Best Practices –

Vibration at the Work Site

February 2010
Table of Contents
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO THIS GUIDE....................................................... 1
How the Guide is Organized ...........................................................................................
1

Glossary of Terms ...........................................................................................................

3
SECTION 2: INTRODUCTION TO VIBRATION........................................................ 6
2.1 What is Vibration? ................................................................................................ 6

2.2 How Vibration Exposure Occurs .......................................................................... 7

2.3 Types of Vibration Exposure ................................................................................ 8

2.3.1 Hand-Arm Vibration Exposure................................................................. 8
2.3.2 Whole Body Vibration Exposure............................................................ 12
2.4 How Much Exposure is Too Much? ................................................................... 14

2.5 How Many People are Affected by Occupational Vibration

Overexposure?.....................................................................................................
14
SECTION 3: VIBRATION HEALTH EFFECTS ....................................................... 16
3.1 Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome.......................................................................... 16
3.1.1 Overview................................................................................................. 16
3.1.2 Vascular Disorders.................................................................................. 16
3.1.3 Nerve Disorders ...................................................................................... 17
3.1.4 Musculoskeletal Injury............................................................................ 18
3.1.5 Factors Affecting Risk of Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome.................... 18
3.2 Whole Body Vibration........................................................................................ 20
SECTION 4: IDENTIFYING AND ASSESSING VIBRATION EXPOSURES........... 22
4.1 Step 1: Identify Activities Causing Vibration Exposure..................................... 22

4.2 Step 2: Estimate the Duration of Exposure......................................................... 22

4.3 Step 3: Use Published Data to Determine Potential Exposure Intensity............. 24

4.4 Step 4: Compare the Estimated Exposure to Recommended Maximum

Permissible Exposure Limits...............................................................................
24
4.5 Step 5: Implement Simple Vibration Controls.................................................... 24

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite

 4.6 Step 6: Get Expert Assistance if Necessary........................................................ 26

4.7 Examples – Estimating Vibration Exposure....................................................... 26

4.7.1 Estimating Hand-Arm Vibration Exposure from Chain Saw Use........... 26
4.7.2 Estimating Whole Body Vibration Exposure from Operating
Various Types of Construction Equipment ............................................. 29
SECTION 5: METHODS FOR REDUCING HAND-ARM VIBRATION HAZARDS.. 32
5.1 Buying and Using Low Vibration Tools and Equipment.................................... 32
5.1.1 Identify and Replace Older Higher Vibration Hand Tools..................... 32
5.1.2 Select Tools and Equipment with Built-in Anti-Vibration Features....... 32
5.1.3 Centre of Gravity of Hand-Held Rotational Power Tools ...................... 32
5.2 Selecting the Lowest Vibration Tool for the Job ................................................ 34

5.3 Maintaining Tools Properly ................................................................................ 34

5.4 Use Tools in Ways to Reduce Potential Vibration Exposure ............................. 35

5.4.1 Maintain a Proper Grip ........................................................................... 35
5.4.2 Proper Hand-Hold Technique................................................................. 36
5.4.3 “Hands-Off” and “Shut Off” at the Right Time...................................... 37
5.4.4 Use Sharpness Over Percussion.............................................................. 37
5.5 Basic Good Ergonomic Design of Workstations and Tasks............................... 37

5.6 Modifications to Tools and Equipment............................................................... 37

5.6.1 Options for Reducing Vibration and a Cautionary Note......................... 37
5.6.2 Modifications to Handles........................................................................ 38
5.6.3 Tool Handle Wraps................................................................................. 38
5.7 Use of Low Vibration Work Methods ................................................................ 38

5.8 Use of Protective Clothing and Gloves to Maintain Blood Flow ....................... 39

5.9 Reduce Exposure Duration and Frequency......................................................... 40

5.9.1 Work Schedules ...................................................................................... 40
5.9.2 Staff Rotation.......................................................................................... 40
5.10 Instruction and Training...................................................................................... 40
5.11 Hand-Arm Vibration Reduction Case Studies.................................................... 41
5.11.1 Tool Maintenance.................................................................................... 41
5.11.2 Training on Proper Tool Use .................................................................. 41
5.11.3 Use of Low Vibration Work Methods .................................................... 43
5.12 Use of Anti-Vibration Gloves............................................................................. 45
SECTION 6: METHODS FOR REDUCING WHOLE BODY VIBRATION HAZARDS
............................................................................................................... 47
6.1 General Methods................................................................................................. 47

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite

 6.1.1 Purchasing Practices ............................................................................... 47
6.1.2 Reduce Exposure Duration and Frequency............................................. 47
6.1.3 Training and Instruction.......................................................................... 48
6.2 Specific Methods for Reducing Whole Body Vibration Exposure from
Vehicles............................................................................................................... 49
6.2.1 Suspension Systems (Chassis and / or Cab)............................................ 49
6.2.2 Seating..................................................................................................... 49
6.2.3 Driving Surfaces ..................................................................................... 50
6.2.4 Driving Practices..................................................................................... 51
6.2.5 Tires and Wheels..................................................................................... 51
6.2.6 Cab .......................................................................................................... 51
6.2.7 Engine Maintenance................................................................................ 52
6.2.8 Remote Operation ................................................................................... 52
6.3 Specific Methods for Reducing Whole Body Vibration Exposure from
Stationary Machinery.......................................................................................... 52
6.3.1 Conventional Vibration Isolation and Damping..................................... 52
6.3.2 Seating..................................................................................................... 54
6.3.3 Standing Surfaces.................................................................................... 54
6.3.4 Maintenance............................................................................................ 54
6.4 Case Studies ........................................................................................................ 54
SECTION 7: OHS LAWS, GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS RELATED TO
VIBRATION............................................................................................................. 56
7.1 OHS Laws Related to Vibration ......................................................................... 56
7.1.1 Alberta OHS Laws.................................................................................. 56
7.1.2 British Columbia OHS Laws ..................................................................
56 7.1.3 Canadian Federal OHS Laws..................................................................
56
7.1.4 United States OHS Laws......................................................................... 57
7.1.5 European Union OHS Laws.................................................................... 57
7.1.6 United Kingdom OHS Laws................................................................... 58
7.1.7 International Labour Organization.......................................................... 59
7.2 OHS Guidelines and Standards Related to Vibration ......................................... 59
7.2.1 American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists®
Threshold Limit Values® ........................................................................ 59
7.2.2 International Organization for Standardization ─ Whole Body
Vibration Exposure Standard.................................................................. 60
7.2.3 Hand-Arm Vibration Measurement Standards........................................ 60
7.2.4 Other Vibration Standards Published by Non-Regulatory
Governmental Agencies and Non-Governmental Standards-
Promulgating Organizations................................................................... 61
APPENDIX 1............................................................................................................ 64

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite
Section 1: Introduction to this Guide
This guide was prepared to help you understand vibration hazards in the workplace, and to
provide guidance on how to identify, assess, and control vibration hazards.

How the Guide is Organized

Section 1 Introduction to this Guide

Section 2 Vibration Basics
This section outlines ways in which vibration is generated and transmitted, the
types of vibration exposure – hand-arm and whole body – and potential health
impacts of overexposure to vibration.

Section 3 Health Effects of Vibration Overexposure

Section 3 describes how vibration affects the body, the types of
vibrationrelated disorders, signs and symptoms of overexposure and disorders,
impacts of vibration-related disorders on the individual and factors affecting
health risk.

Section 4 Identifying and Assessing Vibration Exposures

This section provides an explanation of a simple approach to identifying
handarm and whole body vibration exposures in the workplace, judging the
potential for overexposure, and deciding on the need for action to reduce
exposure.

Section 5 Methods for Reducing Hand-Arm Vibration Hazards

Section 5 presents a survey of methods for reducing hand-arm exposure, and
lessening the impacts of exposure.

Section 6 Methods for Reducing Whole Body Vibration Hazards

Section 6 presents a survey of methods for reducing whole body exposure, and
lessening the impacts of exposure.

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Section 7 OHS Laws, Guidelines and Standards Related to Vibration
This section provides an overview of occupational health and safety laws in
Alberta, Canada, and internationally relating to the assessment and control of
vibration exposure. It also gives an overview of key voluntary standards
relating to vibration exposure assessment and control, and design for
minimizing vibration.

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Glossary of Terms

Acceleration – The capacity to gain speed. In reference to vibration, it is one of the

main items that determines exposure hazard to a worker.

Acute Health Effect – A health effect with an quick onset.

Amplitude – Greatness of size. In terms of vibration, it is the maximum extent of an

oscillation.

Chronic Health Effect – A health effect marked by a long duration or frequent

reappearance.

Cycle – A group of events which happen in a particular order, one following the other,
and which are often repeated.

Cycles per Second – Cycles occurring in each second.

Damping – A way of spreading out the energy in a vibrating system to reduce its effect(s).

Digital Arteries – Arteries relating to a finger or fingers.

Digital Artery Thrombosis – A local clotting of the blood in a digital artery.

Distal – A part situated away from the centre of the body or point of attachment. (e.g.
the tip of the finger is the distal part of the finger because it is the furthest part of the
finger away from the centre of the body)

Exposure Action Value – Limit set for occupational exposure. Above this value, employers
must take steps to reduce exposure levels.

Exposure Limit Value - Maximum occupational exposure limit.

Frequency – The number of repetitions in a given time, especially per second. In relation
to vibration , it is the rate of reappearance of a vibration

Hand-Arm Vibration – Vibration that is transmitted through the hands and the
forearm.

Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome – A collection of signs and symptoms resulting from

exposure to hand-arm vibration.

