Ottoman-Dutch cultural ties
Version 2011
Written by Hans Theunissen for the 2011 Mapping
Edited by Chantal Hamelinck and Teike Asselbergs.
Commissioned by DutchCulture, centre for international cooperation.
In 2011, SICA (the predecessor of DutchCulture) produced a comprehensive mapping of the Turkish
cultural field. This mapping was written by local experts and edited by Teike Asselbergs and Chantal
Hamelinck. The mapping was produce as a means to promote cultural exchange between the
Netherlands and Turkey and as a starting point of the year 2012, which marked 400 years of Dutch –
Turkish diplomatic relations. The mapping was supported and produced in close co-operation with the
Dutch public funds.
Table of Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 3
Diplomatic and economic relations .......................................................................................... 5
Dutch communities in the Ottoman Empire ............................................................................ 7
Turkish and Ottoman Language and Culture........................................................................... 8
Visual arts ..................................................................................................................................... 9
Carpets ........................................................................................................................................10
Textiles & Clothing.....................................................................................................................11
Ceramics & Tiles ........................................................................................................................12
Architecture & architectural decoration .................................................................................14
Garden architecture...................................................................................................................15
Horticulture .........................................................................................................................15
This chapter deals with the cultural relations between the Ottoman Empire and the
Netherlands in the widest sense, and provides both a general introduction and a
number of more specialized short texts dealing with specific subjects for those who
are interested. Each entry has a bibliography, listing the most important publications on
the subject for further reading.
Introduction
The Ottoman Empire (ca. 1300-1922) was for a long period one of the dominant forces
in the Middle East, North Africa and South-Eastern Europe. From 1453 onwards the
Ottoman sultans ruled over a vast empire from their capital, Istanbul. Contacts with
Europe sometimes had the character of military confrontations, but also witnessed
periods of peaceful co-existence. However, throughout this at times eventful history
there were also cultural relations between the Ottoman Empire and Europe, which
resulted in exchange and mutual influence. In 1612 the first Dutch ambassador
traveled to the Ottoman Empire in order to establish direct diplomatic relations,
especially since they had a common enemy: Spain.While the Ottomans hoped to
conclude a political and military alliance with the upcoming naval power of the
Netherlands, the Dutch –as an upcoming economic power-- were especially interested
in direct relations for commercial reasons. Interestingly, even before the establishment
of official diplomatic relations between the Netherlands and the Ottoman Empire in
1612, there had already been contacts between the Dutch and Ottomans on various
levels: Dutch pilgrims travelled through Ottoman lands on their way to Jerusalem,
merchants frequented Ottoman ports in the Levant (under foreign flags), and already in
the 16th century individual diplomats, travelers, artists and scholars from the
Netherlands visited lands belonging to the Ottoman Empire for various purposes. In
general we can say that especially these groups --diplomats, merchants, travelers,
artists and scholars-- played an important role in cultural contacts between both
countries throughout the Ottoman period. News, knowledge and information about the
Ottoman Empire reached the Netherlands directly via these groups, although the
indirect route via other European countries (Venice, Austria, France) that often
maintained more close relations with the Ottoman Empire was important as well. Until
the late 18th century, Ottoman diplomatic practice did not allow for Ottoman
ambassadors to reside in foreign countries. Instead the Ottomans used envoys for
incidental missions. As a consequence, the Ottomans were (initially) more dependent
on indirect sources for their knowledge and information about the Netherlands than the
Dutch were. Over time contacts between the Dutch and Ottomans have led to
interesting forms of cultural exchange and influence. These cultural contacts between
the Netherlands and the Ottoman Empire materialized on various -often interrelated
and overlapping- levels:
Dutch diplomats, merchants, travelers, artists and scholars who visited the Ottoman Empire
produced written and visual information about the Ottoman Empire, the Ottomans, and the
Ottoman culture (documents, reports, travelogues, drawings, paintings). This category also
includes Dutch (re-)use of such information (for texts or visual art), as well as the use of
products of Ottoman culture without ever having visited the Ottoman Empire themselves (for
instance Ottoman carpets and clothing in 17th-century Dutch paintings).
