, then, there is a functional dependency from X to Y.
 This is denoted by X → Y.
 It is referred as: Y is functionally dependent on the X, or X functionally determines Y.
 The abbreviation for functional dependency is FD or fd.
 The set of attributes X is called the left hand side of the FD, and Y is called the right hand
side.
 The left hand side of the FD is also referred as determinant whereas the right hand side
of the FD is referred as dependent.
Diagrammatic representation
R:
X Y

Example
 Consider the relation Account(ano, balance, bname).
 In this relation ano can determines balance and bname. So, there is a functional
dependency from ano to balance and bname.
 This can be denoted by ano → {balance, bname}.
Account:
ano balance bname

Types of Functional Dependencies

Full Dependency
 In a relation, the attribute B is fully functional dependent on A if B is functionally
dependent on A, but not on any proper subset of A.
 Eg. {Roll_No, Department_Name, Semester} →SPI
Partial Dependency
 In a relation, the attribute B is partial functional dependent on A if B is functionally
dependent on A as well as on any proper subset of A.
 If there is some attribute that can be removed from A and the still dependency holds.

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 4 –Relational Database Design
 Eg. {Enrollment_No, Department_Name} → SPI
Transitive Dependency
 In a relation, if attribute(s) A→B and B→C, then C is transitively depends on A via B
(provided that A is not functionally dependent on B or C).
 Eg. Staff_No → Branch_No and Branch_No → Branch_Address
Trivial FD:
 X→Y is trivial FDif Y is a subset of X
 Eg.{Roll_No, Department_Name} → Roll_No
Nontrivial FD
 X→Y is nontrivial FDif Y is not a subset of X
 Eg.. {Roll_No, Department_Name} → Student_Name

List and explain Armstrong's axioms (inference rules).

 Let A, B, and C is subsets of the attributes of the relation R.
Reflexivity
 If B is a subset of A then A → B
Augmentation
 If A → B then AC → BC
Transitivity
 If A → B and B → C then A → C
Pseudo Transitivity
If A → B and BC → D then AC → D
Self-determination
 A → A
Decomposition
 If A → BC then A → B and A → C
Union
 If A → B and A → C then A → BC
Composition
 If A → B and C → D then A,C → BD
What is closure of a set of FDs? How to find closure of a set of
FDs.
Closure of set of functional dependency (FDs)
 Given a set F set of functional dependencies, there are certain other functional
dependencies that are logically implied by F.
 E.g.: F = {A → B and B → C}, then we can infer that A → C
 The set of functional dependencies (FDs) that is logically implied by F is called the
closure of F.
 It is denoted by F+.
2
 4 –Relational Database Design

Example-1
Suppose a relation R is given with attributes A, B, C, G, H and I.
Also, a set of functional dependencies F is given with following FDs.
F = {A → B, A → C, CG → H, CG → I, B → H}
Find Closure of F.

We have Using rule Derived FD

A → B and B → H Transitivity rule A→H
CG → H and CG → I Union rule CG → HI
A → C and CG → I Pseudo-transitivity rule AG → I
A → C and CG → H Pseudo-transitivity rule AG → H

 F+ = { A → H, CG → HI, AG → I, AG → H }

Example-2
Compute the closure of the following set F of functional dependencies for relational schema
R = (A, B, C, D, E, F ):
F = (A → B, A → C, CD → E, CD → F, B → E).

We have Using rule Derived FD

A → B and A → C Union rule A → BC
CD → E and CD → F Union rule CD → EF
A → B and B → E Transitivity rule A→E
A → C and CD → E Pseudo- Transitivity rule AD → E
A → C and CD → F Pseudo- Transitivity rule AD → F

 F+ = { A → BC, CD → EF, A → E, AD → E, AD → F }

Example-3
Compute the closure of the following set F of functional dependencies for relational schema
R = (A, B, C, D, E ):
F = (AB → C, D → AC, D → E).

We have Using rule Derived FD

D → AC Decomposition rule D → A and D → C
D → AC and D → E Union rule D → ACE

F+ = { D → A, D → C, D → ACE }

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 4 –Relational Database Design

What is closure of a set of attributes? Explain how (Write an

algorithm) to find closure of a set of attributes.
Closure of set of attributes
 Given a set of attributes α, the closure of α under F is the set of attributes that are
functionally determined by α under F.
 It is denoted by α+.
Algorithm
 Algorithm to compute α+, the closure of a under F
result = α;
while (changes to result) do
for each    in F do
begin
if   result then result = result  
end
Example
Consider the following relation schema Depositer_Account (cid, ano, acess_date, balance, bname).
For this relation, a set of functional dependencies F can be given as
F = { {cid, ano} → access_date and ano → {balance, bname} }
Find out the closure of {cid, ano} and ano.
Solution
 Find out { cid, ano }+
Step-1 :{ cid, ano }+ = { cid, ano }
Step-2 :{ cid, ano }+ = { cid, ano, acess_date } # {cid, ano}  X+
{ cid, ano }+ = { cid, ano, acess_date, balance, bname } # ano  X+
Step-3 :{ cid, ano }+ = { cid, ano, acess_date, balance, bname }
So { cid, ano }+ = { cid, ano, acess_date, balance, bname }
 Find out ano+
Step-1 :ano+ = ano
Step-2 :ano+ = { ano, balance, bname } # ano  X+
Step-3 :ano+ = { ano, balance, bname }
So ano+ = { ano, balance, bname }

Given relation R with attributes A,B, C,D,E,F and set of FDs as

A → BC, E → CF, B → E and CD → EF.
Find out closure {A, B}+ of the set of attributes.
Steps to find the closure {A, B}+
Step-1: result = AB

4
 4 –Relational Database Design
Step-2: First loop
result = ABC # for A → BC, A  result so result=result  BC
result = ABC # for E→ CF, E  result so result=result
result = ABCE # for B→ E, B  result so result=result  E
result = ABCE # for CD→ EF, CD  result so result=result

result before step2 is AB and after step 2 is ABCE which is different so repeat same as
step 2.
Step-3: Second loop
result = ABCE # for A → BC, A  result so result=result  BC
result = ABCEF # for E→ CF, E  result so result=result  CF
result = ABCEF # for B→ E, B  result so result=result  E
result = ABCEF # for CD→ EF, CD  result so result=result

result before step3 is ABCE and after step 3 is ABCEF which is different so repeat same
as step 3.
Step-4: Third loop
result = ABCEF # for A → BC, A  result so result=result  BC
result = ABCEF # for E→ CF, E  result so result=result  CF
result = ABCEF # for B→ E, B  result so result=result  E
result = ABCEF # for CD→EF, CD result so result=result

result before step4 is ABCEF and after step 3 is ABCEF which is same so stop.
So Closure of {A, B}+ is {A, B, C, E, F}.

What is canonical cover? Consider following set F of functional

dependencies on schema R(A,B,C) and compute canonical cover
for F.
A -> BC, B -> C, A -> B and AB -> C
Canonical cover
 A canonical cover of F is a minimal set of functional dependencies equivalent to F,
having no redundant dependencies or redundant parts of dependencies.
 It is denoted by Fc.
A canonical cover for F is a set of dependencies Fc such that:
 A canonical cover for F is a set of dependencies Fc such that
1) F logically implies all dependencies in Fc, and
2) Fc logically implies all dependencies in F, and
3) No functional dependency in Fc contains an extraneous attribute, and
4) Each left side of functional dependency in Fc is unique.

5
 4 –Relational Database Design
Algorithm to find Canonical cover:
 To compute a canonical cover for F:
repeat
Step 1: Use the union rule to replace any dependencies in F
1 1 and 1 2 with 1 1 2

Step 2 : Find a functional dependency  with an

extraneous attribute either in  or in 
If an extraneous attribute is found, delete it from 
until F does not change
 Note: Union rule may become applicable after some extraneous attributes have been
deleted, so it has to be re-applied

Steps to find Canonical Cover:

 Given : R = (A, B, C) and F = {A → BC, B → C, A → B, AB → C}
Step 1: Combine A → BC and A → B into A → BC
Set is now {A → BC, B → C, AB → C}
Step 2: A is extraneous in AB → C
Check if the result of deleting A from AB → C is implied by the other
dependencies
Yes: in fact, B → C is already present.
Set is now {A → BC, B → C}
Step 3: C is extraneous in A → BC
Check if A → C is logically implied by A → B and the other dependencies
Yes: using transitivity on A → B and B → C.
Set is now {A → B and B → C}
Can use attribute closure of A in more complex cases
 The canonical cover is: A → B, B → C

What is decomposition? Explain different types of

decomposition.
Decomposition
 Decomposition is the process of breaking down given relation into two or more
relations.
 Here, relation R is replaced by two or more relations in such a way that -
1. Each new relation contains a subset of the attributes of R, and
2. Together, they all include all tuples and attributes of R.
 Relational database design process starts with a universal relation schema R = {A1, A2,
A3,..., An), which includes all the attributes of the database. The universal relation states
that every attribute name is unique.

6
 4 –Relational Database Design
 Using functional dependencies, this universal relation schema is decomposed into a set
of relation schemas D = {R1, R2, R3,…,Rm}.
 Now, D becomes the relational database schema and D is referred as decomposition of
R.
 Generally, decomposition is used to eliminate the pitfalls of the poor database design
during normalization process.
 For example, consider the relation Account_Branch given in figure:

Account_Branch
Ano Balance Bname Baddress
A01 5000 Vvn Mota bazaar, VVNagar
A02 6000 Ksad Chhota bazaar, Karamsad
A03 7000 Anand Nana bazaar, Anand
A04 8000 Ksad Chhota bazaar, Karamsad
A05 6000 Vvn Mota bazaar, VVNagar
 This relation can be divided with two different relations
1. Account (Ano, Balance, Bname)
2. Branch (Bname, Baddress)
 These two relations are shown in below figure

Account Branch
Ano Balance Bname Bname Baddress
A01 5000 Vvn Vvn Mota bazaar, VVNagar
A02 6000 Ksad Ksad Chhota bazaar, Karamsad
A03 7000 Anand Anand Nana Bazar, Anand
A04 8000 Ksad
A05 6000 Vvn

 A decomposition of relation can be either lossy decomposition or lossless

decomposition.
 There are two types of decomposition
1. lossy decomposition
2. lossless decomposition (non-loss decomposition)
Lossy Decomposition
 The decomposition of relation R into R1 and R2 is lossy when the join of R1 and R2 does
not yield the same relation as in R.
 This is also referred as lossy-join decomposition.
 The disadvantage of such kind of decomposition is that some information is lost during
retrieval of original relation. And so, such kind of decomposition is referred as lossy
decomposition.
 From practical point of view, decomposition should not be lossy decomposition.

7
 4 –Relational Database Design
Example
 A figure shows a relation Account. This relation is decomposed into two relations
Acc_Bal and Bal_Branch.
 Now, when these two relations are joined on the common attributeBalance, the
resultant relation will look like Acct_Joined. This Acct_Joined relation contains rows in
addition to those in original relation Account.
 Here, it is not possible to specify that in which branch account A01 or A02 belongs.
 So, information has been lost by this decomposition and then join operation.

Acct_Bal
Ano Balance
Acct_Joined
Account A01 5000
Ano Balance Bname
Ano Balance Bname A02 5000
A01 5000 Vvn
A01 5000 Vvn A01 5000 Ksad
A02 5000 Ksad Bal_Branch
A02 5000 Vvn
Balance Bname
A02 5000 Ksad
5000 Vvn
5000 Ksad

Not same

 In other words, decomposition is lossy if decompose into R1 and R2 and again combine
(join) R1 and R2 we cannot get original table as R1, over X, where R is an original
relation, R1 and R2 are decomposed relations, and X is a common attribute between
these two relations.

Lossless (Non-loss) Decomposition

 The decomposition of relation R into R1 and R2 is lossless when the join of R1 and R2
produces the same relation as in R.
 This is also referred as a non-additive (non-loss) decomposition.
 All decompositions must be lossless.
Example
 Again, the same relation Account is decomposed into two relations Acct_Bal and
Acct_Branch.
 Now, when these two relations are joined on the common column Ano, the resultant
relation will look like Acc_Joined relation. This relation is exactly same as that of original
relation Account.
 In other words, all the information of original relation is preserved here.
 In lossless decomposition, no any fake tuples are generated when a natural join is
applied to the relations in the decomposition.

8
 4 –Relational Database Design
 In other words, decomposition is lossy if R = join of R1 and R2, over X, where R is an
original relation, R1 an R2 are decomposed relations, and x is a common attribute
between these two relations.
Acct_Bal
Ano Balance
Account A01 5000 Acct_Joined
Ano Balance Bname A02 5000 Ano Balance Bname
A01 5000 Vvn A01 5000 Vvn
A02 5000 Ksad Acct_Branch A02 5000 Ksad
Ano Bname
A01 Vvn
A02 Ksad

Same

What is an anomaly in database design? How it can be solved.

Anomaly in database design:
 Anomalies are problems that can occur in poorly planned, un-normalized database
where all the data are stored in one table.
 There are three types of anomalies that can arise in the database because of
redundancy are
 Insert anomalies
 Delete anomalies
 Update / Modification anomalies
 Consider a relation emp_dept (E#, Ename, Address, D#, Dname, Dmgr#) with E# as a
primary key.
Insert anomaly:
 Let us assume that a new department has been started by the organization but initially
there is no employee appointed for that department, then the tuple for this department
cannot be inserted in to this table as the E# will have NULL value, which is not allowed
because E# is primary key.
 This kind of problem in the relation where some tuple cannot be inserted is known as
insert anomaly.
Delete anomaly:
 Now consider there is only one employee in some department and that employee
leaves the organization, then the tuple of that employee has to be deleted from the
table, but in addition to that information about the department also will be deleted.
 This kind of problem in the relation where deletion of some tuples can lead to loss of
some other data not intended to be removed is known as delete anomaly.

9
 4 –Relational Database Design
Update / Modification anomaly:
 Suppose the manager of a department has changed, this requires that the Dmgr# in all
the tuples corresponding to that department must be changed to reflect the new status.
If we fail to update all the tuples of given department, then two different records of
employee working in the same department might show different Dmgr# lead to
inconsistency in the database.
 This kind of problem is known as update or modification anomaly.
How anomalies in database design can be solved:
 Such type of anomalies in database design can be solved by using normalization.

What is normalization? What is the need of it? OR

What is normalization? Why normalization process is needed?
Normalization
 Database normalization is the process of removing redundant data from your tables to
improve storage efficiency, data integrity, and scalability.
 In the relational model, methods exist for quantifying how efficient a database is. These
classifications are called normal forms (or NF), and there are algorithms for converting a
given database between them.
 Normalization generally involves splitting existing tables into multiple ones, which must
be re-joined or linked each time a query is issued.
Need of Normalization
 Eliminates redundant data
 Reduces chances of data errors
 Reduces disk space
 Improve data integrity, scalability and data consistency.

Explain different types of normal forms with example. OR

Explain 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF, 4NF and 5NF with example.
1NF
 A relation R is in first normal form (1NF) if and only if all underlying domains contain
atomic values only. OR
 A relation R is in first normal form (1NF) if and only if it does not contain any composite
or multi valued attributes or their combinations.
Example
Cid Name Address TypeofAccountHold
Society City
C01 Riya SaralSoc, Aand Saving, Current, Salary
C02 Jiya Birla Gruh, Rajkot Saving, Current

10
 4 –Relational Database Design

 Above relation has four attributes Cid, Name, Address, Contact_no. Here address is
composite attribute which is further divided in to sub attributes as Society and City.
Another attribute TypeofAccountHold is multi valued attribute which can store more
than one values. So above relation is not in 1NF.
Problem
 Suppose we want to find all customers for some particular city then it is difficult to
retrieve. Reason is city name is combined with society name and stored whole as
address.
Solution
 Divide composite attributes into number of sub- attribute and insert value in proper sub
attribute. AND
 Split the table into two tables in such a way that
o first table contains all attributes except multi-valued attribute and
o other table contains multi-valued attribute and
o insert primary key of first table in second table as a foreign key.
 So above table can be created as follows.

Cid Name Society City PhID Cid Contact_no

C01 Riya SaralSoc Aand P01 C01 9879898798
C02 Jiya Birla Gruh Rajkot P02 C01 9898052340
P03 C02 9825098254

2NF
 A relation R is in second normal form (2NF) if and only if it is in 1NF and every non-key
attribute is fully dependent on the primary key. OR
 A relation R is in second normal form (2NF) if and only if it is in 1NF and no any non-key
attribute is partially dependent on the primary key.
Example
cid ano acess_date balance bname

 Above relation has five attributes cid, ano, acess_date, balance, bname and two FDS
FD1 {cid,ano}{acess_date,balance,bname} and
FD2 ano{balance,bname}
 We have cid and ano as primary key. As per FD2 balace and bname are only depend on
ano not cid. In above table balance and bname are not fully dependent on primary key
but these attributes are partial dependent on primary key. So above relation is not in
2NF.