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 Hertz (Hz) – The System International (SI) unit of frequency. A Hertz is equal to one
cycle per second.

Isolation – The act of isolating; the state of being separated.

Ligaments – A short band of tough flexible fibrous connective tissue linking bones together.

Median Nerve – A nerve that passes through the carpal tunnel and can be damaged by
repeated trauma during the gripping of some handheld vibrating equipment.

Musculoskeletal Disorder (Musculoskeletal Injury (MSI)) – Diseases of the muscles

and their associated ligaments and other connective tissues.

Oscillating Movement – Movement to and fro between points with regularity.

Posture – A position of a person’s body when sitting or standing.

Power Grip – A grip with strong mechanical force.

Proximal – A part situated closest to the centre of the body or point of attachment (e.g.
the shoulder is the most proximal part of the arm because it is closest to the centerline
of the body).

Raynaud’s Phenomenon – A condition characterized by spasms of arteries, especially the

fingers, leading to paleness, pain, numbness and in severe cases tissue death.

Reciprocal Movement – Movement back-and-forth or up-and-down.

Repetitive Motion Injuries – Injury caused by extended repeated use of specific

muscles, for example keyboarding.

Rotational Movement – Movement around a centre axis.

Segmental Vibration – Vibration of the hands, arms, legs, or a specific part of the
body without causing whole body vibration.

Static Posture – A fixed unmoving posture.

Stockholm Scale – A scale for classifying cold-induced Raynaud’s phenomenon in hand-

arm vibration syndrome.

Stockholm Workshop Classification System for Vibration-Induced White Finger –

Same as the Stockholm Scale.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 4

 Tendons – A cord or strand of strong fibrous tissue attaching a muscle to a bone.

Threshold Limit Value – A term used by the American Conference of Governmental

Industrial Hygienists to define the reasonable level of a hazard to which a person can be
exposed without adverse health effects.

Thrombosis – Local clotting of the blood in a part of the circulatory system.

Torque – A twisting or rotating force.

Ulnar Artery – Artery near to the ulna, the bone extending from the elbow to the wrist
on the side opposite to the thumb in humans.

Ulnar Artery Thrombosis (or hypothenar hammer syndrome) – Local clotting of the
blood in the ulnar artery.

Vibrate – Move with small movements rapidly to and fro. Oscillate.

Vibration – The state of vibrating. A continuous rapid shaking movement or sensation.

Vibration-Induced White Finger – Physiological condition resulting in whitening of

one or more fingers upon exposure to vibration.

Viscoelastic – Material that has both elastic and sticky behaviour.

Whole Body Vibration – Vibration exposure affecting the entire body.

Section 2: Introduction to Vibration

2.1 What is Vibration?

An object “vibrates” when it moves back and forth, up and down, or side to side, usually very
rapidly. “Vibration” describes the physical energy from a vibrating object, and also what we
feel when that energy is transmitted to us. The key terms used to describe this movement are
“frequency” and “amplitude”.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 5

“Frequency” describes the number of vibrating movements in a given time period.
Frequency is measured in “cycles per second” or hertz (Hz). An object vibrating with a
frequency of one hertz completes one full vibrating cycle over one second. A “cycle” is the
complete pattern of movement of the vibrating object from start to finish.

“Amplitude” is the intensity or magnitude of vibration. It is measured as the maximum

distance an object moves from a central point. Amplitude is measured in metres (m).

Figure 1 illustrates these concepts of frequency, amplitude and cycle, using a wave pattern.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 6

 Figure 1: Cycle, Frequency and Amplitude
(Adapted from Occupational Vibration Exposure, Pathak 2005)

“Cycle” is the movement of the wave from its starting position at “A” along the horizontal line
to the point where it returns to a new starting position at “B”.

“Frequency” is the number of cycles that occur during a defined time period. If the end of the
first cycle at “B” occurs 1 second after the start of the first cycle at “A”, then 1 cycle has been
completed in 1 second. 1 cycle per second equals 1 Hertz. If on the other hand, the end of
the third cycle at “C” occurs 1 second after the start of the first cycle at “A”, then 3 cycles have
been completed in 1 second. 3 cycles per second equals 3 Hertz.

“Amplitude” is the distance from the centre point of movement to the peak (or trough).

A wave pattern is often used to describe what vibrating objects look like, but the actual
physical movement of the vibrating object can have many patterns. For example:
• up and down (“reciprocal movement”) – like the bit of jackhammer, or a piston
• around and around (“rotational movement”) – like a drill or drive shaft
• back and forth (“oscillating movement”) – like a pendulum, or a paint can shaker

2.2 How Vibration Exposure Occurs

Vibration exposure occurs when a vibrating object, such as a machine, tool or surface,
transmits vibration energy to a person's body. For this to occur, a part of the person’s body
must either be in direct contact with the vibrating object, or another object that is itself
making contact with the vibrating object, as shown in Figure 2.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 7

 Figure 2: Diagram illustrating transmission of vibration from a motor through a
wall to a platform, resulting in whole body vibration exposure

2.3 Types of Vibration Exposure

There are two types of vibration exposure that are of interest: “segmental vibration”
exposure, and “whole body vibration” exposure. Segmental vibration exposure refers to
exposure that is mainly transmitted to, and concentrated on, a specific part of the body – such
as the hand, arm, or leg. Whole body vibration exposure is when vibration is transmitted
throughout all or most of the body.

2.3.1 Hand-Arm Vibration Exposure

Hand-arm vibration is the most common form of segmental vibration experienced in work
settings. Hand-arm vibration occurs when a person holds or guides a vibrating tool or
machine with their hand or hands, and vibration is transmitted from the tool to the hand(s) and
along the arm(s).

A person’s exposure to hand-arm vibration and the health impacts of exposure can be
influenced by many factors, such as:
• the temperature of the area the person is working in
• whether or not the person is wearing gloves

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 8

 • how the tool is gripped
• the frequency and amplitude of the vibration
• how long and how often exposure occurs

Hand-arm vibration exposure can happen in many different jobs such as:
• building and maintenance of roads and railways
• construction and demolition
• maintenance of parks and groundskeeping
• forestry
• foundries
• heavy engineering
• manufacturing concrete products
• mines and quarries
• motor vehicle and equipment manufacture and repair
• meat cutting
• oil well drilling and servicing
• public utilities (e.g. water, gas, electricity, telecommunications)

There are hundreds of different kinds of hand-held power tools and equipment that can
produce hand-arm vibration exposures that can cause adverse health effects, including:
• chainsaws
• jackhammers
• concrete and masonry saws
• hammer drills
• hand-held grinders
• powered sanders
• impact wrenches
• riveting tools
• chipping tools
• jigsaws
• needle scalers
• pedestal grinders
• polishers
• power hammers
• power chisels
• gas and electric powered lawn mowers
• brush cutters
• grass trimmers
• hedge trimmers

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 • ground tampers / compactors
• snow blowers
• hand-guided soil tillers / cultivators
• needle guns / needle scalers
• concrete vibrators
• concrete finishers
• floor sanders
• floor polishers
• hand-guided road sweepers
• power washers

Figure 3 shows typical hand-arm vibration exposures from various types of hand-held tools.
The 25th percentile means that 25% of exposures will be below this level and the 75th
percentile means that 75% of exposures will be below this level. The minimum and
maximum values are the lowest and highest vibration levels that are typical for the tool
represented.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 10

 Figure 3 - Typical Hand-Arm Vibration Intensities for Various Hand-Tools
(Data from the Hand-Arm Vibration Guide, Griffin et al, 2006)

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 11

2.3.2 Whole Body Vibration Exposure

Whole body vibration occurs when a person stands or sits on a vibrating vehicle, machine or
surface. The vibration is transmitted through supporting surfaces such as the standing
person’s feet, the buttocks of a seated person, and the supporting areas of a reclining person.

Whole body vibration exposure often comes from a variety of different vibration sources from
one or more components of a machine, vehicle or surface. These sources can include:
• engines and engine parts
• movement of gears and transmissions
• rotation of tires, wheels and axles
• movement of the vehicle over irregular surfaces.

Table 1 lists some sources of exposure to whole body vibration.

Table 1 – Typical Sources of Whole Body Vibration

• Mobile Crane • Long haul transport

• Dump truck • Backhoe
• Surface haulage truck • Bulldozer
• Mining vehicles • Excavator
•
Lift truck • Compactor
•
Skid Steer Loader • Grader / Scraper
•
• Farm tractors and similar vehicles
•
Zoom boom
• Bus • Railway vehicles
• Helicopter • Large static production machines
used for compaction, hammering,
• Fast boat
Large fuel-fired electrical generators punching

Whole body vibration exposure often involves exposure to several frequencies and amplitudes
at the same time, as shown in Figure 4. Each vibration wave shown in the figure represents a
different vibration source; each vibrating source can have unique vibration characteristics (i.e.
different frequencies and amplitudes).

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 12

 Figure 4 – Whole Body Exposure to Multiple Vibration
Frequencies and Amplitudes

How the body responds to whole body vibration depends on the frequency of the vibration,
the acceleration of the vibration and the length of exposure.

Figure 5 shows typical amounts of whole body vibration experienced by operators of various
types of mobile equipment. The mean acceleration is the amounts of vibration. Higher mean
accelerations mean that mobile equipment operators are exposed to more vibration and are at
more risk of experiencing health hazards.

Figure 5 – Typical Whole Body Vibration Exposures for Various Types of Mobile Equipment (Data From
Construction Safety Association of Ontario)

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 13

2.4 How Much Exposure is Too Much?

Exposure to hand-arm and whole body vibration is measured in units of acceleration.

Acceleration is the rate of change in speed of an object. The units used are “metres of
distance per second per second”.