The Dutch who settled in the Ottoman Empire, and formed small communities in Istanbul and
Izmir, contributed to Ottoman “Levantine culture” in various forms (for instance in churches and
cemeteries, residential architecture, painting)
Products of Ottoman culture - documents, manuscripts, objects of art/material culture - came
to the Netherlands and ended up in archives, libraries, private- and museum collections.
Sometimes these objects influenced Dutch culture (for instance carpets, ceramics and
tiles, and their ornamentation).
Ottoman cultural phenomena and the objects belonging to these phenomena came -usually
indirectly- to the Netherlands and were (first adapted and then) incorporated into Dutch culture
(for instance coffee culture). Some of these cultural phenomena even returned to the Ottoman
Empire in their Dutch form, being reintroduced in Ottoman culture (for instance flower bulbs in
horticulture).
Products of Dutch culture came, directly or indirectly, to the Ottoman Empire. Sometimes these
objects influenced Ottoman culture, as can be seen in for instance tiles and their
ornamentation.
In general, diplomats and merchants played the most important role in the direct contacts
between the Ottoman Empire and the Netherlands. Dutch-Ottoman relations throughout the
Ottoman period were mainly commercial relations; diplomacy served these economic relations
and cultural exchange or influence was often an unintended – but often very interesting – by-
product of these contacts.
Further reading
G. R. Bosscha Erdbrink, At the Threshold of Felicity: Ottoman-Dutch Relations during the
Embassy of Cornelis Calkoen at the Sublime Porte. 1726-1744, Amsterdam 1977.
Z. Celikkol, A. H. De Groot & B. Slot, Lale ile basladı: Turkiye ve Hollanda arasındaki dort yuzyıllık
iliskilerin resimli tarihcesi [= .... It began with the tulip : the history of four centuries of
relationship between Turkey and the Netherlands in pictures], Ankara 2000.
A. de Groot, The Ottoman Empire and the Dutch Republic. A History of the Earliest Diplomatic
Relations. 1610-1630, Leiden-Istanbul 1978, 83-105.
A.H. de Groot, Nederland en Turkije: zeshonderd jaar politieke, economische en culturele
contacten, Leiden 1986.
A.H. de Groot, The Netherlands and Turkey: four hundred years of political, economical, social
and cultural relations : selected essays, İstanbul 2007.
J. de Hond. Verlangen naar het Oosten. Oriëntalisme in de Nederlandse cultuur, ca. 1800-1920,
Leiden 2008.
A. Kampman & R. van Luttervelt Herdenkingstentoonstelling 350 jaar Nederland-Turkije, 1612-
1962, Amsterdam 1962.
Kebikeç (Dosya Hollanda-Türkiye) 25 (2008).
W. Meulenkamp & H. Theunissen (eds.), Basjibozoek: enige aspecten van de receptie van de
Turkse cultuur in Nederland, Leeuwarden-Utrecht 1990.
M. Roding & H. Theunissen (eds.), The Tulip: A Symbol of Two Nations, Utrecht-İstanbul 1993.
H. Theunissen, A. Abelmann & W. Meulenkamp (eds.) Topkapı & Turkomanie. Turks-
Nederlandse ontmoetingen sinds 1600, Amsterdam 1989.
*
Diplomatic and economic relations
The National Archives in The Hague contain rich collections of documents both of
Ottoman and Dutch origin, documenting the Ottoman-Dutch relations. Apart from the
archives of the foreign office, embassies, and consulates, the National Archives also
have numerous private archives from Dutch families who had ties with the Ottoman
Empire (for instance De Hochepied; but also private archives of Dutch ambassadors).
Inventories are available.
Further reading diplomatic relations
A. Abelmann, „Cornelis Calkoen op audiëntie bij Sultan Ahmed III ‟, in H. Theunissen, A. Abelmann & W.
Meulenkamp (eds.) Topkapı & Turkomanie. Turks-Nederlandse ontmoetingen sinds 1600, Amsterdam
1989, 26- 36.
G. R. Bosscha Erdbrink, At the Threshold of Felicity: Ottoman-Dutch Relations during the Embassy of
Cornelis Calkoen at the Sublime Porte. 1726-1744, Amsterdam 1977.