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 4 –Relational Database Design
Problem
 For example in case of joint account multiple customers have common accounts. If
some account says ‘A02’ is jointly by two customers says ‘C02’ and ‘C04’ then data
values for attributes balance and bname will be duplicated in two different tuples of
customers ‘C02’ and ‘C04’.
Solution
 Decompose relation in such a way that resultant relation does not have any partial FD.
 For this purpose remove partial dependent attribute that violets 2NF from relation.
Place them in separate new relation along with the prime attribute on which they are
full dependent.
 The primary key of new relation will be the attribute on which it if fully dependent.
 Keep other attribute same as in that table with same primary key.
 So above table can be decomposed as per following.

ano balance bname

cid ano acess_date

3NF
 A relation R is in third normal form (3NF) if and only if it is in 2NF and every non-key
attribute is non-transitively dependent on the primary key.
 An attribute C is transitively dependent on attribute A if there exist an attribute B such
that: A  B and B  C.
Example
ano balance bname baddress

 Above relation has four attributes ano, balance, bname, baddress and two FDS
FD1 ano{balance, bname, baddress} and
FD2 bnamebaddress
 So from FD1 and FD2 and using transitivity rule we get anobaddress.
 So there is transitively dependency from ano to baddress using bname in which
baddress is non-prime attribute.
 So there is a non-prime attribute baddress which is transitively dependent on primary
key ano.
 So above relation is not in 3NF.

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 4 –Relational Database Design
Problem
 Transitively dependency results in data redundancy.
 In this relation branch address will be stored repeatedly from each account of same
branch which occupy more space.
Solution
 Decompose relation in such a way that resultant relation does not have any non-prime
attribute that are transitively dependent on primary key.
 For this purpose remove transitively dependent attribute that violets 3NF from relation.
Place them in separate new relation along with the non-prime attribute due to which
transitive dependency occurred. The primary key of new relation will be this non-prime
attribute.
 Keep other attributes same as in that table with same primary key.
 So above table can be decomposed as per following.

ano balance bname

bname baddress

BCNF
 A relation R is in BCNF if and only if it is in 3NF and no any prime attribute is transitively
dependent on the primary key. OR
 A relation R is in BCNF if and only if it is in 3NF and for every functional dependency X → 
Y, X should be the super key of the table OR
 A relation R is in BCNF if and only if it is in 3NF and for every functional dependency X → Y, X
should be the primary key of the table.
 An attribute C is transitively dependent on attribute A if there exist an attribute B such
that AB and BC.
Example
Student_Project
Student Language Guide
Mita JAVA Patel
Nita VB Shah
Sita JAVA Jadeja
Gita VB Dave
Rita VB Shah
Nita JAVA Patel
Mita VB Dave
Rita JAVA Jadeja

13
 4 –Relational Database Design
student language guide

 Above relation has five attributes cid, ano, acess_date, balance, bname and two FDS
FD1 {student,language}guide and
FD2 guidelanguage
 So from FD1 and FD2 and using transitivity rule we get studentlanguage
 So there is transitively dependency from student to language in which language is prime
attribute.
 So there is on prime attribute language which is transitively dependent on primary key
student.
 So above relation is not in BCNF.
Problem
 Transitively dependency results in data redundancy.
 In this relation one student have more than one project with different guide then
records will be stored repeatedly from each student and language and guides
combination which occupies more space.
Solution
 Decompose relation in such a way that resultant relation does not have any prime
attribute transitively dependent on primary key.
 For this purpose remove transitively dependent prime attribute that violets BCNF from
relation. Place them in separate new relation along with the non-prime attribute due to
which transitive dependency occurred. The primary key of new relation will be this non-
prime attribute.
 So above table can be decomposed as per following.

Student Guide Guide Language

Mita Patel Patel JAVA
Nita Shah Shah VB
Sita Jadeja Jadeja JAVA
Gita Dave Dave VB
Rita Shah
Nita Patel
Mita Dave
Rita Jadeja

4NF
 A table is in the 4NF if it is in BCNF and has no non multivalued dependencies.

14
 4 –Relational Database Design
Example
 The multi-valued dependency X Y holds in a relation R if for a dependency X → Y, if for
a single value of X, multiple (more than one) values of Y exists.
 Suppose a student can have more than one subject and more than one activity.

Student_Info
Student_Id Subject Activity
100 Music Swimming
100 Accounting Swimming
100 Music Tennis
100 Accounting Tennis
150 Math Jogging
 Note that all three attributes make up the Primary Key.
 Note that Student_Id can be associated with many subject as well as many activities
(multi-valued dependency).
 Suppose student 100 signs up for skiing. Then we would insert (100, Music, Skiing). This
row implies that student 100 skies as Music subject but not as an accounting subject, so
in order to keep the data consistent we must add one more row (100, Accounting,
Skiing). This is an insertion anomaly.
 Suppose we have a relation R(A) with a multivalued dependency X Y. The MVD can
be removed by decomposing R into R1(R - Y) and R2(X U Y).
 Here are the tables Normalized

Student_Id Subject StudentId Activity

100 Music 100 Swimming
100 Accounting 100 Tennis
150 Math 150 Jogging
5NF
 A table is in the 5NF if it is in 4NF and if for all Join dependency (JD) of (R1, R2, R3, ...,Rm)
in R, every Ri is a superkey for R. OR
 A table is in the 5NF if it is in 4NF and if it cannot have a lossless decomposition in to any
number of smaller tables (relations).
 It is also known as Project-join normal form (PJ/NF).
Example
 We have a table that contains students subectwise result as per follows:

15
 4 –Relational Database Design

ResultID RollNo StudentName SubjectName Result

1 101 Raj DBMS Pass
2 101 Raj DS Pass
3 101 Raj DE Pass
4 102 Meet DBMS Pass
5 102 Meet DS Fail
6 102 Meet DE Pass
7 103 Suresh DBMS Fail
8 103 Suresh DS Pass
9 103 Suresh DE Fail
 Above table is not in 5NF because we can decompose into sub tables.
 If we decompose above table into multiple table as per follows:

ResultID RollNo SubjectID Result

1 101 1 Pass
2 101 2 Pass
3 101 3 Pass
4 102 1 Pass
5 102 2 Fail
6 102 3 Pass
7 103 1 Fail
8 103 2 Pass
9 103 3 Fail

RollNo StudentName
101 Raj
102 Meet
103 Suresh

SubjectID SubjectName
1 DBMS
2 DS
3 DE

 We cannot decomposition any of above three tables into the sub tables so above three
tables are in 5NF.

16
 4 –Relational Database Design

Normalize (decompose) following relation into lower to higher

normal form. (From 1NF to 4 NF) OR
PLANT MANAGER MACHINE SUPPLIER_NAME SUPPLIER_CITY
Lathe Jay industry Ahmedabad
Plant-A Ravi Boiler Abb aplliance Surat
Cutter Raj machinery Vadodara
Boiler Daksh industry Rajkot
Plant-B Meena CNC Jay industry Ahmedabad
Explain with suitable example, the process of normalization
converting from 1NF to 3NF.
1 Normal Form (1NF)
PLANT PLANT MANAGER MANAGER MACHINE MACHINE SUPPLIER SUPPLIER SUPPLIER
_ID _NAME _ID _NAME _ID _NAME _ID _NAME _CITY
P1 Plant-A E1 Ravi M1 Lathe S1 Jay industry Ahmedabad
P1 Plant-A E1 Ravi M2 Boiler S2 Abb aplliance Surat
P2 Plant-B E2 Meena M3 Cutter S3 Raj machinery Vadodara
P2 Plant-B E2 Meena M2 Boiler S4 Daksh industry Rajkot
P2 Plant-B E2 Meena M4 CNC S1 Jay industry Ahmedabad
2 Normal Form (2NF)
Table-1
PLANT_ID PLANT_NAME MANAGER_ID MANAGER_NAME
P1 Plant-A E1 Ravi
P2 Plant-B E2 Meena
Table-2
PLANT_ID MACHINE_ID MACHINE_NAME
P1 M1 Lathe
P1 M2 Boiler
P2 M3 Cutter
P2 M2 Boiler
P2 M4 CNC
Table-3
MANAGER_ID SUPPLIER_ID SUPPLIER_NAME SUPPLIER_CITY
E1 S1 Jay industry Ahmedabad
E1 S2 Abb aplliance Surat
E2 S3 Raj machinery Vadodara
E2 S4 Daksh industry Rajkot
E2 S1 Jay industry Ahmedabad

17
 4 –Relational Database Design
3 Normal Form or BCNF (3NF or BCNF)
Table-1
PLANT_ID PLANT_NAME
P1 Plant-A
P2 Plant-B
Table-2
MANAGER_ID MANAGER_NAME
E1 Ravi
E2 Meena
Table-3
PLANT_ID MANAGER_ID
P1 E1
P2 E2
Table-4
MACHINE_ID MANAGER_NAME
M1 Lathe
M2 Boiler
M3 Cutter
M4 CNC
Table-5
PLANT_ID MACHINE_ID
P1 M1
P1 M2
P2 M3
P2 M2
P2 M4
Table-6
SUPPLIER_ID SUPPLIER_NAME SUPPLIER_CITY
S1 Jay industry Ahmedabad
S2 Abb aplliance Surat
S3 Raj machinery Vadodara
S4 Daksh industry Rajkot
Table-7
MANAGER_ID SUPPLIER_ID
E1 S1
E1 S2
E2 S3
E2 S4
E2 S1

18
 4 –Relational Database Design
4 Normal Form (4NF)
Table-1
PLANT_ID PLANT_NAME
P1 Plant-A
P2 Plant-B
Table-2
MANAGER_ID MANAGER_NAME
E1 Ravi
E2 Meena
Table-3
MACHINE_ID MACHINE_NAME
M1 Lathe
M2 Boiler
M3 Cutter
M4 CNC
Table-4
PLANT_MACHINE_ID PLANT_ID MACHINE_ID
PM1 P1 M1
PM2 P1 M2
PM3 P2 M3
PM4 P2 M2
PM5 P2 M4
Table-5
PLANT_MACHINE_ID MANAGER_ID
PM1 E1
PM2 E1
PM3 E2
PM4 E2
PM5 E2
Table-6
SUPPLIER_ID SUPPLIER_NAME SUPPLIER_CITY
S1 Jay industry Ahmedabad
S2 Abb aplliance Surat
S3 Raj machinery Vadodara
S4 Daksh industry Rajkot

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 4 –Relational Database Design
Table-7
MANAGER_ID SUPPLIER_ID
E1 S1
E1 S2
E2 S3
E2 S4
E2 S1

How to find key?

 Conditions to find key
1. If an attribute will not occurs on any side of any FD, then it is in every key.
2. If an attribute occurs on the left-hand side of an FD, but never occurs on the
right-hand side, then it is in every key.
3. If an attribute occurs on the right-hand side of an FD, but never occurs on the
left-hand side, then it is never in a key.
4. If an attribute occurs on both the sides of an FD, then one cannot say anything
about the attribute.

Example to find key

Let a relation R with attributes ABCD with FDs C → A, B → C.
Find keys for relation R.
1. Attribute not occur on any side of FDs (D)
2. Attribute occurs on only left-hand side of an FDs (B)
3. Attribute occurs on only right-hand side of an FDs (A)
4. Attribute occurs on both the sides of an FDs (C)
 The core is BD. B determines C which determines A, so BD is a key. Therefore it is the
only key.

Consider a relation R with five attribute A, B, C, D and E having

following dependencies:
A → B, BC → E and ED → A
a) List all keys for R.
b) In which normal form table is, justify your answer. OR
Consider table R(A,B,C,D,E) with FDs as A → B, BC → E and ED →
A. The table is in which normal form? Justify your answer.
Keys for R are:
{ACD} {BCD} {CDE}

20
 4 –Relational Database Design
 Above relation R is in 3NF because there is no non-prime attributes. That is, every
column (attribute) is a part of Super Key, so the right hand side of every FD must be a
part of super key. But it’s not in BCNF (Or 4NF or 5NF).

In the BCNF decomposition algorithm, suppose you use a

functional dependency α → β to decompose a relation
schema r ( α , β , γ ) into r1 (α , β ) and r2 ( α , γ ).
1. What primary and foreign-key constraint do you
expect to hold on the decomposed relations?
Ans. α should be a primary key for r1, and α should be the foreign key from r2,
referencing r1.
2. Give an example of an inconsistency that can arise
due to an erroneous update, if the foreign-key
constraint were not enforced on the decomposed
relations above.
Ans. If the foreign key constraint is not enforced, then a deletion of a tuple from r1
would not have a corresponding deletion from the referencing tuples in r2.
Instead of deleting a tuple from r2, this would amount to simply setting the
value of α to null in some tuples
3. When a relation is decomposed into 3NF, what
primary and foreign key dependencies would you
expect will hold on the decomposed schema?
Ans. For every schema ri(αβ) added to the schema because of a rule α → β, α
should be made the primary key. Also, a candidate key γ for the original relation
is located in some newly created relation rk, and is a primary key for that
relation.
Foreign key constraints are created as follows: for each relation ri created above,
if the primary key attributes of ri also occur in any other relation rj , then a
foreign key constraint is created from those attributes in rj , referencing (the
primary key of) ri .

A college maintains details of its lecturers' subject area skills.

These details comprise: Lecturer Number, Lecturer Name,
Lecturer Grade, Department Code, Department Name, Subject

21
 4 –Relational Database Design

Code, Subject Name and Subject Level. Assume that each

lecturer may teach many subjects but may not belong to more
than one department. Subject Code, Subject Name and Subject
Level are repeating fields. Normalize this data to Third
Normal Form.
UNF
 Lecturer Number, Lecturer Name, Lecturer Grade, Department Code, Department
Name, Subject Code, Subject Name, Subject Level
1NF
 Lecturer Number, Lecturer Name, Lecturer Grade, Department Code, Department Name
 Lecturer Number, Subject Code, Subject Name, Subject Level
2NF
 Lecturer Number, Lecturer Name, Lecturer Grade, Department Code, Department Name
 Lecturer Number, Subject Code
 Subject Code, Subject Name, Subject Level
3NF
 Lecturer Number, Lecturer Name, Lecturer Grade, Department Code
 Department Code, Department Name
 Lecturer Number, Subject Code
 Subject Code, Subject Name, Subject Level

A software contract and consultancy firm maintains details of

all the various projects in which its employees are currently
involved. These details comprise: Employee Number, Employee
Name, Date of Birth, Department Code, Department Name,
Project Code, Project Description and Project Supervisor
Assume the following:
1. Each employee number is unique.
2. Each department has a single department code.
3. Each project has a single code and supervisor.
4. Each employee may work on one or more projects.
5. Employee names need not necessarily be unique.
6. Project Code, Project Description and Project
Supervisor are repeating fields.

22
 4 –Relational Database Design

Normalise this data to Third Normal Form.

UNF
 Employee Number, Employee Name, Date of Birth, Department Code, Department
Name, Project Code, Project Description, Project Supervisor

1NF
 Employee Number, Employee Name, Date of Birth, Department Code, Department
Name
 Employee Number, Project Code, Project Description, Project Supervisor

2NF
 Employee Number, Employee Name, Date of Birth, Department Code, Department
Name
 Employee Number, Project Code,
 Project Code, Project Description, Project Supervisor

3NF
 Employee Number, Employee Name, Date of Birth, Department Code
 Department Code, Department Name
 Employee Number, Project Code
 Project Code, Project Description, Project Supervisor

23
 5 – Query Processing & Optimization

Explain query processing.

Query processing
 It is a process of transforming a high level query (such as SQL) in to low level language.
 Query processing refers to the range of activities involved in extracting data from a
database.

Query in high level language

Scanning, parsing and validating

Intermediate form of query

Query optimizer

Execution plan
Query code generator

Code to execute the query

Runtime database processor

Result of query

 A query expressed in a high level query language such as SQL must be
 Scanned
 Parsed
 Validated
 The scanner identifies the language tokens such as SQL keywords, attribute names and
relation names in the text of the query.
 Parser checks the query syntax to determine whether it is formulated according to the
syntax rules of the query language.
 The query must also be validated by checking that all attributes and relation names are
valid and semantically meaningful names in the schema of the particular database being
queried.
 A query typically has many possible execution strategies and the process of choosing a
suitable one for processing a query is known as query optimization.
 The query optimizer module has the task of producing an execution plan and code
generator generates the code to execute that plan.
 The runtime database processor has the task of running the query code whether in
compiled or interpreted mode, to produce the query result.