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the American Conference of

Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH®), and the European Committee for
Standardization (CEN) have developed standards and threshold limit values (TLVs®), which
are considered to be health-based recommended maximum exposure levels. The ISO standard
deals with whole body vibration only, while ACGIH® and CEN provide limits for both
handarm and whole body vibration. The standards are fairly complex, and the measurement
of exposure and evaluation of exposures against the standards requires specialized equipment
and expertise.

Certain factors such as the way a tool is used, the characteristics of the tool or equipment, the
environment in which the tool or equipment is used, protective practices used, etc. affect a
worker’s susceptibility to vibration. These are discussed in more detail in Section 3.

2.5 How Many People are Affected by Occupational Vibration

Overexposure?

Most public and private workers’ compensation organizations in Canada, the United States
and Europe do not yet have specific statistics on the number of claims for injuries and
illnesses caused uniquely by vibration exposure. Consequently, there are no good statistics on
how common vibration-induced illnesses and injuries are.

However, as a result of the implementation of workplace vibration regulations and prevention

programs in the United Kingdom, estimates have been produced for that jurisdiction. These
figures convey a sense of the potential magnitude of the health impact resulting from
vibration overexposure:
• It is estimated that up to 300,000 working days are lost each year in the United Kingdom
due to hand-arm disability related absences.
• In the United Kingdom, a survey by the Industrial Injuries Disability Benefit in 2005/2006
determined a prevalence of 545 cases of vibration white finger out of a total 1880 reported
non-lung industrial diseases. This means that 29% of the total non-lung industrial disease
cases were classified as vibration white finger injuries (HSE, 2007).
• A survey in 1997-98 by the UK Medical Research Council estimated that there were
288,000 vibration white finger sufferers in Great Britain.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 14

• On the basis of the findings of a large scale questionnaire survey, Palmer et al (2000)
estimated that about 2% of the population of Great Britain (over 1 million people) are
periodically exposed to high levels of hand-arm vibration in the workplace. Close to 20%
of the population (nearly 10 million people) are regularly exposed to high levels of whole
body vibration.

Various researchers have also looked at the prevalence of vibration-related conditions in

workers:
• A study by Nyantumbu et al (2007) found that 15% of gold miners in South Africa had
symptoms of hand-arm vibration syndrome.
• A study by Bovenzi (1994) found that 31% of a large population of stonecutters in Italy
had symptoms of hand-arm vibration syndrome.
• Lawson and McGeoch (2003) reported that an assessment of former coal miners in the
United Kingdom for purposes of disability compensation found 95% to have symptoms of
vibration white finger.

On the whole, these figures suggest that the size of the working population exposed to
vibration is very high. In heavily exposed occupations, the prevalence of vibration-related
disorders is also high.

Section 3: Vibration Health Effects

3.1 Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome

3.1.1 Overview

Hand-arm vibration syndrome is a collection of symptoms caused by vibration transmitted

into the hands and arms through the palms and fingers. It develops in workers who use
handheld power work equipment. Other common names for hand-arm vibration syndrome
are:
• Raynaud’s phenomenon of occupational origin
• secondary Raynaud’s phenomenon
• vibration white finger
• dead finger
• vibration syndrome.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 15

The syndrome affects the nerves, blood vessels, muscles, and joints of the hand, wrist and
arm. It can become very disabling if early symptoms are ignored and vibration exposure
continues. Typical symptoms of hand-arm vibration syndrome include:
• occasional numbness in fingers
• tingling in fingers
• blanching (whitening) of fingers
• pain when exposed to cold
• pain when blood circulation returns to the fingers
• reduced grip strength
• reduced finger dexterity.

3.1.2 Vascular Disorders

Raynaud’s phenomenon is the most common health effect from hand-arm vibration. The
small blood vessels of the hand narrow, reducing blood flow through the hands and fingers.
The fingers become white, cold and numb. This effect can last for minutes or up to an hour
after exposure to vibration.

Raynaud’s phenomenon can range from mild to very severe. The condition is classified into
four stages known as the “Stockholm Scale”, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2 - Stockholm Scale for the Classification of Cold-Induced Raynaud’s

Phenomenon in Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome
(Scale from Hand-Arm (Segmental) Vibration, ACGIH, 2009, Table 2, pg.204)
Symptom
Stage Description
Severity
0 None No Symptoms
1 Mild Occasional attacks affecting only the tips of one or more fingers
Moderate Occasional attacks affecting distal and middle (rarely also
2 proximal) bones of one or more fingers
3 Severe Frequent attacks affecting all bones of most fingers
Very As in stage 3, with skin changes in the fingertips
4
Severe

In very serious cases, permanent damage can affect blood flow to the worker’s fingers. The
fingers may turn a dark and blue-black colour, develop open sores, and even become
gangrenous.

Other conditions from hand-arm vibration exposure include blood clotting in the arteries of
the arm and fingers (ulnar artery thrombosis and digital artery thrombosis). In each case, a
clot forms in the artery, blocking blood flow. Symptoms of artery thrombosis depend on the
degree of blood flow obstruction caused by the clot. Where the clot is small and causes
insignificant blood flow reduction, there may be no symptoms at all. As clot size and degree

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 16

of blood flow obstruction increases, symptoms become more severe, and can include
whiteness of the skin, coldness, numbness, pain, weakness, and loss of function.

3.1.3 Nerve Disorders

Hand-arm vibration syndrome can also affect the nerves of the hands and arms. Affected
workers sense tingling and numbness in their fingers and hands, their sense of touch and
temperature may be reduced, and their manual dexterity may be affected. Symptoms have
been categorized as shown in Table 3:

Table 3 - Stockholm Scale for Classification of Cold-Induced Raynaud’s

Phenomenon in Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome
(Scale from Hand-Arm (Segmental) Vibration, ACGIH, 2009, Table 2, pg. 204)
Stage Description
0 SN Exposed to vibration but no symptoms
1 SN Intermittent alternating periods of numbness, with or without tingling
Intermittent alternating periods of or persistent numbness, lessened touch
2 SN sensation
Intermittent alternating periods of or persistent numbness, lessened touch
3 SN sensation, and/or ability to move the hands and fingers

Carpal tunnel syndrome is not included in the definition of hand-arm vibration syndrome but
often occurs in workers with hand-arm vibration syndrome. It is a nerve disorder that causes
pain, tingling, numbness, abnormal skin sensations and weakness in parts of the hand and
forearm. It occurs when the median nerve is compressed at the wrist.

3.1.4 Musculoskeletal Injury

Hand-arm vibration can also damage the muscles and bones in the wrist and arms. The wrist
and elbow may develop swollen and painful joints (osteoarthritis) and some tissues at tendon
attachment sites may harden (ossify). Symptoms include loss of strength in the hands and
pain in the arms and wrists. In the later stages, the affected worker may experience loss of
hand function and necrosis (tissue death) of the fingers.

Dupuytren’s contracture is a disease of tissues in the palm of the hand that is associated with
vibration. Tissues under the palm of the hand thicken and shorten such that the tendons
connected to the fingers cannot move freely and the fingers cannot be straightened.

Tendonitis (inflammation of the tendons) and inflammation of the sheaths in the upper limbs
may also develop from the use of hand-held power tools. Tendonitis is thought to be a result
of poor hand tool ergonomics rather than a direct result of vibration exposure. However,

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 17

since workers using powered hand-tools do not always use the best ergonomic methods,
tendonitis is often associated with hand-arm vibration syndrome.

The onset of hand-arm vibration syndrome symptoms may be anywhere from a few months to
several years after initial exposure. In the early stages, symptoms may be reversible if
exposure is reduced or eliminated. However, as the length of exposure increases, there is
greater potential for more damage. Later stage health effects are often irreversible.

3.1.5 Factors Affecting Risk of Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome

There are a number of factors that affect:

• the risk of developing hand-arm vibration syndrome,
• how quickly symptoms appear,
• the speed of onset and
• the severity of symptoms.
These are listed in Table 4.

While many factors are associated with vibration-related disorders, exposure time and
intensity provide the greatest predictors of the risk to worker health and how severe the
symptoms of exposure will be.

Table 4 - Factors Affecting Risk of Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome

Category Factor
Exposure Frequency - Frequency of vibration worker is exposed to
- Length of time tool is in use each day
Exposure Time
- Total working hours of exposure
Tool Use Variables - Ergonomics of tool use (lifting, posture,
repetitive movements, position of hand and arm
relative to the body)
- Surface area, location and mass of parts of the
hand in contact with the source of vibration
- Grip forces
- Operator control of the tool
Tool Characteristics - Impact (higher vibration) vs. non-impact
- Weight of the tool
- Operating speed
- State of tool maintenance
- Texture of tool handle (soft vs. rigid)
- Shape of tool handle
Environment - Exposure to cold ambient temperatures
- Exposure to psychosocial aspects (e.g. events
at home, relationships)
- Exposure to other physical and chemical agents

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 18

 Vibration Parameters - Frequency, amplitude and direction of vibration
- Area of the contact surface between the
vibration source with the hand
- Level of acceleration produced by the tool
(vibration energy)
Worker - Clothing
- Body size
- Posture
- Body tension
- Body composition
- Medical history
- Susceptibility to vibration
- Smoking and use of drugs
- Skill and productivity
- Disease or prior injury to the fingers and hands
- Number of years of use with tool
Protective Practices - Anti-vibration materials in use (e.g. gloves,
boots)
- Work rest periods
Material - Hardness of material being contacted (e.g.
metal for grinding)

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 19

3.2 Whole Body Vibration

Whole body vibration exposure occurs when vibration is transmitted from machines, vehicles
or surfaces through the bones of the lower pelvis during sitting or through the feet and legs of
a worker who is standing or sitting. Most of the time vibration is absorbed by the body
without harmful effects. However, frequencies between 1 and 20 Hz cause the pelvis and
spine to resonate and can lead to many health effects. Vehicles and industrial machinery often
vibrate with frequencies in the range where human resonance occurs (4-8 Hertz).