A. de Groot, The Ottoman Empire and the Dutch Republic. A History of the Earliest Diplomatic Relations.
1610-1630, Leiden-Istanbul 1978, 83-105.
K. Heeringa, De eerste Nederlandsche gezant bij de Verheven Porte, Utrecht 1917.
J. Schmidt, Through the Legation Window 1876-1926: Four Essays on Dutch, Dutch-Indian and Ottoman
History, Istanbul-Leiden 1992.
H. Theunissen, „Dostluğun bedeli. 1612-1617 yıllarında Hollanda ile Osmanlı Devleti arasındaki resmi
ilişkilerin oluşmasında hediyenin rolü‟, Kebikeç (Dosya Hollanda-Türkiye) 25 (2008), 51-66.
B. Slot, „De diplomatieke betrekkingen tussen Nederland en het Osmaanse Rijk ‟, in H. Theunissen, A.
Abelmann & W. Meulenkamp (eds.) Topkapı & Turkomanie. Turks-Nederlandse ontmoetingen sinds
1600, Amsterdam 1989, 9-18.
Further reading economic relations
B. Arı, Conflicts between the Dutch Merchants and the Ottoman Local Authorities according to the
"Felemenk Ahidname Defteri" dated 1091/1680 [1091/1680 tarihli "Felemenk Ahidname Defteri"ne
M. H. van den Boogert, Ottoman Dragomans and European Consuls: the Protection System in Eighteenth-
century Aleppo, Doctoral Dissertation Leiden University 2001.
M. Bulut, Ottoman-Dutch Economic Relations in the Early Modern Period 1571-1699, Doctoral
Dissertation Utrecht University 2000.
göre Hollandalı tüccar ile Osmanlı mahalli idarecileri arasındaki ihtilaflar], (Unpublished MA Thesis
Bilkent Üniversitesi) Ankara 1996.
İ. Kadı, Arşiv belgelerine göre 18. yy'da Osmanlı-Hollanda iktisadi münasebetleri, (Unpublished MA Thesis
Marmara Üniversitesi) Ankara 1997.
İ. Kadı, Natives and Interlopers: Competition between Ottoman and Dutch Merchants in the 18th Century,
(Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation Leiden University) Leiden 2008.
J. Schmidt, „Dutch Merchants in 18th-century Ankara‟, in Anatolica XXII (1996), 237-260.
J. Schmidt, From Anatolia to Indonesia: Opium Trade and the Dutch Community of Izmir, 1820-1940,
Istanbul- Leiden 1998.
B. Slot, „De handel tussen Nederland en het Osmaanse Rijk‟, in H. Theunissen, A. Abelmann & W.
Meulenkamp (eds.) Topkapı & Turkomanie. Turks-Nederlandse ontmoetingen sinds 1600, Amsterdam
1989, 19- 25.
Dutch communities in the Ottoman Empire
Since the establishment of official relations in 1612, Dutch diplomats and merchants
started to settle in the Ottoman Empire, mainly in the most important commercial
centers such as Istanbul, Izmir, Ankara and Aleppo. These Dutch communities were
usually very small. However, with the emergence of Izmir as the main commercial hub
of the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century, the Dutch community in this city started to
grow and began to play an important role in the city‟s economic life. Some
important Dutch families were Van Lennep, and De Hochepied. These merchant
families formed the Dutch (often protestant) part of the Levantine community of Izmir
and had their own hospital-church and cemetery. The Dutch consulate was often
housed in the (private) residence of the consul in the area around the (in)famous Frenk
Caddesi. Most rich families had summer residences outside Izmir, where they also
stayed in times of (plague) epidemics. The Van Lennep and De Hochepied families
owned important collections of paintings, indicating their high status in gâvur Izmir
society. The Dutch community in Istanbul was smaller and consisted mainly of the
ambassador and a number of (often related) merchant families, who sometimes also
functioned as officials in the embassy.