1
 5 – Query Processing & Optimization
 If a runtime error results, an error message is generated by the runtime database
processor.
 Query code generator will generate code for query.
 Runtime database processor will select optimal plan and execute query and gives result.
Explain different search algorithm for selection operation. OR
Explain linear search and binary search algorithm for selection
operation.
 There are two scan algorithms to implement the selection operation:
1. Linear search
2. Binary search
Linear search
 In a linear search, the systems scans each file block and tests all records to see whether
they satisfy the selection condition.
 For a selection on a key attribute, the system can terminate the scan if the requires
record is found, without looking at the other records of the relation.
 The cost of linear search in terms of number of I/O operations is br where br is the
number of blocks in file.
 Selection on key attribute has an average cost of br/2.
 It may be a slower algorithm than any another algorithm.
 This algorithm can be applied to any file regardless of the ordering of file or the
availability of indices or the nature of selection operation.
Binary search
 If the file is ordered on attribute and the selection condition is an equality comparison
on the attribute, we can use a binary search to locate the records that satisfy the
condition.
 The number of blocks that need to be examined to find a block containing the required
record is log(br).
 If the selection is on non-key attribute more than one block may contain required
records and the cost of reading the extra blocks has to be added to the cost estimate.
Explain various steps involved in query evaluation. OR
Explain query evaluation process. OR
Explain evaluation expression process in query optimization.
 There are two methods for the evaluation of expression
1. Materialization
2. Pipelining
Materialization
 In this method we start from bottom of the tree and each expression is evaluated one
by one in bottom to top order. The result of each expression is materialized (stored) in
temporary relation (table) for later use.

2
 5 – Query Processing & Optimization

Πcustomer-name (balalce<2500 (account) customer)

∏customer-name

balalce<2500
customer

account

 In our example, there is only one such operation, selection operation on account.
 The inputs to the lowest level operation are relations in the database.
 We execute these operations and we store the results in temporary relations.
 We can use these temporary relations to execute the operation at the next level up in
the tree, where the inputs now are either temporary relations or relations stored in the
database.
 In our example the inputs to join are the customer relation and the temporary relation
created by the selection on account.
 The join can now be evaluated, creating another temporary relation.
 By repeating the process, we will finally evaluate the operation at the root of the tree,
giving the final result of the expression.
 In our example, we get the final result by executing the projection operation at the root
of the tree, using as input the temporary relation created by the join. Evaluation just
described is called materialized evaluation, since the results of each intermediate
operation are created and then are used for evaluation of the next level operations.
 The cost of a materialized evaluation is not simply the sum of the costs of the operations
involved. To compute the cost of evaluating an expression is to add the cost of all the
operation as well as the cost of writing intermediate results to disk.
 The disadvantage of this method is that it will create temporary relation (table) and that
relation is stored on disk which consumes space on disk.
 It evaluates one operation at a time, starting at the lowest level.
Pipelining
 We can reduce the number of temporary files that are produced by combining several
relations operations into pipeline operations, in which the results of one operation are
passed along to the next operation in the pipeline. Combining operations into a pipeline
eliminates the cost reading and writing temporary relations.
 In this method several expression are evaluated simultaneously in pipeline by using the
result of one operation passed to next without storing it in a temporary relation.

3
 5 – Query Processing & Optimization

Πcustomer-name (balalce<2500 (account) customer)

 First it will compute records having balance less than 2500 and then pass this result
directly to project without storing that result in any temporary relation (table). And then
by using this result it will compute the projections on customer-name.
 It is much cheaper than materialization because in this method no need to store a
temporary relation to disk.
 Pipelining is not used in sort, hash joins.
Explain the method of query optimization. OR
Explain query optimization process.
Query optimization
 It is a process of selecting the most efficient query evaluation plan from the available
possible plans for processing a given query.
 There are two phases of query optimization
1. Optimization which occur at the relational algebra level. In this phase the system
will find an expression that is equivalent to the given expression but more
efficient to execute.
2. Selecting a detailed strategy for processing the query such as choosing algorithm
and specific indices etc.
 For example consider the relational algebra expression for the query
 “Find the name of all customers who have account at any branch located in Pune”
Πcustomer-name (  branch-city=”pune” (branch (account depositor)))
 The above query may be written as below
Πcustomer-name (  branch-city=”pune” (branch) (account depositor))
 In the second algebra expression the size of intermediate result is smaller than first
because it will only contain the records of pune branch city. Final result of both the
expression is same.
∏customer-name ∏customer-name
σbranch-city=’pune’

σbranch-city=’pune’

branch branch account depositor

account depositor

4
 5 – Query Processing & Optimization
 To choose from the different query evaluation plan, the optimizer has to estimate the
cost of each evaluation plan.
 Optimizer use statically information about the relation such as relation size and index
depth to make a good estimate of the cost of a plan.
Explain transformation of relational expression to equivalent
relational expression.
 Two relational algebra expressions are said to be equivalent (same) if on every legal
database operation, the two expressions gives the same set of tuples (records).
Sequence of records may be different but no of records must be same.
Equivalence rules
 This rule says that expressions of two forms are same.
 We can replace an expression of first form by an expression of the second form.
 The optimizer uses equivalence rule to transform expression into other logically same
expression.
 We use
θ1, θ2, θ3 and so on to denote condition
L1, L2, L3 and so on to denote list of attributes (columns)
E1, E2, E3 and so on to denote relational algebra expression.
Rules 1
 Combined selection operation can be divided into sequence of individual selections. This 
transformation is called cascade of σ.
σθ1Λθ2 (E)=σθ1(θ2 (E))
Rules 2
 Selection operations are commutative.
σθ1(θ2 (E))=σθ2(θ1 (E))
Rules 3
 If more than one projection operation is used in expression then only the outer
projection operation is required. So skip all the other inner projection operation. 
∏L1 (∏L2 (… (∏Ln (E))…)) = ∏L1 (E)
Rules 4
 Selection operation can be joined with Cartesian product and theta join. 
σθ (E1 E2) = E1 θ E2
σθ1 (E1 θ2 E2) = E1 θ1Λθ2 E2
Rules 5
 Theta operations are commutative.
E1 θ2 E2 = E2 θ2 E1
Rules 6
 Natural join operations are associative.
(E1 E2) E3 = E1 (E2 E3)
 Theta join operations are associative.

5
 5 – Query Processing & Optimization
(E1 θ1E2) θ2Λθ3E3 = E1 θ1Λθ3 (E2 θ2E3)
Rules 7
 The selection operation distribute over theta join operation under the following
condition
 It distribute when all the attributes in the selection condition θ0 involves only
the attributes of the one of the expression (says E1) being joined.
σθ0 (E1 E2) = (σθ0 (E1)) θ E2
 It distributes when the selection condition θ1involves only the attributes of E1
and θ2 involves only the attributes of E2.
 σθ1Λθ2 (E1 θ E2) = (σθ1(E1) θ (σθ2 (E2)))
Explain the purpose of sorting with example with reference to
query optimization.
Purpose of Sorting
 Several of the relational operations such as joins can be implemented efficiently if the
input relations are first sorted.
 We can sort a relation by building an index on the sort key and then using that index to
read the relation in sorted order.
 Such a process orders the relation only logically rather than physically.
 Hence reading of tuples in the sorted order may lead to disk access for each record.
 So it is desirable to order the records physically.
 Sorting could be applied to both relations that fit entirely in main memory and for
relations bigger than main memory.
 Sorting of relation that fit into main memory, standard sorting techniques such as quick-
sort can be used.
 Sorting of relations that do not fit in main memory is called external sorting.
 Most commonly used algorithm for this type of sorting is external sort merge algorithm.
 It consists mainly two steps:
 Step 1 (Create sorted runs)
 Let M denotes memory size (in pages).
 Create sorted runs. Let i be 0 initially.
Repeatedly do the following till the end of the relation:
(a) Read M blocks of relation into memory
(b) Sort the in-memory blocks
(c) Write sorted data to run Ri; increment i.
Let the final value of i be N
 Step 2 (Merge the runs)

6
 5 – Query Processing & Optimization
 Merge the runs (N-way merge). We assume (for now) that N < M.
1) Use N blocks of memory to buffer input runs, and 1 block to
buffer output. Read the first block of each run into its buffer page
2) repeat
I. Select the first record (in sort order) among all buffer
pages
II. Write the record to the output buffer. If the output buffer
is full write it to disk.
III. Delete the record from its input buffer page.
If the buffer page becomes empty then read the next block
(if any) of the run into the buffer.
3) until all input buffer pages are empty:
 If N  M, several merge passes are required.
 In each pass, contiguous groups of M - 1 runs are merged.
 A pass reduces the number of runs by a factor of M -1, and creates runs longer
by the same factor.
 E.g. If M=11, and there are 90 runs, one pass reduces the number of runs
to 9, each 10 times the size of the initial runs
 Repeated passes are performed till all runs have been merged into one.
 The output of the merge stage is the sorted relation.
 The output file is buffered to reduce the number of disk operations.
 If the relation is much larger than memory there may be M or more runs generated in
the first stage and it is not possible to allocate a page frame for each run during the
merge stage.
 In this case merge operation proceed in multiple passes.
 Since there is enough memory for M-1 input buffer pages each merge can take M-1 runs
as input.
Explain the measures of query cost, selection operation and
join. OR
Explain the measures of finding out the cost of a query in query
processing.
Measures of query cost
 The cost of query evaluation can be measured in terms of a number of different
resources including disk access, CPU time to execute a query and in a distributed or
parallel database system the cost of communication.

7
 5 – Query Processing & Optimization
 The response time for a query evaluation plan i.e the time required to execute the plan
(assuming no other activity is going on) on the computer would account for all these
activities.
 In large database system, however disk accesses are usually the most important cost,
since disk access are slow compared to in memory operation.
 Moreover, CPU speeds have been improving much faster than have a disk speed.
 Therefore it is likely that the time spent in disk activity will continue to dominate the
total time to execute a query.
 Estimating the CPU time is relatively hard, compared to estimating disk access cost.
 Therefore disk access cost a reasonable measure of the cost of a query evaluation plan.
 Disk access is the predominant cost (in terms of time) relatively easy to estimate;
therefore number of block transfers from/to disk is typically used as measures.
 We use the number of block transfers from disk as a measure of actual cost.
 To simplify our computation, we assume that all transfer of blocks have same cost.
 To get more precise numbers we need to distinguish between sequential I/O where
blocks read are contiguous on disk and random I/O where blocks are non-contiguous
and an extra seek cost must be paid for each disk I/O operations.
 We also need to distinguish between read and write of blocks since it takes more time
to write a block on disk than to read a block from disk.
Selection Operation
 There are two scan algorithms to implement the selection operation:
1. Linear search
2. Binary search
Linear search
 In a linear search, the system scans each file block and tests all records to see whether
they satisfy the selection condition.
 For a selection on a key attribute, the system can terminate the scan if the requires
record is found, without looking at the other records of the relation.
 The cost of linear search in terms of number of I/O operations is br where br is the
number of blocks in file.
 Selection on key attribute has an average cost of br/2.
 It may be a slower algorithm than any another algorithm.
 This algorithm can be applied to any file regardless of the ordering of file or the
availability of indices or the nature of selection operation. 
Binary search
 If the file is ordered on attribute and the selection condition is an equality comparison
on the attribute, we can use a binary search to locate the records that satisfy the
condition.

8
 5 – Query Processing & Optimization
 The number of blocks that need to be examined to find a block containing the required
record is log(br).
 If the selection is on non-key attribute more than one block may contain required
records and the cost of reading the extra blocks has to be added to the cost estimate.
Join
 Like selection, the join operation can be implemented in a variety of ways.
 In terms of disk access, the join operation can be very expensive, so implementing and
utilizing efficient join algorithms is critical in minimizing a query’s execution time.
 For example consider
depositor customer
 We assume following information about the two above relations
I. Number of records of customer ncustomer = 10,000
II. Number of blocks of customer bcustomer = 400
III. Number of records of depositor ndepositor = 5,000
IV. Number of blocks of depositor bdepositor = 100
 There are four types of algorithms for join operations.
1. Nested loop join
2. Indexed nested loop join
3. Merge join
4. Hash join

9
 6 – Storage Strategies

What is database Index?

 Indexes are special lookup tables that the database search engine can use to speed up
data retrieval.
 A database index is a data structure that improves the speed of data retrieval operations
on a database table.
 An index in a database is very similar to an index in the back of a book.
 Indexes are used to retrieve data from the database very fast.
 The users cannot see the indexes, they are just used to speed up searches/queries.
 Updating a table with indexes takes more time than updating a table without (because
the indexes also need an update).
 Syntax:
CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);
 Example:
CREATE INDEX idx_studentname
ON student (studentname);
 Indexing is a way to optimize the performance of a database by minimizing the number
of disk accesses required when a query is processed.
 It is a data structure technique which is used to quickly locate and access the data in a
database.
Explain the structure of Index in database.
 Indexes are created using a few database columns.

Search-key Pointer

 The first column is the Search key that contains a copy of the primary key or candidate
key of the table. These values are stored in sorted order so that the corresponding data
can be accessed quickly.
 The second column is the Data Reference or Pointer which contains a set of pointers
holding the address of the disk block where that particular key value can be found.
Explain different attributes of Indexing.
The indexing has various attributes:
 Access Types: This refers to the type of access such as value based search, range access,
etc.
 Access Time: It refers to the time needed to find particular data element or set of
elements.
 Insertion Time: It refers to the time taken to find the appropriate space and insert a new
data.

1
 6 – Storage Strategies
 Deletion Time: Time taken to find an item and delete it as well as update the index
structure.
 Space Overhead: It refers to the additional space required by the index.
Explain different Indexing Methods (Types).
Different indexing methods are:
 Primary Indexing
 Dense Indexing
 Parse Indexing
 Secondary Indexing
 Clustering Indexing
Primary Indexing
 If the index is created on the primary key of the table, then it is known as primary index.
 These primary keys are unique to each record.
 As primary keys are stored in sorted order, the performance of the searching operation is
quite efficient.
 Student (RollNo, Name, Address, City, MobileNo) [RollNo is primary key]
CREATE INDEX idx_StudentRno
ON Student (RollNo);
 The primary index can be classified into two types:
 Dense index
 Sparse index
Dense Index

Index Table Main Table

2
 6 – Storage Strategies
 In dense index, there is an index record for every search key value in the database.
 This makes searching faster but requires more space to store index records.
 In this, the number of records in the index table is same as the number of records in the
main table.
 Index records contain search key value and a pointer to the actual record on the disk.
Sparse Index

Index Table Main Table

 In sparse index, index records are not created for every search key.
 The index record appears only for a few items in the data file.
 It requires less space, less maintenance overhead for insertion, and deletions but is slower
compared to the dense index for locating records.
 To search a record in sparse index we search for a value that is less than or equal to value
in index for which we are looking.
 After getting the first record, linear search is performed to retrieve the desired record.
 In the sparse indexing, as the size of the main table grows, the size of index table also
grows.

3
 6 – Storage Strategies
Secondary Index

Primary Secondary Main

Index Index Table

 In secondary indexing, to reduce the size of mapping, another level of indexing is

introduced.
 In this method, the huge range for the columns is selected initially so that the mapping
size of the first level becomes small.
 Then each range is further divided into smaller ranges.
 The mapping of the first level is stored in the primary memory, so that address fetch is
faster.
 The mapping of the second level and actual data are stored in the secondary memory
(hard disk).
 If you want to find the record of roll 112, then it will search the highest entry which is
smaller than or equal to 112 in the first level index. It will get 101 at this level.
 Then in the second index level, again it does max (112) <= 112 and gets 111. Now using
the address 111, it goes to the data block and starts searching each record till it gets 112.
 This is how a search is performed in this method.
 Inserting, updating or deleting is also done in the same manner.

4
 6 – Storage Strategies
Clustering Index

Index Table Main Table

 Sometimes the index is created on non-primary key columns which may not be unique
for each record.
 In this case, to identify the record faster, we will group two or more columns to get the
unique value and create index out of them. This method is called a clustering index.
 The records which have similar characteristics are grouped, and indexes are created for
these group.

Explain B-tree.
 B-tree is a data structure that store data in its node in sorted order.
 We can represent sample B-tree as follows.

Root Node
Intermediary Node 11

3, 6 16, 20
Leaf Node

1,2 4,5 7,10 12, 13, 14 18, 19 24, 25

 B-tree stores data in such a way that each node contains keys in ascending order.
 Each of these keys has two references to another two child nodes.

5
 6 – Storage Strategies
 The left side child node keys are less than the current keys and the right side child node
keys are greater than the current keys.
Searching a record in B-tree
 Suppose we want to search 18 in the above B tree structure.
 First, we will fetch for the intermediary node which will direct to the leaf node that can
contain a record for 18.
 So, in the intermediary node, we will find a branch between 16 and 20 nodes.
 Then at the end, we will be redirected to the fifth leaf node. Here DBMS will perform a
sequential search to find 18.