Common acute health effects from short-term exposure to whole body vibration include:
• headache
• chest pain
• abdominal pain
• nausea
• fatigue
• vertigo (loss of balance)

It is believed that nausea, fatigue and vertigo may be due to vibration affecting the inner ear
which controls balance. Headache, chest pain and abdominal pain may be due to increased
blood pressure, which may be an involuntary response to whole body vibration, or a result of
bracing to resist vibration.

Symptoms of acute exposure generally end within minutes or hours of when exposure stops.

Common chronic health effects from long-term exposure include:

• lower back pain
• damage to the spine
• major curves in middle-lower portion of the spine (lumbar scoliosis)
• deterioration of the discs in between the vertebrae of the spine (disc disease)
• tears or damage to the discs in between the vertebrae of the spine (herniated discs)
• neck problems 1
• hearing loss

1
While neck and shoulder disorders are also commonly associated with exposure to whole
body vibration, it is not certain whether these conditions are due entirely to vibration
exposure. Workers exposed to whole body vibration often perform tasks that involve poor
posture, extended time sitting in unnatural postures, frequent twisting of the spine, frequent
lifting of heavy materials, and unexpected movements. These factors could contribute to neck
and shoulder disorders.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 20

 • sleeping disorders.

The musculoskeletal symptoms from vibration are likely due to inflammation and trauma to
the spine. Vibration exposure can produce hearing loss in the same way that noise exposure
does – by over-stimulation of inner ear auditory hair cells. Sleeping disorders could be due to
discomfort from musculoskeletal disorders, or could be a direct effect of vibration exposure.

The risk to health increases with increasing exposure. The progress and severity of symptoms
also depends on the magnitude, frequency, and direction of the vibration. Chronic symptoms
often persist for long periods (weeks, months, years) after exposure ends, and are usually
permanent.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 21

Section 4: Identifying and Assessing Vibration Exposures

This section describes methods for identifying and assessing exposures to hand-arm and
whole body vibration. These methods help to judge the potential for harmful exposures and to
determine the need for reducing exposure.

4.1 Step 1: Identify Activities Causing Vibration Exposure

The first step in assessing vibration exposure is to identify the activities that lead to vibration
exposure. To do so, hold discussions with workers and supervisors, and observe work
activities to develop an understanding of:
• work operations
• tasks performed
• tools and equipment used
• vehicles used
• platforms or other surfaces workers stand on that may transmit vibration from
stationary equipment.

Table 5 can be used to help in the identification of tools and equipment used by workers that
can contribute to hand-arm and whole body vibration exposure.

4.2 Step 2: Estimate the Duration of Exposure

Once the work activities and equipment leading to vibration exposure have been identified,
the next step is to determine the typical frequency (how often) and duration of vibration
exposure. This is important in assessing vibration exposure risk because the potential for
harm increases with the level and duration of vibration exposure.

Table 5 can also be used to record how often and for how long equipment or tools are used.
Estimates can be obtained through discussions with workers and their supervisors, review of
work activity records, and direct observation and timing of work activities.

Table 5 - Inventory of Vibration Exposure Sources

Make / Model / No. How Often the Duration of No. Exposed

Vehicles in Use
Description Units Worker is Exposed Operation Workers
Backhoe loader
Compactor - single drum
Compactor - tandem
Dozer
Dumper

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Dumper - Articulated
Excavator - Wheeled
Excavator <25t
Excavator >25t
Farm Tractor
Finisher / Asphalt Paver
Forestry - Forwarder
Forestry - Harvester
Fork-lift Truck - Counterbalance
Fork-lift Truck - Order Pickers
Fork-lift Truck - Reach
Grader
Pallet-truck - ride-on vertical
Scraper
Tow Tractor
Wheel Loader
Other:
Other:
Other:
Make / Model / No. How Often the Duration of No. Exposed
Powered Hand Tools
Description Units Worker is Exposed Operation Workers
Brush Cutters
Chainsaws
Chipping Hammers
Chisels
Clearing Saws
Compactors
Cultivators / Tillers
Demolition Hammers
Die Grinders
Grinders
Hammer Drills
Hedge Trimmers
Impact Drills
Impact Wrenches
Lawn Mowers
Needle Scalers
Pedestal Grinders
Powered Mowers
Rammers
Riveters

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 23

Road Breakers
Rock Drills
Sanders
Saws
Snow Blowers
Vibratory Rammers
Other:

4.3 Step 3: Use Published Data to Determine Potential Exposure Intensity

Many researchers have measured the hand-arm vibration exposures for a variety of hand-held
and hand-guided tools (Figure 3), and whole-body vibration exposures (Figure 5) associated
with the operation of different types of mobile and stationary equipment. In some European
countries it has become mandatory for manufacturers to provide this information as part of the
operator’s manual.

As shown in Figures 3 and 5, vibration levels fall within a range of values. To estimate
exposures the highest potential vibration intensity in the published range should be used
unless it is certain that the vibration intensity of the tool in question is actually lower.

These sources of published information can be used to estimate the potential vibration
exposure experienced by workers, and judge the need to reduce vibration exposures.

4.4 Step 4: Compare the Estimated Exposure to Recommended

Maximum Permissible Exposure Limits

Once the exposure duration and the potential exposure intensity have been estimated, these
values can be compared to maximum permissible vibration exposure limits, such as those
suggested in the ACGIH®, CEN and ISO standards (see Section 7). If the estimated vibration
exposure duration and intensity are higher than the suggested limits, then the actual vibration
exposure could be unacceptably high.

4.5 Step 5: Implement Simple Vibration Controls

If vibration exposures might be too high, then steps should be taken to reduce exposures. The
simplest way to reduce vibration exposure is to reduce the duration of time that the worker
performs the work. However, reducing the amount of time the worker is exposed to vibration
is not always possible. Workers may be under pressure to complete their work. In these
cases, other vibration reduction methods should be explored. Table 6 identifies a variety of
simple vibration reduction methods that should be considered where assessment identifies the
potential for excessive vibration exposure.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 24

 Table 6 - Common Causes and Solutions to Vibration Problems

Possible Solutions

Possible Causes

Tool Design

Manual warns of
vibration hazard ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Manual describes
vibration control ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
measures
Tool not designed
for current use ● ●

Vehicle not designed

for roadway ●
conditions
Tool Maintenance

Maintenance ● ● ●
program absent
Maintenance ● ● ●
program not used
Parts are wearing ● ●

Parts are loose ● ●

Blade / cutting edge ● ●

dull
Tool Use

Wrist joint not at 90 ● ● ● ● ●

degree angle
Elbow joint not at 90
degree angle ● ● ● ● ●

Shoulder joint not at

90 degree angle ● ● ● ● ●

Tool positioned far ● ● ● ● ●

from body
Strong grip force
required to stabilize ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
tool
Sustained static ● ● ● ● ●
postures

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 25

 Sustained stretched ● ● ● ● ●
position
Awkward posture for
manual handling ● ● ● ● ●
activities
Hand in direct
contact with ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Table 6 - Common Causes and Solutions to Vibration Problems

Possible Solutions

Possible Causes

vibrating surface

Ambient Environment

Exposure to shock /
jolts during task ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Off-road work ● ● ● ●
required
Cold temperature ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
work required
Potholes or uneven
road surfaces ● ● ● ●

4.6 Step 6: Get Expert Assistance if Necessary

The vibration exposure assessment method described above may lead to the conclusion that
exposure could be close to being, or is likely to be, excessive or cannot be determined. In
these cases, expert assistance should be sought to either conduct measurements of vibration
intensity to more conclusively determine the potential for adverse health effects; or
recommend vibration-reducing control measures. Appendix 1 describes the methods that are
used for measurement of vibration exposure.

4.7 Examples – Estimating Vibration Exposure

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 26

Here are two examples of how to make these estimates for hand-arm and whole body
vibration exposure using published data.

4.7.1 Estimating Hand-Arm Vibration Exposure from Chain Saw Use

Step 1 - Identify the Vibration Sources: Crews of workers use chain-saws every day to trim
tree branches that grow too close to power lines. Each crew consists of two workers, who
share all duties. The only hand-held power tool that they use in their work is a chain saw.

Step 2 - Estimate the Exposure Duration: You have spoken with the workers, and observed
their work operations, and you have found that during a typical day, each worker does the
following activities for the times indicated:

Average Daily
Activity
Duration (Hours)
Vehicle loading and inspection 0.25
Traveling from site to site in a boom truck 2
Breaks and lunch 1.25
Operating the boom and bucket 0.25
Fuelling and lubricating the chain saw 0.25
Operating the chain saw 3.5
Preparing work records 0.5

So, assuming that the only activity resulting in hand-arm vibration is operating the chain saw,
then the total duration of hand-arm vibration exposure is 3.5 hours.

Step 3 - Use Published Data to Estimate Vibration Exposure Intensity: Using Figure 6, we
see that chain saws have a wide range of vibration intensities – anywhere from as low as 1
m/s2 to as high as 12 m/s2. Figure 6 also shows that about 50% of all chain saw models fall
in the range of about 5 m/s2 to 7 m/s2. So, we can do our exposure estimation in a variety of
ways, using the lowest, middle, or highest vibration intensities. To be most cautious, we
should use the highest vibration intensity, 12 m/s2.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 27

 Figure 6 - Typical Hand-Arm Vibration Intensities for Various Hand-Tools
(Data from the Hand-Arm Vibration Guide, Griffin et al, 2006)

Step 4 - Compare Exposure Levels to Maximum Permissible Exposure Limits: To this

point, we have found that workers operating chain saws may be exposed for 3.5 hours per day
to a vibration intensity as high as 12 m/s2. We can now compare this to recommended
maximum permissible exposure limits.