Further reading
S. Heylen, Kunst in de Levant: de collecties van de Nederlandse families De Hochepied
en Van Lennep in Smyrna, MA Thesis Utrecht University 2007:
http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/student-theses/2007-1009-200252/UUindex.html
M. Hoenkamp-Mazgon, Palais de Hollande te Istanboel: het ambassadegebouw en zijn
bewoners sinds 1612, Amsterdam 2002.
De Nederlandsche Protestantsche Kerk en het Nederlandsch Nationaal Hospitaal te
Smyrna, Smyrna 1903.
J. W. Samberg, De Hollandsche Gereformeerde Gemeente te Smirna: de geschiedenis
eener handelskerk, Leiden 1928.
J. Schmidt, „Banditry and the Dutch Colony in the Vilayet of Aydın‟, in Through the
Legation Window 1876- 1926: Four Essays on Dutch, Dutch-Indian and Ottoman
History, Istanbul-Leiden 1992, 1-24.
J. Schmidt, From Anatolia to Indonesia: Opium Trade and the Dutch Community of
Izmir, 1820-1940, Istanbul- Leiden 1998.
Turkish and Ottoman Language and Culture
The study of the Turkish language and culture is an important scholarly tradition in the
Netherlands. The origins of Dutch Turcology go back to the 17 th century, when Turkish
was for the first time studied (next to Arabic and Persian) at Leiden University. This
tradition continues until today, and Leiden University now is the only university in the
Netherlands with a specialized program of Turkish Studies. The department is one of
the biggest in Europe (outside Turkey) and attracts students from all over the world,
even including Turkey. The fact that Middle Eastern languages were studied at Leiden
University from the late 16th century onwards also led to the establishment of various
manuscript collections in Leiden University Library. One of these important collections
is the Turkish manuscript collection. This collection has recently been catalogued in its
entirety. A substantial part of the Middle Eastern collection (ca. 1000 manuscripts) was
gathered by the Dutch diplomat-scholar Levinus Warner (1619-1665) during his stay in
Istanbul.
Further reading
G. Drewes, Levinus Warner and his legacy: three centuries Legatum Warnerianum in the Leiden University
Library: catalogue of the commemorative exhibition held in the Bibliotheca Thysiana from April 27th till
May 15th 1970, Leiden 1970.
A. H. de Groot, De betekenis van de Nederlandse ambassade bij de verheven Porte voor de studie van het
Turks in de 17de en 18de eeuw, Leiden 1979.
J. Schmidt, Catalogue of Turkish manuscripts in the library of Leiden University and other collections in
the Netherlands, 3 vols. Leiden 2000-2002. (Volume 4/last volume forthcoming)
J. Schmidt, „Between Author and Library Shelf: The Intriguing History of Some Middle Eastern
Manuscripts Acquired by Public Collections in the Netherlands Prior to 1800‟, in Alastair Hailton, Maurits
H. van den Boogert e.a., The Republic of Letters and the Levant, Leiden-Boston 2005, 27-51.
H. Theunissen, „Het stiefkind van de Oriëntalistiek. De studie van de Turkse talen en culturen in
Nederland‟, in
W. Meulenkamp & H. Theunissen (eds.), Basjibozoek: enige aspecten van de receptie van de Turkse
cultuur in Nederland, Leeuwarden-Utrecht 1990, 40-65.
Visual arts
From the late 15th century onwards artists from the Netherlands depicted Ottomans,
and scenes from the Ottoman Empire, in their work. These works were often
(re)produced for printed books. Dutch libraries, archives and museums have large
collections of drawings, gravures (Marius Bauer), paintings, and books (Cornelis de
Bruyn) with Ottoman subjects (ranging from single gravures or drawings to illustrated
travelogues and complete costume books). A small number of diplomats also made
interesting drawings in personal notebooks. By far the best known collection of
paintings was made by Jean-Baptiste Vanmour for the Dutch ambassador Cornelis
Calkoen (nowadays to be found in the Rijksmuseum). Other important collections of
paintings belonged to the Van Lennep and De Hochepied families in Izmir, and to other
Dutch diplomats. Two of the more interesting paintings are the panoramas of Ankara
and Izmir (to be found in the Rijkmuseum and Tropenmuseum). The rich collections of
Dutch libraries and museums also contain famous works by non-Dutch artists, such as
Melchior Lorck (Panorama of Istanbul, Leiden University Library).