Explain hashing with its types.

 For a huge database, it can be almost next to impossible to search all the index values
through all its level and then reach the destination data block to retrieve the desired data.
 Hashing is a technique to directly search the location of desired data on the disk without
using index structure.
 Data is stored in the form of data blocks whose address is generated by applying a hash
function in the memory location where these records are stored known as a data block
or data bucket.
 Hashing uses hash functions with search keys as parameters to generate the address of a
data record.
 Data bucket: Data buckets are the memory locations where the records are stored.
 Hash Function: Hash function is a mapping function that maps all the set of search keys
to actual record address. Generally, hash function uses primary key to generate the hash
index – address of the data block.
Types of hashing methods
1. Static hashing
2. Dynamic hashing
Static hashing
 In the static hashing, the resultant data bucket address will always remain the same.
 Therefore, if you generate an address for say Student_ID = 10 using hashing function
mod(3), the resultant bucket address will always be 1. So, you will not see any change in
the bucket address.
 Therefore, in this static hashing method, the number of data buckets in memory always
remains constant.

6
 6 – Storage Strategies
Dynamic hashing
 The drawback of static hashing is that that it does not expand or shrink dynamically as the
size of the database grows or shrinks.
 In dynamic hashing, data buckets grows or shrinks (added or removed dynamically) as the
records increases or decreases.
 Dynamic hashing is also known as extended hashing.
 In dynamic hashing, the hash function is made to produce a large number of values.
 For Example, there are three data records D1, D2 and D3 .
 The hash function generates three addresses 1001, 0101 and 1010 respectively.
 This method of storing considers only part of this address – especially only first one bit to
store the data.
 So it tries to load three of them at address 0 and 1.

D1
0
D2
1
D3
 But the problem is that no bucket address is remaining for D3.
 The bucket has to grow dynamically to accommodate D3.
 So it changes the address have 2 bits rather than 1 bit, and then it updates the existing
data to have 2 bit address.
 Then it tries to accommodate D3.

7
 6 – Storage Strategies

00
D1 01
D2 10
D3
11

8
 7 – Transaction Processing

What is transaction? List and explain ACID property of

transaction with example.
Transaction
 A transaction is a part of program execution that accesses and updates various data
items.
 A transaction can be defined as a group of tasks in which a single task is the minimum
processing unit of work, which cannot be divided further.
 A transaction is a logical unit of work that contains one or more SQL statements.
 A transaction is an atomic unit (transaction either complete 0% or 100%).
 A database transaction must be atomic, meaning that it must be either entirely
completed or aborted.
ACID property
Atomicity
 Either all operations of the transaction are properly reflected in the database or none
are.
 Means either all the operations of a transaction are executed or not a single operation is
executed.
 For example consider below transaction to transfer Rs. 50 from account A to account B:
1. read(A)
2. A := A – 50
3. write(A)
4. read(B)
5. B := B + 50
6. write(B)
 In above transaction if Rs. 50 is deducted from account A then it must be added to
account B.
Consistency
 Execution of a transaction in isolation preserves the consistency of the database.
 Means our database must remain in consistent state after execution of any transaction.
 In above example total of A and B must remain same before and after the execution of
transaction.
Isolation
 Although multiple transactions may execute concurrently, each transaction must be
unaware of other concurrently executing transactions.
 Intermediate transaction results must be hidden from other concurrently executed
transactions.
 In above example once your transaction start from step one its result should not be
access by any other transaction until last step (step 6) is completed.

1
 7 – Transaction Processing
Durability
 After a transaction completes successfully, the changes it has made to the database
persist, even if there are system failures.
 Once your transaction completed up to step 6 its result must be stored permanently. It
should not be removed if system fails.
Explain different states in transaction processing in database.
OR
Explain State Transition Diagram (Transaction State Diagram).
 Because failure of transaction may occur, transaction is broken up into states to handle
various situations.
 Following are the different states in transaction processing in database
 Active
 Partial committed
 Failed
 Aborted
 Committed

Partial Committed
committed

Active

Failed Aborted

Fig. State Transition Diagram

Active
 This is the initial state. The transaction stays in this state while it is executing.
Partially Committed
 This is the state after the final statement of the transaction is executed.
 At this point failure is still possible since changes may have been only done in main
memory, a hardware failure could still occur.
 The DBMS needs to write out enough information to disk so that, in case of a failure, the
system could re-create the updates performed by the transaction once the system is
brought back up.
 After it has written out all the necessary information, it is committed.

2
 7 – Transaction Processing
Failed
 After the discovery that normal execution can no longer proceed.
 Once a transaction cannot be completed, any changes that it made must be undone
rolling it back.
Aborted
 The state after the transaction has been rolled back and the database has been restored
to its state prior to the start of the transaction.
Committed
 The transaction enters in this state after successful completion of the transaction.
 We cannot abort or rollback a committed transaction.
Explain following terms.
Schedule
 A schedule is the chronological (sequential) order in which instructions are executed in a
system.
 A schedule for a set of transaction must consist of all the instruction of those
transactions and must preserve the order in which the instructions appear in each
individual transaction.
 Example of schedule (Schedule 1)
T1 T2

read(A)
A:=A-50
write(A)
read(B)
B:= B+ 50
write(B)

read(A)
temp: A * 0.1
A: A-temp
write (A)
read(B)
B:=B +temp
write(B)
Serial schedule
 Schedule that does not interleave the actions of different transactions.
 In schedule 1 the all the instructions of T1 are grouped and run together. Then all the
instructions of T2 are grouped and run together.
 Means schedule 2 will not start until all the instructions of schedule 1 are complete. This
type of schedules is called serial schedule.

3
 7 – Transaction Processing
Interleaved schedule
 Schedule that interleave the actions of different transactions.
 Means schedule 2 will start before all instructions of schedule 1 are completed. This
type of schedules is called interleaved schedule.
T1 T2

read(A)
A:=A-50
write(A)
read(A)
temp: A * 0.1
A: A-temp
write (A)

read(B)
B:= B+ 50
write(B)
read(B)
B:=B +temp
write(B)
Equivalent schedules
 Two schedules are equivalent schedule if the effect of executing the first schedule is
identical (same) to the effect of executing the second schedule.
 We can also say that two schedule are equivalent schedule if the output of executing
the first schedule is identical (same) to the output of executing the second schedule.
Serializable schedule
 A schedule that is equivalent (in its outcome) to a serial schedule has the serializability
property.
 Example of serializable schedule
Schedule 1 Schedule 2
T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3
read(X) read(X)
write(X) read(Y)
read(Y) read(Z)
write(Y) write(X)
read(Z) write(Y)
write(Z) write(Z)
 In above example there are two schedules as schedule 1 and schedule 2.
 In schedule 1 and schedule 2 the order in which the instructions of transaction are
executed is not the same but whatever the result we get is same. So this is known as
serializability of transaction.

4
 7 – Transaction Processing

Explain serializability of transaction. OR

Explain both the forms of serializability with example. Also
explain relation between two forms. OR
Explain conflict serializability and view serializability with
example.
Conflict serializability
 Instructions li and lj of transactions Ti and Tj respectively, conflict if and only if there
exists some item Q accessed by both li and lj, and at least one of these instructions
wrote Q.
1. If li and lj access different data item then li and lj don’t conflict.
2. li = read(Q), lj = read(Q). li and lj don’t conflict.
3. li = read(Q), lj = write(Q). li and lj conflict.
4. li = write(Q), lj = read(Q). li and lj conflict.
5. li = write(Q), lj = write(Q). li and lj conflict.
 Intuitively, a conflict between li and lj forces a (logical) temporal order between them.
 If a schedule S can be transformed into a schedule S´ by a series of swaps of non-
conflicting instructions, we say that S and S´ are conflict equivalent.
 We say that a schedule S is conflict serializable if it is conflict equivalent to a serial
schedule.
Example
 Schedule S can be transformed into Schedule S’ by swapping of non-conflicting series of
instructions. Therefore Schedule S is conflict serializable.
Schedule S Schedule S’
T1 T2 T1 T2
read(A) read(A)
write(A) write(A)
read(A) read(B)
write(A) write(B)
read(B) read(A)
write(B) write(A)
read(B) read(B)
write(B) write(B)
 Instruction Ii of transaction T1 and Ij of transaction T2 conflict if both of these instruction
access same data A and one of these two instructions performs write operation on that
data (A).
 In above example the write(A) instruction of transaction T1 conflict with read(A)
instruction of transaction T2 because both the instructions access same data A. But
write(A) instruction of transaction T2 is not conflict with read(B) instruction of
transaction T1 because both the instructions access different data. Transaction T2
performs write operation in A and transaction T1 is reading B.

5
 7 – Transaction Processing
 So in above example in schedule S two instructions read(A) and write(A) of transaction
T2 and two instructions read(B) and write(B) of transaction T1 are interchanged and we
get schedule S’.
 Therefore Schedule S is conflict serializable.
Schedule S’’
T3 T4
read(Q)
write(Q)
write(Q)
 We are unable to swap instructions in the above schedule S’’ to obtain either the serial
schedule < T3, T4 >, or the serial schedule < T4, T3 >.
 So above schedule S’’ is not conflict serializable.
View serializability
 Let S and S´ be two schedules with the same set of transactions. S and S´ are view
equivalent if the following three conditions are met, for each data item Q,
1. If in schedule S, transaction Ti reads the initial value of Q, then in schedule S’ also
transaction Ti must read the initial value of Q.
2. If in schedule S transaction Ti executes read(Q), and that value was produced by
transaction Tj (if any), then in schedule S’ also transaction Ti must read the value
of Q that was produced by the same write(Q) operation of transaction T j .
3. The transaction Ti (if any) that performs the final write(Q) operation in schedule
S then in schedule S’ also the final write(Q) operation must be performed by T i.
 A schedule S is view serializable if it is view equivalent to a serial schedule.
 Every conflict serializable schedule is also view serializable but every view serializable is
not conflict serializable.
 Below is a schedule which is view serializable but not conflict serializable.

Schedule S
T3 T4 T6
read(Q)
write(Q)
write(Q)
write(Q)
 Above schedule is view serializable but not conflict serializable because all the
transactions can use same data item (Q) and all the operations are conflict with each
other due to one operation is write on data item (Q) and that’s why we cannot
interchange any non conflict operation of any transaction.

6
 7 – Transaction Processing

Explain two phase commit protocol. OR

Explain working of two phase commit protocol.
Two phase commit protocol
• The two phase commit protocol provides an automatic recovery mechanism in case a
system or media failure occurs during execution of the transaction.
• The two phase commit protocol ensures that all participants perform the same action
(either to commit or to roll back a transaction).
• The two phase commit strategy is designed to ensure that either all the databases are
updated or none of them, so that the databases remain synchronized.
• In two phase commit protocol there is one node which is act as a coordinator and all
other participating node are known as cohorts or participant.
• Coordinator – the component that coordinates with all the participants.
• Cohorts (Participants) – each individual node except coordinator are participant.
• As the name suggests, the two phase commit protocol involves two phases.
1. The first phase is Commit Request phase OR phase 1
2. The second phase is Commit phase OR phase 2
Commit Request Phase (Obtaining Decision)
 To commit the transaction, the coordinator sends a request asking for “ready for
commit” to each cohort.
 The coordinator waits until it has received a reply from all cohorts to “vote” on the
request.
 Each participant votes by sending a message back to the coordinator as follows:
 It votes YES if it is prepared to commit
 It may vote NO for any reason if it cannot prepare the transaction due to a local
failure.
 It may delay in voting because cohort was busy with other work.
Commit Phase (Performing Decision)
 If the coordinator receives YES response from all cohorts, it decides to commit. The
transaction is now officially committed. Otherwise, it either receives a NO response or
gives up waiting for some cohort, so it decides to abort.
 The coordinator sends its decision to all participants (i.e. COMMIT or ABORT).
 Participants acknowledge receipt of commit or about by replying DONE.
What is system recovery?
 Database recovery is the process of restoring a database to the correct state in the
event of a failure.
 Database recovery is a service that is provided by the DBMS to ensure that the database
is reliable and remain in consistent state in case of a failure.
 Restoring a physical backup means reconstructing it and making it available to the
database server.

7
 7 – Transaction Processing
 To recover a restored backup, data is updated using redo command after the backup
was taken.
 Database server such as SQL server or ORACLE server performs cash recovery and
instance recovery automatically after an instance failure.
 In case of media failure, a database administrator (DBA) must initiate a recovery
operation.
 Recovering a backup involves two distinct operations: rolling the backup forward to a
more recent time by applying redo data and rolling back all changes made in
uncommitted transactions to their original state.
 In general, recovery refers to the various operations involved in restoring, rolling
forward and rolling back a backup.
 Backup and recovery refers to the various strategies and operations involved in
protecting the database against data loss and reconstructing the database.
Explain Log based recovery method.
Log based recovery
 The most widely used structure for recording database modification is the log.
 The log is a sequence of log records, recording all the update activities in the database.
 In short Transaction log is a journal or simply a data file, which contains history of all
transaction performed and maintained on stable storage.
 Since the log contains a complete record of all database activity, the volume of data
stored in the log may become unreasonable large.
 For log records to be useful for recovery from system and disk failures, the log must
reside on stable storage.
 Log contains
1. Start of transaction
2. Transaction-id
3. Record-id
4. Type of operation (insert, update, delete)
5. Old value, new value
6. End of transaction that is committed or aborted.
 All such files are maintained by DBMS itself. Normally these are sequential files.
 Recovery has two factors Rollback (Undo) and Roll forward (Redo).
 When transaction Ti starts, it registers itself by writing a <Ti start>log record
 Before Ti executes write(X), a log record <Ti, X, V1, V2> is written, where V1 is the value
of X before the write, and V2 is the value to be written to X.
 Log record notes that Ti has performed a write on data item Xj
 Xj had value V1 before the write, and will have value V2 after the write.
 When Ti finishes it last statement, the log record <Ti commit> is written.
 Two approaches are used in log based recovery
1. Deferred database modification
2. Immediate database modification

8
 7 – Transaction Processing
Log based Recovery Techniques
 Once a failure occurs, DBMS retrieves the database using the back-up of database and
transaction log. Various log based recovery techniques used by DBMS are as per below:
1. Deferred Database Modification
2. Immediate Database Modification
 Both of the techniques use transaction logs. These techniques are explained in following
sub-sections.
Explain Deferred Database Modification log based recovery
method.
Concept
 Updates (changes) to the database are deferred (or postponed) until the transaction
commits.
 During the execution of transaction, updates are recorded only in the transaction log and
in buffers. After the transaction commits, these updates are recorded in the database.
When failure occurs
 If transaction has not committed, then it has not affected the database. And so, no need
to do any undoing operations. Just restart the transaction.
 If transaction has committed, then, still, it may not have modified the database. And so,
redo the updates of the transaction.
Transaction Log
 In this technique, transaction log is used in following ways:
 Transaction T starts by writing <T start> to the log.
 Any update is recorded as <T, X, V>, where V indicates new value for data item X. Here,
no need to preserve old value of the changed data item. Also, V is not written to the X in
database, but it is deferred.
 Transaction T commits by writing <T commit> to the log. Once this is entered in log,
actual updates are recorded to the database.
 If a transaction T aborts, the transaction log record is ignored, and no any updates are
recorded to the database.
Example
 Consider the following two transactions, T0 and T1 given in figure, where T0 executes
before T1. Also consider that initial values for A, B and C are 500, 600 and 700
respectively.
Transaction – T0 Transaction – T1
Read (A) Read (C)
A =A -100 C=C-200
Write (A) Write (C)
Read (B)
B =B+ 100
Write (B)

9
 7 – Transaction Processing
 The following figure shows the transaction log for above two transactions at three
different instances of time.
Time Instance (a) Time Instance (b) Time Instance (c)
<T0 start> < T0 start> < T0 start>
< T0, A, 400> < T0, A, 400> < T0, A, 400>
< T0, B, 700> < T0, B, 700> < T0, B, 700>
< T0 commit> < T0 commit>
<T1 start> < T1 start>
<T1, C, 500> < T1, C, 500>
< T1 commit>
 If failure occurs in case of
1. No any REDO actions are required.
2. As Transaction T0 has already committed, it must be redone.
3. As Transactions T0 and T1 have already committed, they must be redone.
Explain Immediate Database Modification log based recovery
method.
Concept
 Updates (changes) to the database are applied immediately as they occur without
waiting to reach to the commit point.
 Also, these updates are recorded in the transaction log.
 It is possible here that updates of the uncommitted transaction are also written to the
database. And, other transactions can access these updated values.
When failure occurs
 If transaction has not committed, then it may have modified the database. And so, undo
the updates of the transaction.
 If transaction has committed, then still it may not have modified the database. And so,
redo the updates of the transaction.
Transaction Log
 In this technique, transaction log is used in following ways:
 Transaction T starts by writing <T start> to the log.
 Any update is recorded as <T, X, Vold, Vnew > where Vold indicates the original value of
data item X and Vnew indicates new value for X. Here, as undo operation is required, it
requires preserving old value of the changed data item.
 Transaction T commits by writing <T commit> to the log.
 If a transaction T aborts, the transaction log record is consulted, and required undo
operations are performed.
Example
 Again, consider the two transactions, T0 and T1, given in figure, where T0 executes
before T1.
 Also consider that initial values for A, B and C are 500, 600 and 700 respectively.