Table 7 shows ACGIH® exposure limits for hand-arm vibration.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 28

 Table 7 - ACGIH® Vibration Exposure Limits
Exposure Duration Maximum Vibration
(Hours) Amplitude (m/s2)
4 to 8 4
2 to 4 6
1 to 2 8
<1 12

Under a worst-case scenario, the chain saws have a vibration intensity of 12 m/s2. By
ACGIH® recommendations, the chain saw should not be operated for more than 1 hour per
day. If, instead, the chain saw is assumed to have a vibration intensity that is in the middle of
the range, say 6 m/s2, then the chain saw can be used from 2 to 4 hours per day, and our
estimated daily duration of 3.5 hours of use would be acceptable.

Should this Vibration Exposure Be Considered Acceptable?: In this example, the actual
vibration intensity of the chain saw is unknown, and there are large differences between the
potentially lowest and highest vibration intensities. In a case such as this, it is best to either
obtain information on the actual vibration levels from the chain saw manufacturer or consult
an expert to conduct hand-arm vibration exposure measurements.

4.7.2 Estimating Whole Body Vibration Exposure from Operating Various Types of
Construction Equipment

Step 1 - Identify the Vibration Sources: A construction company has backhoes and small
bulldozers. It is determined that on a typical day, an operator will operate both a backhoe and
a bulldozer. These pieces of equipment are the only sources of whole body vibration
exposure.

Step 2 - Estimate the Exposure Duration: You have spoken with the operators, observed
their work, and have found that over the course of a typical day, each operator does the
following activities for the times indicated:

Average Daily
Activity
Duration (Hours)
Vehicle fuelling, lubrication and inspection 0.5
Operating the backhoe 3
Breaks and lunch 1.25
Operating the small bulldozer 3
Preparing work records 0.25

So, there are two activities resulting in whole body vibration: backhoe operation (for 3 hours),
and bulldozer operation (for 3 hours).

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 29

Step 3 – Use Published Data to Estimate Vibration Exposure Intensity: Using Figure 7, we
can see that:
2
•the backhoe can produce whole body vibration exposure of about 1.05 m/s
2
• the small bulldozer can produce whole body vibration exposure of about 1.1 m/s
These are fairly similar vibration intensities for both types of equipment, so for simplicity
we can say that the operator is exposed to whole body vibration of approximately 1 m/s2 for
6 hours.

Figure 7 - Typical Whole Body Vibration Exposures for Various Types of Mobile
Equipment (Data From Construction Safety Association of Ontario)

Step 4 - Compare Exposure Levels to Maximum Permissible Exposure Limits: To this

point, we have concluded that the operators may be exposed for 6 hours per day to a vibration
intensity of 1 m/s2. We can now compare this to recommended maximum permissible
exposure limits.

Table 8 shows CEN vibration exposure limits for whole body vibration.

Table 8 - European Vibration Directive Exposure Limits

Type Daily Exposure Daily Exposure
Action Value (m/s2) Limit (m/s2)
Whole Body Vibration 0.5 1.15

By CEN recommendations, a worker’s daily exposure to whole body vibration (i.e. exposure
over an 8 hour day) should not exceed 1.15 m/s2 .

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 30

Should this Vibration Exposure Be Considered Acceptable?: In this example, if the actual
vibration intensity is about 1 m/s2 for 6 hours, then the exposure is below the CEN daily
exposure limit, and the vibration exposure can be considered acceptable. However, if this
exposure level were experienced in a European country, it would be necessary for the
employer to implement a vibration protection program due to the fact that the exposure
exceeds the daily exposure action value.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 31

Section 5: Methods for Reducing Hand-Arm Vibration Hazards

There are many ways to reduce hand-arm vibration hazards:

• buy or use low vibration tools and equipment
• select the lowest vibration tool for the job
• maintain tools and equipment properly
• use tools in ways that minimize vibration exposure
• ensure good ergonomic design of workstations and tasks
• modify tools and equipment to reduce the vibration they produce
• use low vibration work methods
• use gloves and clothing to help maintain blood circulation during work in cold
environments
• reduce exposure time and frequency
• train workers
• use anti-vibration gloves

5.1 Buying and Using Low Vibration Tools and Equipment

5.1.1 Identify and Replace Older Higher Vibration Hand Tools

Newer hand-held tools and hand-guided equipment tend to produce less vibration than older
units. So replacing older tools and equipment with newer ones can achieve significant
reductions in vibration exposure.

5.1.2 Select Tools and Equipment with Built-in Anti-Vibration Features

Many tools have damping or isolation features to reduce vibration. In “damping”, a material
that absorbs the vibration energy is added to a vibrating component or surface. “Isolation”
blocks the transmission of vibration along its travel pathway by introducing a material that is
a poor transmitter of vibration. Both techniques are effective at reducing the amount of
vibration transmitted to the hands.

5.1.3 Centre of Gravity of Hand-Held Rotational Power Tools

Hand-held rotational power tools have spinning motors or drive shafts in the same axis as the
hand and forearm during use (e.g. a power drill) (see Figure 8).

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 32

 Figure 8: Spinning Axis of Hand-Held Rotational Power Tools

Rotational power tools exert torque (rotational force) against the hand and the user
involuntarily counteracts this by tightening the wrist and arm (see Figure 9). Without this
counteracting torque by the user, the tool would twist the user’s hand and arm along its axis.
Application of torque by the tool user makes the effects of vibration exposure worse.

Drill torque

User’s Drill torque

counteracting hand-arm
torque

Figure 9: Torque Forces Associated with Rotational Tools

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 33

The amount of torque exerted by the tool, and conversely, the amount of torque that the wrist
and arm must exert to counteract the tool, can be reduced by choosing tools with a centre of
gravity located close to, or just below the hand (see Figure 10).

Figure 10: Tool Centre of Gravity

5.2 Selecting the Lowest Vibration Tool for the Job

The tool must be matched to the job in terms of tool size and power. Workers must use a lot
of strength when tools are large and have substantial power. This can result in tightened
muscles, tendons and ligaments, and easier transmission of hand-arm vibration. If the tool is
too small or underpowered, the task may take too long to complete. This can expose the user
to vibration for longer than would otherwise be needed.

5.3 Maintaining Tools Properly

Inadequate maintenance can cause parts to become loose, misaligned, worn and unbalanced.
This can result in increased vibration output. In addition, blunt, dull and worn cutting edges
increase the time needed to complete the job. This results in more exposure to vibration. A
maintenance program for vibration reduction should include:
• replacing worn parts,
• replacing defective vibration dampers, mounts, bearings and gears
• sharpening, lubricating and tuning tools
• tuning engines
• replacing anti-vibration mounts and suspended handles
• carrying out necessary balance checks and corrections
• replacing anti-vibration mounts and suspended handles before they deteriorate

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 34

 • checking the manufacturer’s specifications and requirements for maintenance.

5.4 Use Tools in Ways to Reduce Potential Vibration Exposure

5.4.1 Maintain a Proper Grip

The type of grip and tightness used to hold a vibrating tool can affect user posture, and the
forces applied against the hand, wrist and forearm. Excessive hand grip force increases
ligament and tendon tension and reduces local blood circulation worsening the effects of
vibration exposure.

When a person is at rest, the ligaments and tendons are Ligaments are fibrous connective tissues
relatively “loose” and flexible (think of a loose elastic linking together two or more bones.
band). Under these conditions, the ligaments and
tendons act as “isolators”, reducing the transmission of Tendons are fibrous connective tissues
vibration from bone-to-bone and bone-to-muscle. linking together bones and muscles.
However, when muscles are tensed they contract and
tendons and ligaments are pulled and tightened. Under
these tightened conditions, the ligaments and tendons no longer act as “isolators”. Instead
they more readily transmit vibration from bone-to-bone and bone-to-muscle.

When gripping a vibrating tool, the act of gripping tightens ligaments and tendons in the hand
and arm. This assists the transmission of vibration through the hand and to the arm.

Vibration grip-effects can be minimized by: A power grip (power grasp) is a manner
• using a “power grip”, which allows the hand of holding an object whereby the fingers
to generate the most force while creating the are wrapped around the object and the
thumb is placed against it – like making a
least amount of strain (see Figure 11)
fist.
• selecting tools with a centre of gravity located
close to, or just below the hand
• using devices such as jigs and suspension systems to reduce the need to grip heavy
tools tightly
• using tension chains or elastic leashes above work areas to support vibrating tools
such as heavy drills, grinders, nut runners, nailing guns (in some cases) and pneumatic
chisels, relieving the operator from supporting the tool's weight
• changing the texture and material of a grip surface to allow the operator to use a
smaller grip force to hold and control the tool
• using techniques such as bench-felling in forestry, where the chainsaw slides along the
log during de-branching, rather than holding the full weight of the saw at all times (see
Figure 12)

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 35

 Figure 11: Power Grip

Figure 12: Bench Felling

5.4.2 Proper Hand-Hold Technique

Vibration exposure can be lowered by reducing hand contact with the tool. One way to do
this is to rest the tool to the greatest extent possible on the material being worked (or in the
case of hand-held work pieces, on the support provided). Of course sufficient hand contact
must be maintained for safety.