Further reading
A. Boppe, Les peintres du Bosphore au dix-huitième siecle, Paris 1911.
J. de Hond. Verlangen naar het Oosten. Oriëntalisme in de Nederlandse cultuur, ca. 1800-1920, Leiden
2008.
Jean Baptiste Vanmour‟un tablolari 1671-1737 = Les peintures ‟turques‟ de Jean-Baptiste Vanmour
1671-1737: conserv , (exhibition catalogue) Ankara-Istanbul, 1978.
van Luttervelt, De "Turkse" schilderijen van J.B. Vanmour en zijn school: de verzameling van Cornelis
Calkoen, ambassadeur bij de Hoge Poorte, 1725-1743, Istanbul 1958.
Rado (ed.), Jean-Baptiste Vanmour, On sekizinci yüzyılın basında Osmanlı kıyafetleri : Fransız Büyükelcisi
Marquis de Ferriol‟un Hollandalı ressam Van Mour‟a yapfırdigı 100 resim ile Türklere ait bazı törenler ve
acıklamalar: Paris 1714, Istanbul 1980.
E. Sint Nicolaas, An eyewitness of the Tulip Era: Jean-Baptiste Vanmour, Istanbul 2003.
S. Heylen, Kunst in de Levant: de collecties van de Nederlandse families De Hochepied en Van Lennep in
Smyrna, MA Thesis Utrecht University 2007:
http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/student-theses/2007-1009-200252/UUindex.html
A. Kraayenga, Marius Bauer 1867-1932. Oogstrelend Oosters, Zwolle 2007.
M. Roding, „Die met dit zoort van Volk wil verkeeren…, het beeld van de Turk in de Nederlandse grafiek
(1450- 1900), in H. Theunissen, A. Abelmann & W. Meulenkamp (eds.) Topkapı & Turkomanie. Turks -
Nederlandse ontmoetingen sinds 1600, Amsterdam 1989, 54-74.
R. Speelman & N. Özkan, „İstanbul‟da Hollandalı bir Şarkiyatçı‟, Kebikeç (Dosya Hollanda-Türkiye) 25
(2008), 85-92.
M. Güleç & N. Özkan (eds.), „Marius Bauer‟in mektupları‟, Kebikeç (Dosya Hollanda-Türkiye) 25 (2008),
93- 101.
Carpets
From the 15th century onwards carpets from the Ottoman Empire were exported to
Europe as luxury products. From the 17 th century onwards, in the Golden Age, Ottoman
carpets became very popular in the Netherlands as a form of conspicuous
consumption by the Dutch (merchant) elite. As such these carpets were not only used
in interiors, but also appeared in paintings. However, they were usually not used on the
floors, but on tables. Turkish carpets were simply too expensive to use on floors. These
depictions form an important source for the dating of certain carpet types and even
individual carpets. The prestige of Turkish carpets eventually led to the production of
handmade, but also industrial imitations in the Netherlands under the name Smyrna
carpets. Dutch Smyrna carpets were named after a specific Turkish carpet type with
bold designs which from the 17th century was imported via Izmir. The tradition of using
Turkish-style carpets (not real ones, but cheap imitations!) on tables still exists in the
Netherlands. In traditional Dutch cafés (bruin café) one can still find this type of carpet
on the tables. This can be considered as an interesting case of “gesunkenes Kulturgut”:
something which started as a status symbol (17 th century) in the course of time fell
victim to its own popularity and ended as something inferior and old-fashioned. In spite
of their evident quality even real Turkish carpets never recovered from this image
problem: both Persian and Turkish carpets are no longer very popular in the
Netherlands. However, as a cultural phenomenon this fall from grace is very
interesting. Even though carpets mainly came from the Ottoman Empire to Europe,
there is also an example of tapestry going to the Ottoman Empire. In 1617 the Dutch
authorities gave grand vizier Halil Pasha six very expensive wall tapestries as a token
of gratitude for his role in the establishment of the official relations in 1612. The
tapestries were made by the famous Delft tapissier François Spiering. As far as known
is this the only case of tapestries sent from Holland to the Ottoman Empire. The
Rijkmuseum recently bought two tapestries by Spiering at an auction in Paris.