10
 7 – Transaction Processing
 The following figure shows the transaction log for above two transactions at three
different instances of time. Note that, here, transaction log contains original values also
along with new updated values for data items.
 If failure occurs in case of -
 Undo the transaction T0 as it has not committed, and restore A and B to 500 and 600
respectively.
 Undo the transaction T1, restore C to 700; and, Redo the Transaction T0 set A and B to
400 and 700 respectively.
 Redo the Transaction T0 and Transaction T0; and, set A and B to 400 and 700
respectively, while set C to 500.
Time Instance (a) Time Instance (b) Time Instance (c)
<T0 start> < T0 start> < T0 start>
< T0, A, 500, 400> < T0, A, 500, 400> < T0, A, 500, 400>
< T0, B, 600, 700> < T0, B, 600, 700> < T0, B, 600, 700>
< T0 commit> < T0 commit>
<T1 start> < T1 start>
<T1, C, 700, 500> < T1, C, 700, 500>
< T1 commit>
Explain system recovery procedure with Checkpoint record
concept.
Problems with Deferred & Immediate Updates
 Searching the entire log is time-consuming.
 It is possible to redo transactions that have already been stored their updates to the
database.
Checkpoint
 A point of synchronization between database and transaction log file.
 Specifies that any operations executed before this point are done correctly and stored
safely.
 At this point, all the buffers are force-fully written to the secondary storage.
 Checkpoints are scheduled at predetermined time intervals
 Used to limit -
1. The size of transaction log file
2. Amount of searching, and
3. Subsequent processing that is required to carry out on the transaction log file.
When failure occurs
 Find out the nearest checkpoint.
 If transaction has already committed before this checkpoint, ignore it.
 If transaction is active at this point or after this point and has committed before failure,
redo that transaction.
 If transaction is active at this point or after this point and has not committed, undo that

11
 7 – Transaction Processing
transaction.
Example
 Consider the transactions given in following figure. Here, T c indicates checkpoint, while
Tf indicates failure time.
 Here, at failure time -
1. Ignore the transaction T1 as it has already been committed before checkpoint.
2. Redo transaction T2 and T3 as they are active at/after checkpoint, but have
committed before failure.
3. Undo transaction T4 as it is active after checkpoint and has not committed.

Time Tc Tf

T1
T2

T3

T4

Checkpoint Time Failure

Explain Shadow Paging Technique.

Concept
 Shadow paging is an alternative to transaction-log based recovery techniques.
 Here, database is considered as made up of fixed size disk blocks, called pages. These
pages are mapped to physical storage using a table, called page table.
 The page table is indexed by a page number of the database. The information about
physical pages, in which database pages are stored, is kept in this page table.
 This technique is similar to paging technique used by Operating Systems to allocate
memory, particularly to manage virtual memory.
 The following figure depicts the concept of shadow paging.
Execution of Transaction
 During the execution of the transaction, two page tables are maintained.
1. Current Page Table: Used to access data items during transaction execution.
2. Shadow Page Table: Original page table, and will not get modified during
transaction execution.
 Whenever any page is about to be written for the first time
1. A copy of this page is made onto an free page,
2. The current page table is made to point to the copy,
3. The update is made on this copy.

12
 7 – Transaction Processing
 At the start of the transaction, both tables are same and point· to same pages.
 The shadow page table is never changed, and is used to restore the database in case of
any failure occurs. However, current page table entries may change during transaction
execution, as it is used to record all updates made to the database.
 When the transaction completes, the current page table becomes shadow page table.
At this time, it is considered that the transaction has committed.
 The following figure explains working of this technique.
 As shown in this figure, two pages - page 2 & 5 - are affected by a transaction and
copied to new physical pages. The current page table points to these pages.
 The shadow page table continues to point to old pages which are not changed by the
transaction. So, this table and pages are used for undoing the transaction.
Pages Page Table

Page 5  1
Page 1  2
Page 4  3
Page 2  4
Page 3  5
Page 6  6

Current Shadow
Page Tale Pages Page Table

Page 5(old)  1

Page 1  2

Page 4  3

Page 2(old)  4

Page 3  5

Page 6  6
 Page 2(new)
Page 5(new)

Advantages
 No overhead of maintaining transaction log.
 Recovery is quite faster, as there is no any redo or undo operations required.
Disadvantages
 Copying the entire page table is very expensive.
 Data are scattered or fragmented.
 After each transaction, free pages need to be collected by garbage collector. Difficult to
extend this technique to allow concurrent transactions.

13
 7 – Transaction Processing

What is concurrency? What are the methods to control

concurrency?
Concurrency
 Concurrency is the ability of a database to allow multiple (more than one) users to
access data at the same time.
Methods to control concurrency (Mechanisms)
 Optimistic - Delay the checking of whether a transaction meets the isolation and other
integrity rules (e.g., serializability and recoverability) until its end, without blocking any
of its (read, write) operations and then abort a transaction to prevent the violation, if
the desired rules are to be violated upon its commit. An aborted transaction is
immediately restarted and re-executed, which incurs an obvious overhead. If not too
many transactions are aborted, then being optimistic is usually a good strategy.
 Pessimistic - Block an operation of a transaction, if it may cause violation of the rules,
until the possibility of violation disappears. Blocking operations is typically involved with
performance reduction.
 Semi-optimistic - Block operations in some situations, if they may cause violation of
some rules, and do not block in other situations while delaying rules checking (if
needed) to transaction's end, as done with optimistic.
Methods to control concurrency (Methods)
 Locking (Two-phase locking - 2PL) - Controlling access to data by locks assigned to the
data. Access of a transaction to a data item (database object) locked by another
transaction may be blocked (depending on lock type and access operation type) until
lock release.
 Serialization graph checking (also called Serializability, or Conflict, or Precedence
graph checking) - Checking for cycles in the schedule's graph and breaking them by
aborts.
 Timestamp ordering (TO) - Assigning timestamps to transactions, and controlling or
checking access to data by timestamp order.
 Commitment ordering (Commit ordering or CO) - Controlling or checking transactions'
chronological order of commit events to be compatible with their respective precedence
order.
What are the three problems due to concurrency? How the
problems can be avoided.
Three problems due to concurrency
1. The lost update problem: This problem indicate that if two transactions T1 and T2
both read the same data and update it then effect of first update will be overwritten
by the second update.

14
 7 – Transaction Processing
T1 Time T2
--- T0 ---
Read X T1 ---
--- T2 Read X
Update X T3 ---
--- T4 Update X
--- T5 ---
How to avoid: In above example a transaction T2 must not update the data item (X)
until the transaction T1 can commit data item (X).
2. The dirty read problem: The dirty read arises when one transaction update some
item and then fails due to some reason. This updated item is retrieved by another
transaction before it is changed back to the original value.
T1 Time T2
--- T0 ---
--- T1 Update X
Read X T2 ---
--- T3 Rollback
--- T5 ---
How to avoid: In above example a transaction T1 must not read the data item (X)
until the transaction T2 can commit data item (X).
3. The incorrect retrieval problem: The inconsistent retrieval problem arises when one
transaction retrieves data to use in some operation but before it can use this data
another transaction updates that data and commits. Through this change will be
hidden from first transaction and it will continue to use previous retrieved data. This
problem is also known as inconsistent analysis problem.
Balance (A=200 B=250 C=150)
T1 Time T2
--- T0 ---
Read (A) T1 ---
Sum  200
Read (B) T2 ---
Sum  Sum + 250 = 450
--- T3 Read (C)
--- T4 Update (C)
150  150 – 50 = 100
--- T5 Read (A)
--- T6 Update (A)
200  200 + 50 = 250
--- T7 COMMIT
Read (C) T8 ---
Sum Sum + 100 = 550

15
 7 – Transaction Processing
How to avoid: In above example a transaction T2 must not read or update data item
(X) until the transaction T1 can commit data item (X).
What is concurrency control? Why Concurrency control is
needed?
Concurrency control
 The technique is used to protect data when multiple users are accessing (using) same
data concurrently (at same time) is called concurrency control.
Concurrency control needed
 If transactions are executed serially, i.e., sequentially with no overlap in time, no
transaction concurrency exists. However, if concurrent transactions with interleaving
operations are allowed in an uncontrolled manner, some unexpected, undesirable result
may occur. Here are some typical examples:
1. The lost update problem: This problem indicates that if two transactions T1 and T2
both read the same data and update it then effect of first update will be overwritten
by the second update.
2. The dirty read problem: The dirty read arises when one transaction updates some
item and then fails due to some reason. This updated item is retrieved by another
transaction before it is changed back to the original value.
3. The incorrect retrieval problem: The inconsistent retrieval problem arises when one
transaction retrieves data to use in some operation But before it can use this data
another transaction update that data and commits. Through this change will be
hidden from first transaction and it will continue to use previous retrieved data. This
problem is also known as inconsistent analysis problem.
 Most high-performance transactional systems need to run transactions concurrently to
meet their performance requirements. Thus, without concurrency control such systems
can neither provide correct results nor maintain their databases consistent.
Define lock. Define locking. Explain lock based protocol.
Lock
 A lock is a variable associated with data item to control concurrent access to that data
item.
 Lock requests are made to concurrency-control manager.
 Transaction can proceed only after request is granted.
Locking
 One major problem in databases is concurrency.
 Concurrency problems arise when multiple users try to update or insert data into a
database table at the same time. Such concurrent updates can cause data to become
corrupt or inconsistent.
 Locking is a strategy that is used to prevent such concurrent updates to data.
Lock based protocol
 A lock is a mechanism to control concurrent access to a data item

16
 7 – Transaction Processing
 Data items can be locked in two modes :
1. Exclusive (X) mode. Data item can be both read as well as written. X-lock is
requested using lock-X instruction.
2. Shared (S) mode. Data item can only be read. S-lock is requested using lock-S
instruction.
 Lock requests are made to concurrency-control manager.
 Transaction can proceed only after request is granted.
 Lock-compatibility matrix
S X
S TRUE FALSE
X FALSE FALSE
 A transaction may be granted a lock on an item if the requested lock is compatible with
locks already held on the item by other transactions
 Any number of transactions can hold shared locks on an item, but if any transaction
holds an exclusive on the item no other transaction may hold any lock on the item.
 If a lock cannot be granted, the requesting transaction is made to wait till all
incompatible locks held by other transactions have been released. The lock is then
granted.
T1 T2 Concurrency Control
Manager
Lock-X(B)
Grant-X(B,T1)
Read(B)
B=B-50
Write(B)
Unlock(B)
Lock-S(A)
Grant-S(A,T2)
Read (A)
Unlock(A)
Lock-S(B)
Grant-S(B,T2)
Read (B)
Unlock(B)
Display(A+B)
Lock-X(A)
Grant-X(A,T1)
Read(A)
A=A+50
Write(A)
Unlock(A)

17
 7 – Transaction Processing
 This locking protocol divides transaction execution phase into three parts.
1. In the first part, when transaction starts executing, transaction seeks grant for locks
it needs as it executes.
2. Second part is where the transaction acquires all locks and no other lock is required.
Transaction keeps executing its operation.
3. As soon as the transaction releases its first lock, the third phase starts. In this phase
a transaction cannot demand for any lock but only releases the acquired locks.
Lock acquisition Lock releasing
phase phase

T begin T end Time

Explain two phase locking protocol. What are its advantages
and disadvantages? OR
Explain two phase locking. Explain its advantage and
disadvantage.
Two-Phase Locking Protocol
 The use of locks has helped us to create neat and clean concurrent schedule.
 The Two Phase Locking Protocol defines the rules of how to acquire the locks on a data
item and how to release the locks.
 Two phase locking (2PL) is a concurrency control method that guarantees serializability.
 The protocol utilizes locks, applied by a transaction on data, which may block (stop)
other transactions from accessing the same data during the transaction's life.
 The Two Phase Locking Protocol assumes that a transaction can only be in one of two
phases.
Phase 1 - Growing Phase
 In this phase the transaction can only acquire locks, but cannot release any lock.
 The transaction enters the growing phase as soon as it acquires the first lock it
wants.
 From now on it has no option but to keep acquiring all the locks it would need.
 It cannot release any lock at this phase even if it has finished working with a
locked data item.
 Ultimately the transaction reaches a point where all the lock it may need has
been acquired. This point is called Lock Point.
Phase 2 - Shrinking Phase
 After Lock Point has been reached, the transaction enters the shrinking phase.

18
 7 – Transaction Processing
 In this phase the transaction can only release locks, but cannot acquire any new
lock.
 The transaction enters the shrinking phase as soon as it releases the first lock
after crossing the Lock Point.
 From now on it has no option but to keep releasing all the acquired locks.
 Initially the transaction is in growing phase, that is the transaction acquires locks as
needed.
 Once the transaction releases lock, it enters the shrinking phase and no more lock
request may be issued.
 Upgrading of lock is not possible in shrinking phase, but it is possible in growing phase.
 The two phase locking protocol ensures serializability.
 There are two different versions of the Two Phase Locking Protocol.
1) Strict Two Phase Locking Protocol
2) Rigorous Two Phase Locking Protocol.
Explain strict two phase locking. Explain its advantage and
disadvantage.
Strict Two Phase Locking Protocol
 In this protocol, a transaction may release all the shared locks after the Lock Point has
been reached, but it cannot release any of the exclusive locks until the transaction
commits or aborts.
 This ensures that any data is written by an uncommitted transaction are locked in
exclusive mode until the transaction commits and preventing other transaction from
reading that data.
 This protocol solves dirty read problem.
Rigorous Two Phase Locking Protocol
In Rigorous Two Phase Locking Protocol, a transaction is not allowed to release any lock
(either shared or exclusive) until it commits. This means that until the transaction
commits, other transaction might acquire a shared lock on a data item on which the
uncommitted transaction has a shared lock; but cannot acquire any lock on a data item
on which the uncommitted transaction has an exclusive lock.
Advantages
 Recovery is very easy.
Disadvantages
 Concurrency is reduced
Explain time stamp based protocol.
Time stamp based protocol
 This protocol uses either system time or logical counter to be used as a time-stamp.
 Every transaction has a time-stamp associated with it and the ordering is determined by
the age of the transaction.

19
 7 – Transaction Processing
 A transaction created at 0002 clock time would be older than all other transaction,
which come after it.
 For example, any transaction 'y' entering the system at 0004 is two seconds younger
and priority may be given to the older one.
 In addition, every data item is given the latest read and write-timestamp. This lets the
system know, when last read was and write operation made on the data item.
Time stamp ordering protocol
 The timestamp-ordering protocol ensures serializability among transaction in their
conflicting read and writes operations.
 This is the responsibility of the protocol system that the conflicting pair of tasks should
be executed according to the timestamp values of the transactions.
 Time-stamp of Transaction Ti is denoted as TS(Ti).
 Read time-stamp of data-item X is denoted by R-timestamp(X).
 Write time-stamp of data-item X is denoted by W-timestamp(X).
 Timestamp ordering protocol works as follows:
 If a transaction Ti issues read(X) operation:
 If TS(Ti) < W-timestamp(X)
 Operation rejected.
 If TS(Ti) >= W-timestamp(X)
 Operation executed.
 All data-item Timestamps updated.

 If a transaction Ti issues write(X) operation:

 If TS(Ti) < R-timestamp(X)
 Operation rejected.
 If TS(Ti) < W-timestamp(X)
 Operation rejected and Ti rolled back.
 Otherwise, operation executed.
What is deadlock? Explain wait-for-graph. When it occurs?
OR
Define deadlock. Explain wait-for-graph. Explain different
conditions that lead to deadlock.
Deadlock
 A deadlock is a condition when two or more transactions are executing and each
transaction is waiting for the other to finish but none of them are ever finished. So all
the transactions will wait for infinite time and not a single transaction is completed.