With some tools, the operator’s hands must be in the correct position to avoid more vibration
exposure. For example, many vibration-reduced tools, such as jackhammers with suspended
handles, produce high vibration emissions if the operator pushes down too hard while
operating the tool.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 36

5.4.3 “Hands-Off” and “Shut Off” at the Right Time

To reduce vibration exposure, tools should be operated only when necessary and at the
minimum speed and impact force required to perform the work. For example,
• jackhammers should be stopped when lifting them to change position, because many
have higher vibration output when pulling up on the handles • don’t needlessly
rev chain saws
• don’t oversand or overgrind.

5.4.4 Use Sharpness Over Percussion

Percussive drills (hammer drills) with tungsten bits are often used for drilling and boring into
concrete or rock. Often, an ordinary non-percussive drill with a diamond bit will do the job as
well and as fast, with much less vibration exposure.

5.5 Basic Good Ergonomic Design of Workstations and Tasks

Workstations and tasks should be designed in accordance with good ergonomic principles to
minimize loads on workers’ hands, wrists and arms, and to promote good posture.

5.6 Modifications to Tools and Equipment

5.6.1 Options for Reducing Vibration and a Cautionary Note

Many types of modifications to tools and equipment can reduce vibration output. These
include:
• increasing the mass of the vibrating body
• minimizing tolerances of systems
• balancing machines better
• installing vibration isolators (typically on handles, or where handles connect to the
body of the tool)
• installing vibration dampeners.

In practice, many of these modifications are best done when the tool is manufactured, through
changes in design and fabrication. Vibration-reducing modifications can be difficult to
retrofit. Without adequate technical understanding of how to make improvements, vibration
can be increased and the tool or equipment can be made less safe or less ergonomic. Use of
unsuitable dampening or isolation materials, or incorrect adjustments to the mass of the
vibrating body, can generate resonances that amplify the vibration output at certain
frequencies.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 37

5.6.2 Modifications to Handles

There are success stories, involving modifications to tool and equipment handles to reduce
vibration transmission:
• De Souza & Moore (1993), conducted a study on the use of a cushioned handle for
jackleg rock drills. They found it reduced vibration frequencies reaching the hand by a
factor of three. The cushion was made from an elastomer handle which was compared
to a steel handle.
• Tudor (1996) developed an ergonomic handle for a string trimmer that would be more
comfortable for the operator to use. The handle was slightly curved with a foam
surface and reduced vibration.
• Strydom (2000) developed an attenuating rock-drill handle design. This design uses a
diaphragm-type absorber that incorporates fluid inertia principles. This design is easily
implemented in rock drills, and is relatively simple and inexpensive. It has shown that
the transmissibility of vibration can be reduced by 20-40%, compared to unattenuated
rock-drill handle transmissibility. The design can be altered for specific drill types and
operating frequencies.

5.6.3 Tool Handle Wraps

Many commercially-available viscoelastic materials have been tested as “tool handle wraps”.
This is similar to wrapping the handle of a hockey stick or tennis racket with tape. The idea is
to achieve sufficient thickness to provide some degree of vibration isolation. However, these
wraps usually provide insignificant vibration reduction, and can enlarge the tool handle
diameter to the point where grip is compromised. There is no evidence that tool wraps are
effective in reducing vibration exposure or the risk of hand-arm vibration syndrome.

5.7 Use of Low Vibration Work Methods

It is often possible to change the work method in a way that significantly reduces or
eliminates vibration exposure. Table 9 identifies some possibilities.

Table 9: Examples of Work Method Changes to Reduce Vibration Exposure

Vibration Source Alternative Low Vibration Work Method

Jackhammer for road breaking Mount a jackhammer onto the boom of a tractor /
backhoe

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 38

 Jackhammer for removal of Water jet blasting
deteriorating concrete
Jackhammer for breaking up Pilot hole driller on tractor / backhoe, followed by
concrete foundations and hydraulic bursting
footings
Needle scaling on metal Grit blasting with vacuum extraction shroud
Needle scaling on exposed Water jet or grit blasting
face of newly poured concrete
Riveting Bolting, adhesives, or welding
Percussive drilling Non-percussive drilling with diamond drill bit

Several case studies involving vibration-reducing work methods are presented at the end of
this Section.

5.8 Use of Protective Clothing and Gloves to Maintain Blood Flow

Good blood circulation to the fingers and hands may reduce the risk or slow the onset of
vibration white finger. It can also reduce the symptoms in cases where vibration white finger
has already occurred. To maintain good blood circulation to the fingers and hands, the hands
and arms must be kept warm, and a warm body temperature must be maintained.

Consider the following measures to promote blood flow to fingers, hands and arms:
• avoid working outdoors in cold weather, if possible
• use machines with heated handles where available
• maintain the temperature at 16ºC or higher in an indoor workplace
• avoid machines that might make the hands cold, such as steel-bodied machines or
pneumatic tools that blow exhaust air over the operator’s hands
• for work outdoors, wear cold weather gloves and clothing to keep the worker warm
• use portable hand warmers or battery-powered electrically heated hand gear
• allow workers to warm up before starting work and during work, as needed
• provide an outdoor shelter to allow workers to warm-up, if necessary
• before starting the job, workers should warm their hands
• keep tools in warm storage
• plan work to avoid prolonged exposure to vibration and encourage workers to take
breaks during long tasks, as several shorter exposures with ‘recovery’ periods are
preferable to one long exposure
• provide hot drinks and warm food. This helps to maintain body temperature and is
particularly important in cold working environments.
• encourage workers to take regular exercise to help circulation and to exercise and
massage the fingers during breaks from work with vibrating equipment
• encourage workers to stop or cut down smoking, which can impair circulation.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 39

5.9 Reduce Exposure Duration and Frequency

When engineering controls cannot reduce vibration exposure enough, exposure duration and
frequency must be reduced. In many cases, pursuing this option as a first choice may be the
most practical approach.

5.9.1 Work Schedules

Where possible, plan and schedule work to prevent workers from being exposed to vibration
for long, continuous periods. The specific length of time that a worker can be exposed to the
vibration will depend on the vibration level given off from the particular tool. The tool
vibration level can be used along with published occupational health and safety laws,
standards and guidelines to determine whether exposures are too long. Several shorter
periods of exposure are preferable.

5.9.2 Staff Rotation

Where high vibration tools must be used frequently or continuously, rotate tool use and tasks
among workers so that no single worker has too long an exposure.

5.10 Instruction and Training

Workers using vibrating hand-held tools must receive instruction and training in the hazards
of vibration, how to minimize vibration exposure and how to recognize early signs of
overexposure. Specific subjects should include:
• injury / illness risks from use of vibrating tools and equipment
• exposure limit values, guidelines and the exposure action values
• vibration levels associated with the tools and equipment that will be used
• control measures to eliminate or reduce hand-arm vibration, including
- work practices and ergonomics
- tool handling techniques - gripping, pushing and guiding
- maintenance and upkeep requirements and relationship to vibration levels
- minimizing tool use duration
• early signs and symptoms of injury
• reporting maintenance requirements for tools and equipment
• appropriate health surveillance
• importance of keeping warm
• impact of home activities and lifestyle factors on risks of vibration injury

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 40

5.11 Hand-Arm Vibration Reduction Case Studies

5.11.1 Tool Maintenance

Vibration Exposure from Circular Knives and Rotary Tools

Johnson and Wasserman (2000) studied the relationship between hand-arm vibration exposure
and the condition of table-mounted circular knives (essentially circular saws) used for meat
cutting. They found that use of this equipment did not result in hand-arm vibration
overexposure, but vibration levels were higher when the knives had at least one part that was
severely worn or damaged. Vibration decreased an average of 16% when the worn parts were
replaced. Proper maintenance was shown to be instrumental in minimizing vibration
exposure. More broadly, whenever a machine has a symmetrical rotating part (e.g. circular
saw blade, drive shaft, gears, flywheels, etc.), that part will emit more significant amounts of
vibration when the part becomes asymmetrical due to wear or damage.

Vibration Attenuation Effects from Rock Drill Elastomeric Handles

De Souza and Moore (1993) looked at the long-term effectiveness of elastomer-cushioning

placed over the handles of pneumatic jack-leg rock drills used for underground mining. They
found that overall hand-arm vibration exposure levels were reduced three-fold.

5.11.2 Training on Proper Tool Use

Effects of Training on Jackhammer Vibration

Macdonald Air Tools Ltd in England studied the effects of jackhammer operator technique on
hand-arm vibration. They found that exposures depended on how the tools were used. For
example, when breaking concrete, untrained operators were lifting the tool without switching
it off (and so increasing the vibration), and were operating continuously for about a minute
without moving the cutting tool. The average vibration level was about 9 m/s2. This meant
that the UK exposure action value was reached after about 35 minutes trigger time, and the
exposure limit value was reached after about 135 minutes trigger time.

The company produced training material for its customers, which included the following
points:
• selecting the correct cutting tool for the job and keeping it sharp
• keeping the handles in the horizontal position for lowest vibration
• letting the weight of the tool do the work
• not gripping the tool too tightly

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 41

 • moving the cutting tool every 8-10 seconds (since the amount of concrete broken is
about the same after 10 seconds as after one minute)
• stopping the tool when lifting it to change position, because the vibration is high when
pulling up on the handles
• when cutting concrete, taking small 'bites' to prevent the cutting tool jamming
• removing concrete in shallow layers.