Further reading
Onno Ydema, „Turkse tapijten op Nederlandse schilderijen‟, in H. Theunissen, Annelies
Abelmann & Wim Meulenkamp (eds.) Topkapı & Turkomanie. Turks-Nederlandse
ontmoetingen sinds 1600, Amsterdam 1989, 140-147.
Onno Ydema, Carpets and their Datings in Netherlandish Paintings (1540-1700),
Zutphen 1991.
Gülgün Yılmaz, Tezgahtan Tuvale. Onyedinci Yüzyıl Hollanda ve Flaman Resminde
Osmanlı Halıları, Istanbul 2009.
H. Theunissen, „Dostluğun bedeli. 1612-1617 yıllarında Hollanda ile Osmanlı Devleti
arasındaki resmi ilişkilerin oluşmasında hediyenin rolü‟, Kebikeç (Dosya Hollanda-
Türkiye) 25 (2008), 51-66.
Textiles & Clothing
Already in the earliest publications that deal with the Ottoman Empire, we find
depictions of inhabitants of various origins wearing “Ottoman” clothing. So-called
“Costume Books” were especially popular in the 16 th until18th centuries. In the 17th
century “Oriental dress” was frequently used in Dutch painting (often in Biblical
scenes). In the 17th century the first real Ottoman garments must have arrived in the
Netherlands, bought for instance by travelers and merchants. In the 17 th and 18th
centuries raw materials and various cloths (cotton, silk, mohair) were by far the most
important goods of Dutch-Ottoman trade. In the 18th century fashion a la turque (part of
European rococo turquerie/turquoiserie) also reached the Netherlands and various
garments of Turkish origin became popular among the rich. Nowadays Ottoman
textiles form a source of inspiration for modern Dutch designers who use various
décors (çintamani etc.) for new designs and products. The Textile Research Centre in
Leiden has a rich collection of clothing from the Middle East, including Turkey.
Further reading
M. Breukink-Peeze, „ Eene fraaie kleeding, van den turkschen dragt ontleent. Turkse
kleding en mode à la turque in Nederland‟, in H. Theunissen, Annelies Abelmann & Wim
Meulenkamp (eds.) Topkapı & Turkomanie.
Turks-Nederlandse ontmoetingen sinds 1600, Amsterdam 1989, 130-139.
I. H. Kadı, Natives and Interlopers: Competition between Ottoman and Dutch Merchants
in the 18th Century, Doctoral Dissertation Leiden University 2008.
Web sites: http://www.lottevanlaatum.nl/ http://www.trc-leiden.nl
Ceramics & Tiles
Because of mutual influences, ceramics and tiles form one of the most important
meeting points of Turkish and Dutch culture. In the second half of the 19 th and early 20th
centuries, ceramics from the Middle East, including Ottoman products mainly from
Iznik, became increasingly popular in Europe and were collected by both museums and
rich private collectors. This fascination for Ottoman ceramics also reached the
Netherlands, where in the late 19 th and early 20th century various factories (De
Porceleyne Fles, Rozenburg, Zuid-Holland, Arhemsche Faiencefabriek) started to
produce ceramics inspired by the shapes and decors of Ottoman ceramics. It is
interesting to note, however, that already as early as the 17 th century depictions of
“Turks” (mainly sultans and horsemen) were used as ornaments on Dutch tiles. From
the late 17th century onwards Dutch tiles also started to have influence on the
ornamentation of tiles made in Kütahya and Istanbul. In the 18 th century, especially
during the rule of the sultans Mahmud I, Osman III, Mustafa III and Abdülhamid I large
quantities of Dutch tiles with fashionable baroque-rococo decors were imported for
use in imperial buildings such as the Topkapı Palace.
Tulip vases can be considered as one of the most fascinating ceramic products. The
reason is that not only the tulip, but also the tulip vase belongs to the shared cultural
heritage of both countries. Modern designers, like for example Lotte van Laatum, and
ceramists in both Turkey and the Netherlands are often inspired by this phenomenon,
creating modern tulip vases and thereby combining the shared rich heritage of both
cultures.