20
 7 – Transaction Processing
Wait-for-graph

Table 1
Held by Wait for

Transaction 1 Transaction 2

Wait for Hold by

Table 2

 In the above figure there are two transactions 1 and 2 and two table’s as table1 and
table 2.
 Transaction 1 hold table 1 and wait for table 2. Transaction 2 hold table 2 and wait for
table 1.
 Now the table 1 is wanted by transaction 2 and that is hold by transaction 1 and same
way table 2 is wanted by transaction 1 and that is hold by transaction 2. Until any one
can’t get this table they can’t precede further so this is called wait for graph. Because
both of these transaction have to wait for some resources.
When dead lock occurs
 A deadlock occurs when two separate processes struggle for resources are held by one
another.
 Deadlocks can occur in any concurrent system where processes wait for each other and
a cyclic chain can arise with each process waiting for the next one in the chain.
 Deadlock can occur in any system that satisfies the four conditions:
1. Mutual Exclusion Condition: only one process at a time can use a resource or
each resource assigned to 1 process or is available.
2. Hold and Wait Condition: processes already holding resources may request new
resources.
3. No Preemption Condition: only a process holding a resource can release it
voluntarily after that process has completed its task or previously granted
resources cannot forcibly taken away from any process.
4. Circular Wait Condition: two or more processes forms circular chain where each
process requests a resource that the next process in the chain holds.
Explain deadlock detection and recovery.
Resource-Allocation Graph
 A set of vertices V and a set of edges E.
 V is partitioned into two types:
1. P = {P1, P2, …, Pn}, the set consisting of all the processes in the
system.

21
 7 – Transaction Processing
2. R = {R1, R2, …, Rm}, the set consisting of all resource types in the
system.

 request edge – directed edge Pi → Rj

 assignment edge – directed edge Rj → Pi
 Process -
 Resource–
 Process Pi requests resource Rj -
 Process Pi is holding resource Rj
 If graph contains no cycles then no deadlock.
 If graph contains cycles then deadlock.

R1 R3 R1 R3

P1 P2 P3 P1 P2 P3

R2 R4 R2 R4

No cycle (circular chain) created Cycle (circular chain) created

So no deadlock (P2, R3, P3, R4, P2) So deadlock

 When a deadlock is detected, the system must recover from the deadlock.
 The most common solution is to roll back one or more transactions to break the
deadlock.
 Choosing which transaction to abort is known as Victim Selection.
 In the above wait-for graph transactions R3 and R4 are deadlocked.
 In order to remove deadlock one of the transaction out of these two (R3, R4)
transactions must be roll backed.
 We should rollback those transactions that will incur the minimum cost.
 When a deadlock is detected, the choice of which transaction to abort can be made
using following criteria:
 The transaction which have the fewest locks
 The transaction that has done the least work
 The transaction that is farthest from completion

22
 7 – Transaction Processing

Explain deadlock prevention methods. OR

Explain methods to prevent deadlock.
Deadlock prevention
 A protocols ensure that the system will never enter into a deadlock state.
 Some prevention strategies :
 Require that each transaction locks all its data items before it begins execution
(predeclaration).
 Impose partial ordering of all data items and require that a transaction can lock
data items only in the order specified by the partial.
 Following schemes use transaction timestamps for the sake of deadlock prevention
alone.
1. Wait-die scheme — non-preemptive
• If an older transaction is requesting a resource which is held by younger
transaction, then older transaction is allowed to wait for it till it is available.
• If an younger transaction is requesting a resource which is held by older
transaction, then younger transaction is killed.
2. Wound-wait scheme — preemptive
• If an older transaction is requesting a resource which is held by younger
transaction, then older transaction forces younger transaction to kill the
transaction and release the resource.
• If an younger transaction is requesting a resource which is held by older
transaction, then younger transaction is allowed to wait till older transaction will
releases it.
3. Timeout-Based Schemes :
• A transaction waits for a lock only for a specified amount of time. After that, the
wait times out and the transaction is rolled back. So deadlocks never occur.
• Simple to implement; but difficult to determine good value of the timeout
interval.
Wait/Die Wound/Wait
O needs a resource held by Y O waits Y dies
Y needs a resource held by O Y dies Y waits

23
 8 – Database Security

What is data security? (Define data security). What are the

objectives while designing secure database?
Data security
 Data security is the protection of the data from unauthorized users.
 Only the authorized users are allowed to access the data.
 Most of the users are allowed to access a part of database i.e., the data that is related to
them or related to their department.
 Mostly, the DBA or head of department can access all the data in the database.
 Some users may be permitted only to retrieve data, whereas others are allowed to
retrieve as well as to update data.
 The database access is controlled by the DBA.
 He/she creates the accounts of users and gives rights to access the database.
 Users or group of users are given usernames protected by passwords.
 The user enters his/her account number (or user name) and password to access the data
from database.
 For example, if you have an account in the "yahoo.com", then you have to give your
correct username and password to access your account of e-mail.
 Similarly, when you insert your ATM card into the Automated Teller Machine (ATM), the
machine reads your ID number printed on the card and then asks you to enter your pin
code (or password). In this way you can access your account.

What is the difference between security and integrity?

Data Security Data Integrity
Data security defines a prevention of data Data integrity defines a quality of data, which
corruption through the use of controlled guarantees the data is complete and has a
access mechanisms. whole structure.
Data security deals with protection of data Data integrity deals with the validity of data
Data security is making sure only the people Data integrity is making sure the data is
who should have access to the data are the correct and not corrupt.
only ones who can access the data.
Data security refers to the making sure that Data integrity refers to the structure of the
data is accessed by its intended users, thus data and how it matches the schema of the
ensuring the privacy and protection of data. database.
Authentication/authorization, encryptions Backing up, designing suitable user interface
and masking are some of the popular means and error detection/correction in data are
of data security. some of the means to preserve integrity.

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 8 – Database Security

Explain (Describe) data encryption in detail (brief). OR

Write short note on data encryption OR
Data encryption
 Encryption is a technique of encoding data, so that only authorized user can understand
(read) it.
 The data encryption technique converts readable data into unreadable data by using
some techniques so that unauthorized person cannot read it 

Data encryption process

 In above figure sender having data that he/she wants to send his/her data is known as
plaintext.
 In first step sender will encrypt data (plain text) using encryption algorithm and some key.
 After encryption the plaintext becomes ciphertext.
 This ciphertext is not able to read by any unauthorized person.
 This ciphertext is send to receiver.
 The sender will send that key separately to receiver.
 Once receiver receives this ciphertext, he/she will decrypt it by using that key send by
sender and decryption algorithm.
 After applying decryption algorithm and key, receiver will get original data (plaintext) that
is sended by sender.
 This technique is used to protect data when there is a chance of data theft.
 In such situation if encrypted data is theft then it cannot be used (read) directly without
knowing the encryption technique and key.

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 8 – Database Security
 There are two different method of data encryption
1. Symmetric key encryption / Private key encryption
 In symmetric key schemes, the encryption and decryption keys are the same.
 This same key is used by the sender to encrypt the data, and again by the
receiver to decrypt the data.
 Symmetric encryption is fast in execution.
2. Asymmetric key encryption / Public key encryption
 In asymmetric key schemes, the encryption and decryption keys are the
different (Public Key and Private Key).
 Messages are encrypted by sender with one key (Public Key) and can be
decrypted by receiver only by the other key (Private Key).
 Asymmetric Encryption is slow in execution due to the high computational
burden.

Explain types of access control methods of data security OR

Explain discretionary access control and mandatory access
control of data security.
 There are two different methods of data access control:-
1. Discretionary access control
2. Mandatory access control
Discretionary access control
 In this method, user is given access rights (privileges) to access database object or data
items such as table or view.
 This method is based on the concept of access rights and mechanisms for giving rights to
user.
 In this method a single user can have different rights on different data items, as well as
different user can have different rights on the same data item.
 SQL support discretionary access control through the GRANT and REVOKE commands.
GRANT
 This command gives rights to user for a data items.
Syntax:-
GRANT privilege ON object TO user [WITH GRANT OPTION]
REVOKE
 This command takes back rights from user for a data items.
Syntax:-
REVOKE privilege ON object FROM user {RESTRICT/CASCADE}
 Privileges are various operations that we will perform on table or view E.g. INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE, SELECT etc.

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 8 – Database Security
 Object is table or view or any data item.
 User is the name of user.
 The grant option is used when user wants to pass the rights to other user. Means if a user
get a rights with the grant option then he/she can give this rights to another user.
 When user executes a REVOKE command with the cascade option then it will take back
given rights from all the users who get those rights from this user.
Mandatory access control
 In this method individual user cannot get rights. But all the users as well as all the objects
are classified into different categories. Each user is assigned a clearance level and each
object is assigned a security level.
 A user can access object of particular security level only if he has proper clearance level.
 The DBMS determines whether a given user can read or write a given object based on
some rules.
 This rule contains security level of object and clearance level of the user.
 This rule makes sure that sensitive data can never be passed to a user without necessary
clearance.
Components
 The commonly used mandatory access control technique for multi-level security uses four
components as given below
1. Subjects:-Such as users, accounts, programs etc.
2. Objects:-Such as relation (table), tuples (records), attribute (column), view etc.
3. Clearance level:-Such as top secret (TS), secret (S), confidential (C), Unclassified
(U). Each subject is classified into one of these four classes.
4. Security level: -Such as top secret (TS), secret (S), confidential (C), Unclassified (U).
Each object is classified into one of these four classes.
 In the above system TS>S>C>U, where TS>S means class TS data is more sensitive than
class S data.
Rules:-
 A user can access data by following two rules
1. Security property:-
 Security property states that a subject at a given security level may not read
an object at a higher security level.
2. Star (*) security property:-
 Star (*) property states that a subject at a given security level may not write to
any object at a lower security level.
Role based access control (RBAC) rules
 Role based access control (RBAC) rules
 It restricts database access based on a person's role within an organization. The roles in
RBAC refer to the levels of access that employees have to the network.
 Employees are only allowed to access the information necessary to effectively perform
their job duties.

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 8 – Database Security
 Access can be based on several factors, such as authority, responsibility, and job
competency.
 In addition, access to computer resources can be limited to specific tasks such as the
ability to view, create, or modify a file.
 Lower-level employees usually do not have access to sensitive data if they do not need it
to fulfil their responsibilities.
 Using RBAC will help in securing your company’s sensitive data and important
applications.
What is Intrusion Detection System?
 An Intrusion Detection System (IDS) is a system or software application that monitors
network traffic or system for suspicious activity or policy violations and issues alerts when
such activity is discovered.
 It is a software application that scans a network or a system for harmful activity or policy
breaching.
 Any malicious venture or violation is normally reported either to an administrator or
collected centrally using a security information and event management (SIEM) system.
 A SIEM system integrates outputs from multiple sources and uses alarm filtering
techniques to differentiate malicious activity from false alarms.
Types of Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS)
1. Network Intrusion Detection Systems (NIDS)
2. Host Intrusion Detection Systems (HIDS)
3. Knowledge-based (Signature-based) IDS
4. Behavior-based (Anomaly-based) IDS
Features of an Intrusion Detection System:
 It monitors and analysis the user and system activities.
 It performs auditing of the system files and other configurations and the operating
system.
 It assesses the integrity of system and data files
 It conducts analysis of patterns based on known attacks.
 It detects errors in system configuration.
 It detects and cautions if the system is in danger.
Advantages of Intrusion Detection Systems
 The network or computer is constantly monitored for any invasion or attack.
 The system can be modified and changed according to needs of specific client and can
help outside as well as inner threats to the system and network.
 It effectively prevents any damage to the network.
 It provides user friendly interface which allows easy security management systems.
 Any alterations to files and directories on the system can be easily detected and reported.

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 8 – Database Security

What is SQL injection?

 SQL injection, also known as SQLI, is a common attack vector that uses malicious SQL code
for backend database manipulation to access information that was not intended to be
displayed.
 This information may include any number of items, including sensitive company data, user
lists or private customer details.
 A successful attack may result in the unauthorized viewing of user lists, the deletion of
entire tables, gaining administrative rights to a database, all of which are highly
detrimental to a business.
What is authorization and authentication? OR
What is difference between authorization and authentication?
Authorization Authentication
It is protecting the data to ensure privacy and Authentication is providing integrity control
access control of data. Authorization is giving and security to the data.
access to authorized users.
Authorization is the process of verifies what Authentication is the process of verifying who
you are authorized to do or not to do. you are.
Accessing a file from hard disk is authorization Logging on to a PC with a username and
because the permissions are given to you to password is authentication.
access that file allow you access it that is
authorization.

What is audit trail (audit log)?

 An audit trail (audit log) is one record which will be generated against each and every
transactions.
 Regarding the transaction, it will keep certain information.
 An audit trail (audit log) records
1. Who (user or the application program and a transaction number)
2. When (date and time)
3. From where (location of the user and/or terminal)
4. What (identification of the data affected, as well as a before-and-after image of
that portion of the database that was affected by the update operation)

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 9 – SQL Concepts

What is constraint? Explain types of constraints. OR

What are integrity constraints? Explain various types of
integrity constraints with suitable example.
 A constraint is a rule that restricts the values that may be present in the database.
 Constraints can be mainly classified in to two categories.
1. Entity integrity constraints
2. Referential integrity constraints
Oracle constraints

Entity integrity Referential

integrity

Domain integrity Key constraints

constraint

1. Not null 1. Unique 1. Foreign key

2. Check 2. Primary key

Not Null constraint

 A null value indicates ‘not applicable’, ‘missing’, or ‘not known’.
 A null value is distinct from zero or blank space.
 A column, defined as a not null, cannot have a null value.
 Such a column becomes a mandatory (compulsory) column and cannot be left empty for
any record.
 Syntax : ColumnName datatype (size) NOT NULL
 Example :
create table Account (ano int,
Balance decimal(8,2) NOT NULL,
Branch varchar(10));
 Now, if we insert NULL value to Balance column then it will generate an error.

Check constraint
 The check constraint is used to implement business rule. So, it is also called business
rule constraint.
 Example of business rule: A balance in any account should not be negative.
 Business rule define a domain for a particular column.

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 9 – SQL Concepts
 The check constraint is bound to a particular column.
 Once check constraint is implemented, any insert or update operation on that table
must follow this constraint.
 If any operation violates condition, it will be rejected.
 Syntax : ColumnName datatype (size) check(condition)
 Example :
create table Account (ano int,
Balance decimal(8,2) CHECK (balance >= 0),
Branch varchar(10));
 Any business rule validations can be applied using this constraint.
 A condition must be some valid logical expression.
 A check constraint takes longer time to execute.
 On violation of this constraint, oracle display error message like – “check constraint
violated”.

Unique Constraint
 Sometime there may be requirement that column cannot contain duplicate values.
 A column, defined as a unique, cannot have duplicate values across all records.
 Syntax : ColumnName datatype (size) UNIQUE
 Example :
create table Account (ano int UNIQUE,
Balance decimal(8,2),
Branch varchar(10));
 Though, a unique constraint does not allow duplicate values, NULL values can be
duplicated in a column defined as a UNIQUE column.
 A table can have more than one column defined as a unique column.
 If multiple columns need to be defined as composite unique column, then only table
level definition is applicable.
 Maximum 16 columns can be combined as a composite unique key in a table.

Primary key Constraint

 A primary key is a set of one or more columns used to identify each record uniquely in a
column.
 A single column primary key is called a simple key, while a multi-column primary key is
called composite primary key.
 Oracle provides a primary key constraint to define primary key for a table.
 A column, defined as a primary key, cannot have duplicate values across all records and
cannot have a null value.
 Syntax : ColumnName datatype (size) primary key

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 9 – SQL Concepts
 Example :
create table Account (ano int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
Balance decimal(8,2),
Branch varchar(10));
 A primary key constraint is combination of UNIQUE constraint and NOT NULL constraint.
 A table cannot have more than one primary key.
 If multiple columns need to be defined as primary key column, then only table level
definition is applicable.
 Maximum 16 columns can be combined as a composite primary key in a table.

Foreign Key Constraint

 A foreign key constraint is also called referential integrity constraint, is specified
between two tables.
 This constraint is used to ensure consistency among records of the two tables.
 The table, in which a foreign key is defined, is called a foreign table, detail table or child
table.
 The table, of which primary key or unique key is defined, is called a primary table,
master table or parent table.
 Restriction on child table :
 Child table contains a foreign key. And, it is related to master table.
 Insert or update operation involving value of foreign key is not allowed, if
corresponding value does not exist in a master table.
 Restriction on master table :
 Master table contains a primary key, which is referred by foreign key in child
table.
 Delete or update operation on records in master table are not allowed, if
corresponding records are present in child table.
 Syntax : ColumnName datatype (size) REFERENCES TableName (ColumnName)
 Example :
create table Account (ano int,
Balance decimal(8,2),
BranchID varchar(10) REFERENCES branchs(branchID));
 Master table must be exist before creating child table.

Explain DDL, DML, DCL and DQL. OR

Describe component of SQL.
DDL (Data Definition Language)
 It is a set of SQL commands used to create, modify and delete database objects such as
tables, views, indices, etc.
 It is normally used by DBA and database designers.