By training the operators to stop the machine before moving it, the average vibration level
was reduced to around 7 m/s2, allowing a 70% increase in the time before the exposure action
and limit values were reached. Further training improved the operators’ techniques and the
average vibration was reduced to about 5.5 m/s2, allowing about 100 minutes trigger time
before reaching the exposure action value. By training the operator to stop and move the
cutting tool after about 10 seconds of operating, instead of working continuously for about a
minute, the amount of work done (concrete broken) was greatly increased. The overall effect
was to allow up to 17 times more concrete to be broken than before, without increasing
vibration exposures.

User Technique Affects Hand-Arm Vibration Exposure

Edwards et al. (2006) monitored hand-arm vibration exposures from three different types of
tools - electric breakers, combi-hammers and battery drills – made by three different
manufacturers. Several operators used each tool to work on a single point of a piece of
concrete for 30 seconds, while vibration was measured. There was a significant difference
observed between the vibration levels of the tools when the same tool was used by each of the
three operators, indicating that the individual’s method of use has a significant effect on
handarm vibration exposure.

5.11.3 Use of Low Vibration Work Methods

Methods for Reducing Manual Jackhammering

Manual use of pneumatic jackhammers produces hand-arm vibration levels in the range of 5
to 20 m/s2 with an average of around 12 m/s2. At the average vibration level, a total of 3
hours use per day which would give a typical exposure of 7 m/s2, which is more than the
maximum exposure limits recommended by ACGIH® and the European Vibration Directive.
There are ways in which vibration from manual jackhammering can be reduced or eliminated
by alternative methods.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 42

Use Tractor Mounted Jackhammers

Human vibration exposure caused by jackhammering can be greatly reduced by mounting the
jackhammer onto the articulating arm of a tractor or excavator, using the machine’s hydraulics
to power the jackhammer, and operating it from the driver’s station. This approach can drop
the jackhammer’s contribution to hand-arm vibration down to less than 1 m/s2. If finer work
is required, such as scoring the border of an area to be broken out, this work can be done with
a hand-held jackhammer. In this case the total amount of hand-held time is still very short
(often minutes), still resulting in acceptably low exposures. An added benefit of using a
machine-mounted jackhammer is that the work usually proceeds many times faster than by
hand-held jackhammering.

Use Directional Drilling or Daylighting Instead of Excavation

When laying wire or pipe under roads or walkways, one method is to excavate a trench and
lay the wire or pipe. Jackhammers are often used to break the surface and manual tampers are
often used as part of the backfilling and restoration work. One way of avoiding vibration
from jackhammer and tamper operation is to use directional drilling or daylighting to create
the underground pipe or wire chase instead of opening a trench. In addition to virtually
eliminating hand-arm vibration exposure, these methods are often cheaper than trenching,
generally much faster and less disruptive.

Use a “Drill and Bite” Technique to Tear Down Concrete Walls

Concrete walls are often broken down by jackhammering. As an alternative, a diamond drill
held in a clamp can be used to drill a series of holes through the wall, after which a hydraulic
concrete crusher can be used to “bite off” pieces. The jaws of hydraulic crushers close
slowly, so operators can loosen their grip before crushing takes place, further reducing
vibration exposure. This technique results in negligible operator exposure to hand-arm
vibration and also significantly reduces noise and dust exposures.

Using Hydraulic Bursting for Concrete Demolition

Jackhammers are often used to break-up concrete slabs and footings. As an alternative, a
clamp-mounted diamond drill can be used to drill holes in the concrete, after which a
hydraulic bursting tool can be inserted into the holes to split apart the concrete. This method
produces very little exposure to vibration, noise and dust.

Removal of Large Sections of Brick or Concrete Structures to Modify Buildings

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 43

In commercial and industrial buildings, very large openings through thick (1m+) concrete or
brick slabs and walls to route services, install elevator shafts, install escalators, etc. must
sometimes be done. A typical technique is to use lower force hand-held jackhammers to cut
out the entire mass of material, since larger jackhammers or machine-mounted jackhammers
can produce too much vibration which can cause structural damage to the building. An
alternative lower vibration approach is to cut a border around and completely through the
material to be removed with a diamond core or wire saw, which essentially “vibration
isolates” the target material from the building, and then use a tractor mounted jackhammer to
breakout the isolated section. In addition to resulting in less vibration, this method can be
much quicker.

Water Jets to Remove Damaged or Weathered Concrete Surfaces

Instead of using hand-held jackhammers to remove damaged, weathered and decayed concrete
material from buildings or bridges, a robot-mounted water jetting machine can be used. This
process uses an extremely high pressure water jet to wear away the old damaged concrete.
The jet removes all concrete up to a certain strength, regardless of depth, leaving the good
material and removing the damaged material. As a result, operators are not exposed to hand-
arm vibration, and airborne dust levels are very low.

Methods for Reducing Needle Gun Use

For Surface Preparation, Try Grit Blasting Instead

For many situations where needle guns are used – e.g. removing rust or scale from metal
surfaces, roughing-up concrete surfaces to facilitate bonding – grit blasters with local exhaust
ventilation shrouds can be used instead.

Using Concrete Curing Retarders to Create a Rough Bonding Surface

Needle guns are sometimes used to rough-up bonding surfaces of newly poured concrete after
removal of forms. As an alternative, the surface to which the next pour will be bonded can be
coated with a concrete cure retarding compound. Then, when the bulk of the concrete has
cured, the surface to which the retarding compound has been applied will still be largely

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 44

uncured. Then, when forms are removed, the uncured surface can be abraded with a pressure
washer to create a rough bonding surface.

5.12 Use of Anti-Vibration Gloves

Many conventional gloves dampen higher frequencies of vibration present in some tools.
However, it is more difficult to get conventional gloves to dampen and reduce the lower
vibration frequencies present in many tools such as pneumatic chipping hammers and
jackhammers.

Anti-vibration gloves have been available and in use since the early 1980s. The most basic
types of anti-vibration gloves have outer skins made of conventional materials (e.g. leather),
and an inner liner made of one or more viscoelastic materials intended to dampen vibration.
Some inner liners combine two or more layers of different viscoelastic materials, or have air
pockets sandwiched between viscoelastic layers.

The first standard for testing anti-vibration glove efficiency was published by the American
National Standards Institute in 1988 (ANSI S3.40), and in 1997 the International Organization
for Standardization published ISO 10819, which is now the most commonly cited
antivibration glove test standard.

Anti-vibration gloves that meet ISO 10819 may confer vibration reducing benefits for workers
exposed to mainly high frequency hand-arm vibration (such as from very high speed
rotational tools), and several studies have reported some user benefits in terms of reduced
high frequency vibration exposure, and mild reduction in the severity of hand-arm vibration
symptoms.

However, compliance with the ISO 10819 standard does not show that a glove provides
reduction in the lower frequency range; and tests show that most anti-vibration gloves do not
provide significant risk reduction at frequencies below 150Hz. Since the vibration emissions
of most powered hand tools are below 150 Hz, the reduction in vibration provided by
antivibration gloves is negligible in most cases.

If anti-vibration gloves are to be used to protect against high frequency vibration, the gloves
should:
• not compromise grip strength
• allow the worker to maintain a sense of touch
• adequately insulate to protect against cold
• have a relatively thin vibration-damping material that is flexible
• have vibration damping material that covers the full palm area, fingers and thumb
• have an opposed thumb

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 45

 • be loose fitting
• allow the necessary dexterity to complete a task
• allow freedom of movement to control the tool.
• adequately protect against other hazards (e.g. cuts, abrasions)
• meet the anti-vibration glove standard ISO 10819.

Section 6: Methods for Reducing Whole Body Vibration Hazards

There are many ways to reduce whole body vibration hazards:

• purchasing practices
• reducing exposure time and frequency
• providing training and instruction
• implementing suspension systems in vibrating equipment
• modifying seating
• maintaining driving surfaces
• modifying driving practices
• maintaining tires and wheels
• changing the cab design
• maintaining the engine
• providing remote operation of equipment
• damping or isolating the vibration source or surface

6.1 General Methods

6.1.1 Purchasing Practices

When purchasing equipment,

• determine whether the manufacturer / supplier has data relating to whole body vibration
exposure under a range of operating conditions
• specify to the manufacturer / supplier what the maximum whole body vibration exposures
must be under typical operating conditions
• determine what vibration reduction systems are in place, and their maintenance
requirements
• determine what components of the equipment contribute most significantly to vibration
output, and how to maintain those components to minimize vibration.

6.1.2 Reduce Exposure Duration and Frequency

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 46

When engineering control measures cannot adequately reduce vibration exposure, exposure
duration and frequency must be reduced. In many cases, pursuing this option as a first choice
may be the most practical approach.

Where possible, plan and schedule work to prevent workers from being exposed to vibration
for long, continuous periods. Several shorter periods of exposure are preferable.

Where it is necessary to continually operate high vibration equipment, rotate operation among
workers so that no single worker has exposures long enough to become overexposed. This
could be done by switching operators between higher and lower vibration equipment.

Operators of equipment should also take periodic rest breaks of 10 to 15 minutes for every 1
to 2 hours of continuous exposure.

6.1.3 Training and Instruction

Workers operating equipment that results in whole body vibration exposure must receive
instruction and training in the hazards of vibration, how to minimize vibration exposure and
how to recognize early signs of overexposure. Specific subjects for coverage should include:
• injury / illness risks from exposure to whole body vibration
• exposure limit values, guidelines and the exposure action values
• vibration levels associated with equipment that will be used
• control measures to reduce risks from vibration exposure, including
- equipment maintenance and upkeep requirements and relationship to vibration
levels
- minimizing exposure duration
- proper sitting and posture
- how to adjust seats for optimal seating position and posture
- driving and routing practices to reduce vibration
- need to avoid lifting or bending immediately following exposure, and to avoid
twisting or body rotation during equipment operation.
• early signs and symptoms of injury
• reporting maintenance requirements for equipment
• appropriate health surveillance
• impact of home activities and lifestyle factors on risks of vibration injury.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 47

6.2 Specific Methods for Reducing Whole Body Vibration Exposure from
Vehicles

6.2.1 Suspension Systems (Chassis and / or Cab)

Suspension systems must be regularly maintained, and maintenance personnel must be able to
recognize and remedy conditions that increase vibration exposure.