Further reading
M. Boot, Rozenburg 1883-1917: geschiedenis van een Haagse fabriek, Zeist 1983.
J. Jongstra & H. Theunissen, „Caïro Revisited: Conservering van Nederlandse tegels in de sabil-kuttab
van Sultan Mustafa III in Caïro‟, Keramika, XX (2008), No. 3, 12-17.
H. Martens, Arnhemsche Fayencefabriek, 1907-1934, Arnhem 1997.
K. Pool, „Turkse en Nederlandse keramiek: „Iznik‟ en „Nieuw Delfts Driekleuren‟, in H. Theunissen,
Annelies Abelmann & Wim Meulenkamp (eds.) Topkapı & Turkomanie. Turks -Nederlandse ontmoetingen
sinds 1600, Amsterdam 1989, 107-117.
B. van Rijckevorsel-De Bruijn, Herboren Oriënt: Islamitisch en nieuw Delfts aardewerk, Delft 1984.
M. Roding & H. Theunissen, The Tulip: A Symbol of Two Nations, Utrecht-İstanbul 1993.
H. Theunissen & Z. Tişkaya, „Aalmis in Istanbul: De Nederlandse tegels van de Surp Krikor Lusavoriç
Kerk‟, Tegel, XXXIII (2005), 19-27.
H. Theunissen & Z. Tişkaya, „The Dutch Tiles of Surp Krikor Lusavoriç Church in İstanbul‟, EJOS, VIII
(2005), No.11, 1-41.
H. Theunissen, „Osmaanse rococo en Nederlandse tegels in het Topkapı Paleis ‟, Keramika, XVII (2005),
No. 2, 26-33.
H. Theunissen, „Nederlandse tegels in de sabil-kuttab van Sultan Mustafa III in Cairo‟, Keramika, XVIII
(2006), No. 2, 26-32.
H. Theunissen, „Dutch Tiles in 18th-Century Ottoman Baroque-Rococo Interiors: the Sabil-Kuttab of
Sultan Mustafa III in Cairo‟, EJOS, IX (2006), No. 3, 1-283.
Theunissen, „In bad met de sultan‟, Keramika, XIX (2007), No.1, 22-25.
H. Theunissen, „Osmanlı İmparatorluǧu‟nun Hollanda Çinileri‟, Kebikeç, Sayı 25 (2008)(Dosya Hollanda-
Türkiye), 357-384.
H. Theunissen, „Nieuwe ontdekking: Nederlandse tegels in de sabil-kuttab van Sultan Mahmud I in
Caïro‟, Keramika, XXI (2009), No. 2, 27-31.
G. Yılmaz, „Hollanda duvar çinilerinin Topkapı Sarayı‟ndaki kullanımı‟, in Geza David & Ibolya Gerelyes
(eds.), Thirteenth International Congress of Turkish Art. Proceedings, Budapest 2009, 729-745.
Modern Lale Vazoları (exhibition catalogue) Istanbul 1993. Web site Lotte van Laatum:
http://www.lottevanlaatum.nl/
Architecture & architectural decoration
The Dutch communities who lived in the Ottoman Empire often built their own houses.
The best known of these are the houses and summer houses of the Dutch Levantine
families in Izmir and the surrounding villages (Bornova, Seydiköy/Gaziemir, Buca,
Hacılar). Most/all of these houses are lost, but drawings and photographs exist. The
Dutch community in Izmir also had its own hospital-church complex, and both the
church as well as the cemetery still exists. An important building for the Dutch
community in Istanbul is the present consulate-general complex (formerly the
embassy) which also houses a church. Since the community in Istanbul did not have its
own cemetery, members of the Dutch community in Istanbul were often buried in one
of the (protestant) cemeteries of Feriköy. In Istanbul there is also a famous building
which was commissioned by a Dutchman: the Botter Apartmanı on Istiklal Caddesi.
This building in art nouveau style was designed by Raimondo d‟Aronco for the Dutch
tailor of Sultan Abdülhamid II in 1900.