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 9 – SQL Concepts
 It provides commands like:
 CREATE: to create objects in a database.
 ALTER: to alter the schema, or logical structure of the database.
 DROP: to delete objects from the database.
 TRUNCATE: to remove all records from the table.

CREATE: Create is used to create the database or its objects like table, view, index etc.
 Create Table
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table in a database.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name
(
Column1 Datatype(Size) [ NULL | NOT NULL ],
Column2 Datatype(Size) [ NULL | NOT NULL ],
...
);
Example:
CREATE TABLE Students
(
Roll_No int(3) NOT NULL,
Name varchar(20),
Subject varchar(20)
);
Explanation:
 The column should either be defined as NULL or NOT NULL. By default, a column can
hold NULL values.
 The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values. This enforces a
field to always contain a value, which means that you cannot insert a new record, or
update a record without adding a value to this field.

ALTER: ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, modify, or drop columns in a table.
 Add Column
The ALTER TABLE statement in SQL to add new columns in a table.
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD Column1 Datatype(Size), Column2 Datatype(Size), … ;
Example:
ALTER TABLE Students
ADD Marks int;

 Drop Column
The ALTER TABLE statement in SQL to drop a column in a table.
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 9 – SQL Concepts
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP COLUMN column_name;
Example:
ALTER TABLE Students
DROP COLUMN Subject;

 Modify Column
The ALTER TABLE statement in SQL to change the data type/size of a column in a table.
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ALTER COLUMN column_name datatype(size);
Example:
ALTER TABLE Students
ALTER COLUMN Roll_No float;

DROP: Drop is used to drop the database or its objects like table, view, index etc.
 Drop Table
The DROP TABLE statement is used to drop an existing table in a database.
Syntax:
DROP TABLE table_name;
Example:
DROP TABLE Students;

TRUNCATE: Truncate is used to remove all records from the table.

Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
Example:
TRUNCATE TABLE Students;

DML (Data Manipulation Language)

 It is a set of SQL commands used to insert, modify and delete data in a database.
 It is normally used by general users who are accessing database via pre-developed
applications.
 It provides commands like:
 INSERT: to insert data into a table.
 UPDATE: to modify existing data in a table.
 DELETE: to delete records from a table.

INSERT: The INSERT STATEMENT is used to insert data into a table.

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 9 – SQL Concepts
Syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3, ...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);
OR
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);
Example:
INSERT INTO Students (Roll_No,Name,Subject)
VALUES (1,’anil’,’Maths’);

UPDATE: The UPDATE STATEMENT is used to modify existing data in a table.

Syntax:
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;
Example:
UPDATE Students
SET Name= ‘Mahesh’
WHERE Roll_No=1;

DELETE: The DELETE STATEMENT is used to delete records from a table.

Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example:
DELETE FROM Students
WHERE Subject=’Maths’;

DQL (Data Query Language)

 It is a component of SQL that allows data retrieval from the database.
 It provides command like SELECT. This command is a heart of SQL, and allows data
retrieval in different ways.

SELECT: The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database. The data returned is
stored in a result table, called the result-set.
Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
OR
SELECT *
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

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 9 – SQL Concepts
Example:
SELECT *
FROM Students
WHERE Roll_No>=1;

DCL (Data Control Language)

 It is set of SQL commands used to control access to data and database. Occasionally DCL
commands are grouped with DML commands.
 It provides commands like:
 GRANT: to give access privileges to users on the database.
 REVOKE: to withdraw access privileges given to users on the database.

TCL (Transaction Control Language)

 TCL is abbreviation of Transactional Control Language. It is used to manage different
transactions occurring within a database.
 COMMIT – Saves work done in transactions
 ROLLBACK – Restores database to original state since the last COMMIT command in
transactions
 SAVE TRANSACTION – Sets a save point within a transaction.

Explain Transaction Control Commands. OR

Explain commit, rollback and savepoint command.
 Transaction Control Command (TCL) is a set of SQL commands that are used to control
transactional processing in a database.
 A transaction is logical unit of work that consists of one or more SQL statements, usually
a group of Data Manipulation Language (DML) statements.
 Transaction Control Commands (TCL) commands include
1. COMMIT:
 COMMIT command is used to permanently save any transaction into the database.
 When we use any DML command like INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE, the changes
made by these commands are not permanent, until the current session is closed,
the changes made by these commands can be rolled back.
 To avoid that, COMMIT is used to mark the changes as permanent.
Example: Consider following table
Student
Rollno Name SPI
1 Raju 8
2 Hari 9
3 Mahesh 7

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 9 – SQL Concepts

BEGIN TRANSACTION t1
DELETE FROM STUDENT WHERE SPI <8;
COMMIT TRANSACTION t1;

Output:
Student
Rollno Name SPI
1 Raju 8
2 Hari 9

Note:
 A transaction is a set of operations performed so that all operations are
guaranteed to succeed or fail as one unit.
 If you place the BEGIN TRANSACTION before your SQL statement, the
transaction will automatically turn into the explicit transaction and it will
lock the table until the transaction is committed or rolled back.

2. ROLLBACK:
 The ROLLBACK command is the transactional control command used to undo
transactions that have not already been saved to the database.
 Rollbacks a transaction to the beginning of the transaction.
 It is also used with SAVEPOINT command to jump to a savepoint in an ongoing
transaction.
 You can use ROLLBACK TRANSACTION to erase all data modifications made from
the start of the transaction or to a savepoint.

Example: Consider following table

Student
Rollno Name SPI
1 Raju 8
2 Hari 9
3 Mahesh 7

BEGIN TRANSACTION t1
DELETE FROM STUDENT WHERE SPI <8;
ROLLBACK TRANSACTION t1;

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 9 – SQL Concepts
Output:
Student
Rollno Name SPI
1 Raju 8
2 Hari 9
3 Mahesh 7

3. SAVEPOINT:
 A SAVEPOINT is a point in a transaction when you can roll the transaction back to a
certain point without rolling back the entire transaction.
 The ROLLBACK command is used to undo a group of transactions.

Example: Consider following table

Student
Rollno Name SPI
1 Raju 8
2 Hari 9
3 Mahesh 7

BEGIN TRANSACTION t1
SAVE TRANSACTION s1
INSERT INTO Student Values (4,’Anil’,6);

SAVE TRANSACTION s2
INSERT INTO Student Values (5, Gita’,9);

ROLLBACK TRANSACTION s2;

Output:
Student
Rollno Name SPI
1 Raju 8
2 Hari 9
3 Mahesh 7
4 Anil 6

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 9 – SQL Concepts

Explain Security Privileged Commands. OR

Explain Grant and Revoke command. OR
Explain Data Control Language (DCL) Commands.
 DCL commands are used to enforce (implement) database security in a multiple user
database environment.
 These commands are used to give or take back permission on any object to/from any
user.
 Two types of DCL commands are GRANT and REVOKE.
 Only Database Administrator or owner of the database object can provide/remove
privileges on a database object.
1. GRANT: GRANT is a command used to provide access or privileges or rights on
the database objects to the users.
Syntax:
GRANT privilege_name
ON object_name
TO {user_name |PUBLIC}
[WITH GRANT OPTION];
Explanation:
 privilege_name is the access right or privilege granted to the user. Some
of the access rights are ALL, EXECUTE, and SELECT.
 object_name is the name of an database object like TABLE, VIEW,
STORED PROC and SEQUENCE.
 user_name is the name of the user to whom an access right is being
granted.
 PUBLIC is used to grant access rights to all users.
 WITH GRANT OPTION - allows a user to grant (give) access rights to other
users.
2. REVOKE: The REVOKE is a command used to take back access or privileges or
rights on the database objects from the users.
Syntax:
REVOKE privilege_name
ON object_name
FROM {user_name |PUBLIC }

Explanation:
 privilege_name is the access right or privilege want to take back from the
user. Some of the access rights are ALL, EXECUTE, and SELECT.

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 9 – SQL Concepts
 object_name is the name of an database object like TABLE, VIEW,
STORED PROC and SEQUENCE.
 user_name is the name of the user from whom an access right is being
taken back.
 PUBLIC is used to take back access rights to all users.

Explain “on delete cascade” with example.

 A foreign key with cascade delete means that if a record in the Parent (Master) table is
deleted, then the corresponding records in the Child (Foreign) table with automatically
be deleted. This is called a cascade delete in Oracle.
 A foreign key with a cascade delete can be defined in either a CREATE TABLE statement
or an ALTER TABLE statement.
 Syntax (Create table)
CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column1 datatype null/not null,
column2 datatype null/not null,
...

CONSTRAINT fk_column
FOREIGN KEY (column1, column2, ... column_n)
REFERENCES parent_table (column1, column2, ... column_n)
ON DELETE CASCADE
);

 Syntax (Alter table)

ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name
FOREIGN KEY (column1, column2, ... column_n)
REFERENCES parent_table (column1, column2, ... column_n)
ON DELETE CASCADE;

Describe the following SQL functions.

SQL Function Description SQL Query Example
Math function
Abs(n) Returns the absolute value of n. Select Abs(-15);
O/P : 15
Sign(n) Returns the sign of x as -1,0,1 Select Sign(-15);
O/P : -1

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 9 – SQL Concepts
Ceiling(n) Returns the smallest integer value Select ceil(24.8);
that is smaller than or equal to a O/P : 25
number.
Floor(n) Returns the largest integer value Select Floor(24.8);
that is greater than or equal to a O/P : 24
number.
Power (m,n) Returns m raised to nth power. Select power(3,2);
O/P : 9
Round (n,m) Returns n rounded to m places the Select round(15.91,1);
right of decimal point. O/P : 15.9
Square(n) Returns square of n. Select Square(4);
O/P : 16
Sqrt(n) Returns square root of n. Select sqrt(25);
O/P : 5
Exp(n) Returns e raised to the nth power, Select exp(1);
O/P : 1
e=2.17828183.
X%Y Returns reminder of X modulus Y. Select 5%3;
O/P : 2
Pi() Returns the value of pi. Select Pi();
O/P : 3.14159265358979
Sin(n) Returns the sine value of n. Select Sin(0);
O/P : 0
Cos(n) Returns the cosine value of n. Select Cos(0);
O/P : 1
Tan(n) Returns the tangent value of n. Select Tan(0);
O/P : 0
Rand(n) Returns a random decimal number Select Rand();
between 0 and 1. O/P : 0.845610816728278
Log(n) Returns the log value of n having Select Log(1);
base e. O/P : 0
Log10(n) Returns the log value of n having Select Log10(1000);
base 10. O/P : 3
String function
ASCII(x) Returns ASCII value of character. Select ASCII(‘A’);
O/P : 65
Char(x) Returns a character of int ASCII Select CHAR(65);
code. O/P : A
Concat() Concatenates two strings. Select CONCAT(‘great’,’DIET’);
O/P : greatDIET
Len () Returns the number of character in Select LEN(‘DIET’);
x. O/P : 4
Lower() Converts the string to lower case. Select LOWER(‘DIET’);
O/P : diet
Upper() Converts the string to upper case. Select UPPER(‘diet’);
O/P : DIET
Ltrim() Trim blanks from the left of x. Select LTRIM(‘ diet ’);
O/P : diet

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 9 – SQL Concepts
Rtrim() Trim blanks from the right of x. Select RTRIM(‘ diet ’);
O/P : diet
Replace() Looks for the string and replace the Select Replace(‘this is college’,’is’,’may
string every time it occurs. be’);
O/P :thmay be may be college
Substring() Returns the part of string Select Substring(‘this is college’,6,7);
O/P : is my c
Left() Returns the specified number of Select Left(‘this is college’,7);
characters from the left. O/P : this is
Right() Returns the specified number of Select Right(‘this is college’,7);
characters from the right. O/P : college
Reverse() Returns the reversed string. Select Reverse(‘DIET’);
O/P : TEID
Space() Returns n number of spaces Select Space(10);
O/P :
Replicate() Returns repeated string for n Select Replicate(‘DIET’,2);
number of times. O/P :DIETDIET

Date function
Getdate() Returns current date and time. Select Getdate();
O/P : 2018-09-08 10:42:02.113
Day() Returns day of a given date. Select Day(‘23/JAN/2018’);
O/P : 23
Month() Returns month of a given date. Select Month(‘23/JAN/2018’);
O/P : 1
Year() Returns year of a given date. Select Year(‘23/JAN/2018’);
O/P : 2018
Isdate() Returns 1 if the expression is a valid Select Isdate(‘31/FEB/2018’);
date, otherwise 0. O/P : 0
Datename() Returns the specified part of a given Select Datename(month,‘1-23-2018’);
date as varchar value. O/P : January
Datepart() Returns the specified part of a given Select Datepart(month,‘1-23-2018’);
date as int value. O/P : 1
Dateadd() Returns datetime after adding n Select Dateadd(day,5,‘23/JAN/2018’);
numbers of datepart to a given O/P : 2018-01-28 00:00:00.000
date.
Datediff() Returns the difference between two Select Datediff(day,5,
date values, based on the interval ‘23/JAN/2018’,’23/FEB/2018’);
specified. O/P : 31
Eomonth() Returns the last day of month. Select Eomonth(’23/FEB/2018’);
O/P : 2018-01-31

Discuss aggregate functions with example(s).

 Aggregate functions perform a calculation on a set of values and return a single value.
 Aggregate functions ignore NULL values except COUNT(*).
 It is used with the GROUP BY clause of the SELECT statement.

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 9 – SQL Concepts
Example: Consider following table

Student
Rollno Name SPI
1 Raju 8
2 Hari 9
3 Mahesh 7
4 NULL 9
5 Anil 5
1. Avg() : It returns the average of the data values.
Select Avg(SPI) FROM Student;
Output: 7
2. Sum() : It returns the addition of the data values.
Select Sum(SPI) FROM Student;
Output: 38
3. Max() : It returns maximum value for a column.
Select Max(SPI) FROM Student;
Output: 9
4. Min() : It returns Minimum value for a column.
Select Min(SPI) FROM Student;
Output: 5
5. Count() : It returns total number of values in a given column.
Select Count(Name) FROM Student;
Output: 4
6. Count(*) : It returns the number of rows in a table.
Select Count(*) FROM Student;
Output: 5

What is join? List and explain various types of joins.

 A SQL Join statement is used to combine data or rows from two or more tables based on
a common field between them.
 Different types of Joins are:
 Inner Join
 Outer Join
1. Left Outer Join
2. Right Outer Join
3. Full Outer Join
 Cross join
 Self Join

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 9 – SQL Concepts

INNER JOIN
 It returns records that have matching values in both tables.
Syntax:
SELECT columns
FROM table1 INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;
Example:
Consider the following tables:
Student Result
RNO Name Branch RNO SPI
101 Raju CE 101 8.8
102 Amit CE 102 9.2
103 Sanjay ME 104 8.2
104 Neha EC 105 7
105 Meera EE 107 8.9
106 Mahesh ME

SELECT Student.RNO, Student.Name, Student.Branch, Result.SPI

FROM Student
INNER JOIN Result
ON Student.RNO = Result.RNO;

Output:
Inner Join
RNO Name Branch SPI
101 Raju CE 8.8
102 Amit CE 9.2
104 Neha EC 8.2
105 Meera EE 7

LEFT OUTER JOIN

 The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table (table1), and the matched
records from the right table (table2).
 The result is NULL from the right side, if there is no match.
Syntax:
SELECT columns
FROM table1 LEFT OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;
Example:
Consider the Student and result tables:

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 9 – SQL Concepts
SELECT Student.RNO, Student.Name, Student.Branch, Result.SPI
FROM Student LEFT OUTER JOIN Result
ON Student.RNO = Result.RNO;
Output:
Left Join
RNO Name Branch SPI
101 Raju CE 8.8
102 Amit CE 9.2
103 Sanjay ME NULL
104 Neha EC 8.2
105 Meera EE 7
106 Mahesh ME NULL

RIGHT OUTER JOIN

 The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table (table2), and the
matched records from the left table (table1).
 The result is NULL from the left side, if there is no match.
Syntax:
SELECT columns
FROM table1 RIGHT OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;
Example:
Consider the Student and result tables:
SELECT Student.RNO, Student.Name, Student.Branch, Result.SPI
FROM Student RIGHT OUTER JOIN Result
ON Student.RNO = Result.RNO;
Output:
Right Join
RNO Name Branch SPI
101 Raju CE 8.8
102 Amit CE 9.2
104 Neha EC 8.2
105 Meera EE 7
NULL NULL NULL 8.9

FULL OUTER JOIN

 The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword return all records when there is a match in either left
(table1) or right (table2) table records.

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 9 – SQL Concepts
Syntax:
SELECT columns
FROM table1 FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;
Example:
Consider the Student and result tables:
SELECT Student.RNO, Student.Name, Student.Branch, Result.SPI
FROM Student FULL OUTER JOIN Result
ON Student.RNO = Result.RNO;
Output:
Full Join
RNO Name Branch SPI
101 Raju CE 8.8
102 Amit CE 9.2
103 Sanjay ME NULL
104 Neha EC 8.2
105 Meera EE 7
106 Mahesh ME NULL
NULL NULL NULL 8.9

CROSS JOIN
 When each row of first table is combined with each row from the second table, known
as Cartesian join or cross join.
 SQL CROSS JOIN returns the number of rows in first table multiplied by the number of
rows in second table.
Syntax:
SELECT columns
FROM table1 CROSS JOIN table2;
Example:
Consider the following tables:
Color Size
Code Name Amount
1 Red Small
2 Blue Large

SELECT Color.Code, Color.Name, Size.Amount

FROM Color CROSS JOIN Size;

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 9 – SQL Concepts
Output:
Cross Join
Code Name Amount
1 Red Small
2 Blue Small
1 Red Large
2 Blue Large

SELF JOIN
 A self join is a regular join, but the table is joined with itself.
 Here, we need to use aliases for the same table to set a self join between single table.
Syntax:
SELECT a.column, b.column
FROM tablename a CROSS JOIN tablename b
WHERE a.column=b.column;
Example:
Consider the following table:
Employee
EmpNo Name MngrNo
E01 Tarun E02
E02 Rohan E05
E03 Priya E04
E04 Milan NULL
E05 Jay NULL
E06 Anjana E03

SELECT e.Name as Employee, m.Name as Employee

FROM Employee e INNER JOIN Employee m
ON e.MngrNo=m.EmpNo;
Output:
Employee
Employee Manager
Tarun Rohan
Rohan Jay
Priya Milan
Anjana Priya

Define view. What are the types of view? Write syntax to create
view of each type. Give an example of view.
 Views are virtual tables that are compiled at runtime.
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 9 – SQL Concepts
 The data associated with views are not physically stored in the view, but it is stored in
the base tables of the view.
 A view can be made over one or more database tables.
 Generally, we put those columns in view that we need to retrieve/query again and
again.
 Once you have created the view, you can query view like as table.
TYPES OF VIEW
1. Simple View
2. Complex View
Syntax:
CREATE VIEW view_name
AS
SELECT column1, column2...
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition];

Simple View
 When we create a view on a single table, it is called simple view.
 In a simple view we can delete, update and Insert data and that changes are applied on
base table.
 Insert operation are perform on simple view only if we have primary key and all not null
fields in the view.
Example:
Consider following table:
Employee
Eid Ename Salary Department
101 Raju 5000 Admin
102 Amit 8000 HR
103 Sanjay 3000 IT
104 Neha 7000 Sales

--Create View
CREATE VIEW EmpSelect
AS
SELECT Eid, Ename, Department
FROM Employee;

--Display View
Select * from EmpSelect;

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 9 – SQL Concepts

Output
Eid Ename Department
101 Raju Admin
102 Amit HR
103 Sanjay IT
104 Neha Sales

Complex View
 When we create a view on more than one table, it is called complex view.
 We can only update data in complex view.
 You can't insert data in complex view.
 In particular, complex views can contain: join conditions, a group by clause, an order by
clause etc.
Example:
Consider following table:
Employee ContactDetails
Eid Ename Salary Department Eid City Mobile
101 Raju 5000 Admin 101 Rajkot 1234567890
102 Amit 8000 HR 102 Ahmedabad 2345678901
103 Sanjay 3000 IT 103 Baroda 3456789120
104 Neha 7000 Sales 104 Rajkot 4567891230

--Create View
CREATE VIEW Empview
AS
SELECT Employee.Eid, Employee.Ename, ConcactDetails.City
FROM Employee Inner Join ConcactDetails
On Employee.Eid= ConcactDetails.Eid;

--Display View
Select * from Empview;
Output
Eid Ename City
101 Raju Rajkot
102 Amit Ahmedabad
103 Sanjay Baroda
104 Neha Rajkot

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 9 – SQL Concepts

What is materialized view? Explain Query optimization with

materialized view.
 View: View is just a named query. It doesn't store anything. When there is a query on
view, it runs the query of the view definition. Actual data comes from table.
A view uses a query to pull data from the underlying tables.
 Materialized views: Stores data physically and get updated periodically. While querying
MV, it gives data from MV.
A materialized view is a table on disk that contains the result set of a query.
 Materialized views are primarily used to increase application performance when it isn't
feasible or desirable to use a standard view with indexes applied to it.
Materialized views can be updated on a regular basis either through triggers or by using
the ON COMMIT REFRESH option.

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 10 – PL/SQL Concepts

Explain the advantages of PL/SQL.

Advantages of PL/SQL
 Block structure: PL/SQL consist of block of code, which can be nested within each other.
Each block forms a unit of a task or a logical module. PL/SQL blocks can be stored in the
database and reused.
 Procedural language capability: PL/SQL consist of procedural constructs such as
conditional statements (if, if else, nested if, else if ladder) and loops (for, while, do while).
 Better performance: PL/SQL engine processes multiple SQL statements simultaneously
as a single block, thereby reducing network traffic.
 Error handling: PL/SQL handles errors or exceptions effectively during the execution of
PL/SQL program. Once an exception is caught, specific action can be taken depending
upon the type of the exception or it can be displayed to the user with message.

Write short note on stored procedure in PL/SQL. OR

Explain stored procedures in PL/SQL.
 A stored procedure (proc) is a group of PL/SQL statements that performs specific task.
 A procedure has two parts, header and body.
 The header consists of the name of the procedure and the parameters passed to the
procedure.
 The body consists of declaration section, execution section.
 A procedure may or may not return any value. A procedure may return more than one
value.
General Syntax to create or Alter a procedure
CREATE [OR ALTER] PROCEDURE proc_name [list of parameters]
Declaration section
AS

Execution section

Explanation
Create:-It will create a procedure.
Alter:- It will re-create a procedure if it already exists.
We can pass parameters to the procedures in three ways.
1. IN-parameters: - These types of parameters are used to send values to stored procedures.
2. OUT-parameters: - These types of parameters are used to get values from stored
procedures. This is similar to a return type in functions but procedure can return values
for more than one parameters.
3. IN OUT-parameters: - This type of parameter allows us to pass values into a procedure
and get output values from the procedure.
AS indicates the beginning of the body of the procedure.
The syntax within the brackets [ ] indicates that they are optional.

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 10 – PL/SQL Concepts
By using CREATE OR ALTER together the procedure is created if it does not exist and if it exists
then it is replaced with the current code (The only disadvantage of CREATE OR ALTER is that it
does not work in SQL Server versions prior to SQL Server 2016).

How to execute a Stored Procedure?

 There are two ways to execute a procedure.
1) From the SQL prompt.
Syntax: EXECUTE [or EXEC] procedure_name (parameter);
2) Within another procedure – simply use the procedure name.
Syntax: procedure_name (parameter);

Example 1 (Using IN)

CREATE PROCEDURE get_studentname_by_id
@id int
AS
BEGIN
SELECT studentname
FROM stu_tbl
WHERE studentID = @id;
END;
Execute:- EXECUTE get_studentname_by_id 10; OR
get_studentname_by_id 10;
Explanation:- Above procedure gives the name of student whose id is 10.

Example 2 (Using OUT)

CREATE PROCEDURE multiplication
@mult1 int,
@mult2 int,
@result int OUTPUT
AS
BEGIN
SELECT @result = @mult1 * @mult2
END
Execute:- DECLARE @result int
EXEC multiplication 5,6,@result output
PRINT @result
Explanation:- Above procedure gives the multiplication of 5 and 6 that is equal to 30.

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 10 – PL/SQL Concepts
Advantages of procedure
 Security:- We can improve security by giving rights to selected persons only.
 Faster Execution:- It is precompiled so compilation of procedure is not required every
time you call it.
 Sharing of code:- Once procedure is created and stored, it can be used by more than one
user.
 Productivity:- Code written in procedure is shared by all programmers. This eliminates
redundant coding by multiple programmers so overall improvement in productivity.

Explain database trigger with example. OR

Write short note on database triggers in PL/SQL. OR
What is trigger? Explain its type with their syntax.
 A trigger is a PL/SQL block structure which is triggered (executed) automatically when
DML statements like Insert, Delete, and Update is executed on a table.
 There are three types of triggers.
 Data Definition Language (DDL) triggers
 In SQL Server we can create triggers on DDL statements (like CREATE,
ALTER and DROP) and certain system-defined Stored Procedures that does
DDL-like operations.
 Data Manipulation Language (DML) triggers
 In SQL Server we can create triggers on DML statements (like INSERT,
UPDATE and DELETE) and Stored Procedures that do DML-like operations.
DML Triggers are of two types.
1. After trigger (using FOR/AFTER CLAUSE)
 After trigger (using FOR/AFTER CLAUSE): After triggers are
executed after completing the execution of DML statements.
 Example: If you insert a record/row into a table then the trigger
related/associated with the insert event on this table will executed
only after inserting the record into that table.
 If the record/row insertion fails, SQL Server will not execute the
after trigger.
 Instead of trigger (using INSTEAD OF CLAUSE)
 Instead of Trigger (using INSTEAD OF CLAUSE) : Instead of trigger
are executed before starts the execution of DML statements.
 An instead of trigger allows us to skip an INSERT, DELETE, or
UPDATE statement to a table and execute other statements
defined in the trigger instead. The actual insert, delete, or update
operation does not occur at all.
 Example: If you insert a record/row into a table then the trigger
related/associated with the insert event on this table will be
executed before inserting the record into that table.
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 10 – PL/SQL Concepts
 If the record/row insertion fails, SQL Server will execute the Instead
of Trigger.
 Logon triggers
 This type of trigger is executed against a LOGON event before a user session is
established to the SQL Server.
 We cannot pass parameters into triggers like stored procedure.
 Triggers are normally slow.
 When triggers can be used,
 Based on change in one table, we want to update other table.
 Automatically update derived columns whose values change based on other
columns.
 Logging.
 Enforce business rules.

Syntax of Trigger
CREATE [OR ALTER] TRIGGER trigger_name
ON table_name
{ FOR | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }
{ [ INSERT ] [ , ] [ UPDATE ] [ , ] [ DELETE ] }

AS
BEGIN
Executable statements
END;

CREATE [OR ALTER] TRIGGER trigger_name:- This clause creates a trigger with the given name
or overwrites an existing trigger.
[ON table_name]:- This clause identifies the name of the table to which the trigger is related.
[FOR | AFTER | INSTEAD OF]:- This clause indicates at what time the trigger should be fired. FOR
and AFTER are similar.
[INSERT / UPDATE / DELETE]:- This clause determines on which kind of statement the trigger
should be fired. Either on insert or update or delete or combination of any or all. More than one
statement can be used together separated by Comma. The trigger gets fired at all the specified
triggering event.

Example 1
Trigger to display a message when we perform insert operation on student table.

CREATE TRIGGER student_msg

on Student
AFTER INSERT

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 10 – PL/SQL Concepts
AS
BEGIN
print ‘Record inserted successfully'
END
OUTPUT:- Trigger is created.
 Now when you perform insert operation on student table.
Insert into student values (1, ’Raj’, ‘CE’);
It displays following message after executing insert statement.
Output:- (1 row(s) affected)
Record inserted successfully

Example 2
Trigger to insert history into Audit table when we perform insert operation on student table.
CREATE TRIGGER tgr_student_forinsert
ON Student
FOR INSERT
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @id int
SELECT @rno= rno from INSERTED
INSERT INTO Audit VALUES
('New student with rno=‘ + cast(@rno as varchar(10)) +
'is added in student table ‘)
END

OUTPUT:- Trigger is created.

 Explanation:- Now when you perform insert operation on student table.
Insert into student values (1, ’Raj’, ‘CE’);
It insert one record in Audit table as “'New student with rno = 1 is added
in student table”

What is cursor? Explain with example. OR

Write short note on cursors and its types.
 Cursors are database objects used to traverse the results of a select SQL query.
 It is a temporary work area created in the system memory when a select SQL statement
is executed.
 This temporary work area is used to store the data retrieved from the database, and
manipulate this data.
 It points to a certain location within a record set and allow the operator to move forward
(and sometimes backward, depending upon the cursor type).
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 10 – PL/SQL Concepts
 We can process only one record at a time.
 The set of rows the cursor holds which is called the active set (active data set).
 Cursors are often criticized for their high overhead.
 There are two types of cursors in PL/SQL:
1. Implicit cursors:
 These are created by default by ORACLE itself when DML statements like,
insert, update, and delete statements are executed.
 They are also created when a SELECT statement that returns just one row
is executed.
 We cannot use implicit cursors for user defined work.
2. Explicit cursors:
 Explicit cursors are user defined cursors written by the developer.
 They can be created when a SELECT statement that returns more than one
row is executed.
 Even though the cursor stores multiple records, only one record can be
processed at a time, which is called as current row.
 When you fetch a row, the current row position moves to next row.

Steps to manage explicit cursor:-

1) Declare a cursor:-
A cursor is defined in the declaration section of PL/SQL block.
Syntax:-
DECLARE cursorname CURSOR FOR SELECT ………
2) Open a cursor:-
Once cursor is declared we can open it.
When cursor is opened following operations are performed.
a. Memory is allocated to store the data.
b. Execute SELECT statement associated with cursor
c. Create active data set by retrieving data from table
d. Set the cursor row pointer to point to first record in active data set.
Syntax:-
OPEN cursorname;

3) Fetching data:-
We cannot process selected row directly. We have to fetch column values of a row into
memory variables. This is done by FETCH statement.
Syntax:-
FETCH NEXT FROM cursorname INTO variable1, variable2………

4) Processing data:-
This step involves actual processing of current row.

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 10 – PL/SQL Concepts
5) Closing cursor:-
A cursor should be closed after the processing of data completes. Once you close the
cursor it will release memory allocated for that cursor.
Syntax:-
CLOSE cursorname;

6) Deallocating cursor:-
It is used to delete a cursor and releases all resources used by cursor.
Syntax:-
DEALLOCATE cursorname;

Example 1:- Cursor to insert record from student table to student1 table if branch is CE.

DECLARE @rno int, @name varchar(50),@branch varchar(50);

DECLARE cursor_student CURSOR
FOR SELECT rno, name, branch FROM student;
OPEN cursor_student;
FETCH NEXT FROM cursor_student INTO @rno, @name, @branch;
WHILE @@FETCH_STATUS = 0
BEGIN
IF (@branch='CE')
INSERT INTO student1 values (@rno, @name, @branch)
FETCH NEXT FROM cursor_student INTO @rno, @name, @branch;
END;
CLOSE cursor_student;
DEALLOCATE cursor_student;

Example 2:- Cursor to update SPI (SPI=SPI-7) if SPI remains greater than or equal to ZERO after
update.

DECLARE
@rno int, @spi decimal(8,2);
DECLARE cursor_student CURSOR
FOR SELECT rno, spi
FROM student;
OPEN cursor_student;
FETCH NEXT FROM cursor_student INTO
@rno, @spi;
WHILE @@FETCH_STATUS = 0
BEGIN
set @spi=@spi-7
if (@spi<0)

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 10 – PL/SQL Concepts
print 'SPI must be greater than 0'
else
update student
set spi=@spi
where rno=@rno
FETCH NEXT FROM cursor_student INTO
@rno, @spi;
END;
CLOSE cursor_student;
DEALLOCATE cursor_student;

Write a PL/SQL block to print the sum of Numbers from 1 to 50.

DECLARE
@V1 INT,
@SUM INT
SET @V1 = 1
SET @SUM = 0
WHILE (@V1 <= 50)
BEGIN
SET @SUM = @SUM + @V1
SET @V1 = @V1 + 1
END
PRINT @SUM

Write a PL/SQL block to print the given number is Odd or Even.

DECLARE @V1 INT
SET @V1 = 20
BEGIN
IF @V1%2 = 0
PRINT 'NO IS EVEN';
ELSE
PRINT ' NO IS ODD';
END

Write a PL/SQL block to print sum of even numbers between 1

and 20.
DECLARE
@V1 INT,
@SUM INT
SET @V1 = 1
SET @SUM = 0
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 10 – PL/SQL Concepts
WHILE (@V1 <= 20)
BEGIN
IF @V1%2 = 0
SET @SUM = @SUM + @V1
SET @V1 = @V1 + 1
END
PRINT @SUM

Write a PL/SQL program for inserting even numbers in EVEN

table and odd number in ODD table from number 1 to 50.
DECLARE
@V1 INT
SET @V1=1
WHILE (@V1 <= 50)
BEGIN
IF @V1%2=0
BEGIN
INSERT INTO EVEN (NO) VALUES (@V1);
END
ELSE
BEGIN
INSERT INTO ODD (NO) VALUES (@V1);
END
SET @V1 = @V1 + 1
END