“The Turk”‟ is also used in the decoration of architecture in the Netherlands. A number
of buildings in the Netherlands have sculpted depictions of Ottomans (heads of
Ottomans: “The Turkish Head”). One example of such a building is the monumental
house “In den vergulden Turk" (“In the Gilded Turk”)(1673) in Leiden.
Further reading
M. Hoenkamp-Mazgon, Palais de Hollande te Istanboel: het ambassadegebouw en zijn bewoners sinds
1612, Amsterdam 2002.
S. Heylen, Kunst in de Levant: de collecties van de Nederlandse families De Hochepied en Van Lennep in
Smyrna, MA Thesis Utrecht University 2007: http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/student-theses/2007-1009-
200252/UUindex.html
Garden architecture
In the 18th century “Turkish” kiosks became highly fashionable rococo features in
European gardens (follies). In the Netherlands such a garden kiosk was usually called a
“Turkse tent” (Turkish tent), although the building usually did not resemble a Turkish
tent at all. Thus, the expression “Turkish tent” was rather deceptively used for garden
pavilions in general. Although a number of tent-like constructions are known to have
existed, more often “Turkish tents” resembled a Chinese pagoda (Tatar-style) or were
simply in a European style but decorated with some “Turkish” elements like crescents.
Dutch “Turkish tents” were part of the much wider 18 th-century European phenomenon
of turquerie/turquoiserie. In the 19 th century the Turkish style went out of fashion in the
Netherlands and was replaced by an oriental style in which Moorish (Alhambra) and
Moghul (Taj Mahal) elements played a more important role.
Further reading
W. Meulenkamp, „In de Turksche smaak….: De Turkse tent, de moorse kiosk en het oosters pavlijoern in
Nederland 1700-1900‟, in H. Theunissen, Annelies Abelmann & Wim Meulenkamp (eds.) Topkapı &
Turkomanie. Turks-Nederlandse ontmoetingen sinds 1600, Amsterdam 1989, 118-129.
Horticulture
Even before the establishment of official diplomatic relations in 1612 with the Ottoman
Empire, various plants originally from the Ottoman Empire came to Europe, and also
reached the Netherlands. Most of these were introduced in the second half of the 16 th
century, although new plants were also introduced in later centuries. The most famous
introduction is the tulip, which over time developed into a symbol for both Turkey and
the Netherlands. As early as 1613 --less than 50 years after the introduction of the bulb
in Europe-- Dutch tulips were given as a present to Sultan Ahmed I. The increasing
popularity of the tulip in the Netherlands eventually led to the infamous tulip mania of
1637. Apart from the bulbs and the flowers themselves, tulips also became an
important ornament on various objects such as Dutch tiles and ceramic objects.
Another 16th century introduction was the hyacinth. This flower initially led an
inconspicuous life in the Netherlands, but in the late 17th century and early 18th century
became extremely popular in Europe, resulting in a true hyacinth mania in the 1720s
and 1730s. This (double) Dutch hyacinth also returned to the Ottoman Empire in the
1730s and resulted in a small Ottoman hyacinth mania. Dutch hyacinths were exported
to the Ottoman Empire throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. For both the Dutch and
the Ottomans these bulbs formed an important aspect of their culture (both as a plant
and as an ornament in art).
Turkey is still an important country for horticulture, especially because there are rich
flora and horticultural relations between Turkey and the Netherlands. These relations
are (economically) relevant, not in the least because of the immense importance of
Dutch flower and plant trade. Turkey will also participate in the 2012 Floriade in the
Netherlands.
Further reading
M. Roding & H. Theunissen (eds.), The Tulip: A Symbol of Two Nations, Utrecht-İstanbul 1993.
M. Roding & S. Segal, De tulp en de kunst, Zwolle 1994.
O. Wijnands, „Tulpen naar Amsterdam: plantenverkeer tussen Nederland en Turkije ‟, in H. Theunissen,
Annelies Abelmann & Wim Meulenkamp (eds.) Topkapı & Turkomanie. Turks-Nederlandse ontmoetingen
sinds 1600, Amsterdam 1989, 97-106.
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