The suspension system components (springs, shocks, etc.) must be designed for the mass of
loads typically carried by the vehicle. Overloading and underloading can both increase whole
body vibration exposure. Ideally, suspension systems should be “smart” and self-adjusting to
achieve optimal vibration reduction for a range of load conditions. Where possible, avoid the
purchase and use of unsprung vehicles.

If the suspension system must be modified to meet job conditions, ensure that modifications
are designed and implemented by personnel with expertise in vibration reduction. Improperly
sized, configured and tuned systems can amplify rather than reduce vibration.

6.2.2 Seating

Most conventional vehicle seats resonate vertically (z-axis) at around 4 Hz. As a result, they
amplify vibration at these frequencies. This is important because the human body is most
sensitive to vibration in the range 4-8 Hz in the z-axis. Seats can also amplify vibration in the
x-axis (front to back) and the y-axis (side to side). When seats are mounted sideways (“troop
carrier” style), the x-axis vibration moves the spine from side to side, which can cause injury.
Vibration in the x and y-axes can also be significant for vehicles operating on uneven terrain.
When seats are not maintained or replaced on a regular basis, they can add to vibration
problems because seat suspension systems deteriorate over time.

Seats can suffer from a variety of deficiencies that magnify the effects of vibration exposure:
• many lack adequate back support
• lack of visibility or the need to twist around to see backwards may limit the benefits of
a good seat
• many are not maintained to the manufacturers’ design specifications and are not
replaced regularly enough
• many are not designed and installed to minimize vibration transmission to the operator
• many actually amplify vibration frequencies and increase exposure.

Good seating-related practices for vibration reduction include:

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 48

 • equipping vehicles with air-ride seats or seats with suspension systems
• using ergonomically designed seats and back rests, with adequate padding
• providing seatbelts and supports for the lower back
• training operators to properly adjust the seat.

Seats should be designed to reduce the transmission of vibration to the lowest possible level.
Seat suspension systems can amplify vibrations of certain frequencies, and many have been
found ineffective in reducing overall vibration exposure. It is therefore important to get
professional assistance when retrofitting vehicles with seat suspension systems. The seat
should be selected so that the dominant frequency of the vehicle’s vibration is not in the
amplification range of the suspension system.

Additional considerations when selecting a suspension seat include:

• having sufficient space to allow the workers to move
• adjustability in various directions (height, fore-aft, backrest)
• ease of access to adjustment controls, with height adjustments separate from
suspension adjustments
• ability to adjust the seat in accordance with the operator’s weight
• sufficient cab space for fore and aft adjustment.

6.2.3 Driving Surfaces

Poor roads, uneven work areas and off-road terrain contribute significantly to rough rides,
jarring and vibration exposure.

Practices to minimize the vibration exposure contribution of driving surfaces include:

• properly maintaining roads and driving surfaces, if possible
• using the right type of vehicle, suspension system and tires for the surface conditions
• equipping vehicles with headlights so that drivers can see and judge surface conditions
• instructing drivers in driving techniques to minimize surface vibration effects
• ensuring that the vehicle cab and windows are designed and maintained so that the
driver can see road surface conditions a few metres in front of the vehicle
• getting feedback from workers on problems and conditions contributing to rough rides
• encouraging operators to communicate among themselves on road and surface
conditions
• using markers and signage for particularly rough areas

6.2.4 Driving Practices

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 49

Driving practices can have a large effect on whole body vibration exposure. Exposure
reducing practices include:
• choosing a driving speed for the terrain that minimizes vibration of the vehicle (slower
speeds typically result in less vibration)
• avoiding potholes, ruts, and bumps
• avoiding long periods of driving without leaving the vehicle to stretch and have a
break
• providing drivers with feedback on the effectiveness of their driving style for
reduction of vibration exposure
• training.

6.2.5 Tires and Wheels

Over inflated tires produce a rougher ride while under inflated tires can produce a bouncier
ride. Ensure tires are correctly inflated for the particular type of vehicle and road conditions.

Unevenly worn tires (e.g. more worn on the front than back) can also increase vibration, so
periodic inspection for tire wear and tire rotation are important.

Maintaining proper wheel alignment is also important for reducing vibration.

6.2.6 Cab

Vehicle cabs can be designed and installed to be mechanically isolated from the chassis and
engine. This significantly reduces vibration transmission to the operator. Vibration-isolated
cabs must be inspected periodically and isolation system components must be properly
maintained.

For cabs that are not or cannot be vibration isolated, insulating or damping the floor with
antivibration materials can sometimes have some vibration reducing benefit, but mainly for
higher frequencies.

Incorporating good ergonomic design principles into cab design and layout can minimize the
impacts of whole body vibration by avoiding the need for the operator to adopt bad postures
or engage in undesirable motions. Cabs should:
• minimize the need for the operator to twist the body or neck, or strain the neck upward
to see over obstacles
• provide adequate head, leg and body room, so that the operator is not cramped and can
easily operate the controls
• allow adequate visibility of the path of operation
• have high visibility displays and controls

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 50

 • be provided with swivel seats if it is necessary for the operator to change directional
orientation of their body to operate attachments such as backhoes.

6.2.7 Engine Maintenance

Engines can be sources of both high and low frequency vibration. To minimize the
contribution of the engine to overall vibration exposure, it is important to maintain the engine
regularly. This way conditions that can increase exposure, such as worn parts, defective
vibration dampers, bearings and gears, and engine tuning can be identified and fixed.

6.2.8 Remote Operation

For certain vehicles and situations, operator vibration exposure can be eliminated by
designing and equipping the vehicle for remote operation. This has been done successfully
with vehicles used for drilling and digging, load-haul-dump vehicles (“LHD”) used in mining,
and railway locomotives. In some applications (like tracked drillers), the operator walks
beside the machine while it is moving and stands beside the machine during stationary work.
It is also possible to provide the operator with a second vehicle (such as an all terrain vehicle
or truck) for shelter and lower vibration personal transport. In other applications, like mine
LHD and railways, the operator controls the vehicle from a permanent workstation remote
from the worksite.

6.3 Specific Methods for Reducing Whole Body Vibration Exposure from
Stationary Machinery

6.3.1 Conventional Vibration Isolation and Damping

The usual way that vibration is reduced for stationary equipment on a mounting platform or
the floor of a building is to position the equipment on pads made of rubber bonded cork or
similar materials. Therefore the equipment is not in direct physical contact with the platform
or building. The pads are made of materials that are poor transmitters of vibration.

If an operator must stand or sit on a platform that is attached to the stationary equipment, then
this platform, or the structural members that secure it to the equipment, can be separated from
direct contact with the vibration-producing stationary equipment by installing
vibrationisolating pads.

Figure 13 illustrates how vibration-isolating pads are typically installed.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 51

 Figure 13 - Typical Installation of Vibration-Isolating Pads

Since noise is created by vibrating surfaces, the use of vibration-isolating pads also usually
reduces noise levels.

When installing vibration-isolating pads, it is essential that either there be no penetrations

through the pad (such as bolts) which provide a new alternative path for transmission of
vibration, or additional vibration-isolators are installed in the manner of washers to isolate the
bolts and fasteners.

The correct type and size of isolator is determined by the mass of the stationary equipment
and the frequency of vibration to be isolated. Specialists in vibration-isolation should be
consulted on proper treatments.

6.3.2 Seating

The information provided for vehicle seating in Section 8.2.2 also applies to seating installed
as part of a control station for stationary equipment.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 52

6.3.3 Standing Surfaces

As shown in Figure 13, standing surfaces can be vibration-isolated from vibrating components
by installing vibration-isolating pads.

Anti-fatigue mats placed on the standing or walking surfaces of platforms can reduce higher
frequency vibration, primarily by dampening vibration transmitted along the surface.
However, these mats are not very effective at reducing vibration transmission in the
potentially harmful 4 to 8 Hz range.

6.3.4 Maintenance

The information provided for vehicle maintenance in Section 8.2.7 applies equally to the
maintenance of stationary equipment.

6.4 Case Studies

Impacts of an Education Program on Forklift Driver Whole Body Vibration Exposure

A study by Hulshof et al. (2006) monitored the effect of administering an educational

program to 180 forklift drivers in Holland. The program included information on major
causes of high exposure to whole body vibration and guidance on safe behaviour when
operating forklifts. It urged drivers to reduce their speed and adopt a calm driving style. Each
of the participants was monitored when operating a forklift to determine the level of vibration
to which they were exposed. The intervention resulted in an overall 10% reduction in average
exposure to whole body vibration.

Multifacted Approach to Reducing Lower Back Pain in Forklift Drivers

A study by Shinozaki et al. (2001) assessed the effectiveness of a two stage approach for
reducing lower back pain in a group of 260 forklift operators. In the first stage, lumbar
supports were provided and a physical exercise program was implemented. One year after
implementation, the prevalence of lower back pain fell from 63% to 56%. Improvements
were then made to forklift seats and tires. Nine months after these changes were made, the
prevalence further decreased to 33%.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 53

Section 7: OHS Laws, Guidelines and Standards Related to
Vibration

7.1 OHS Laws Related to Vibration

This section explains the extent to which Canadian and selected international jurisdictions
address vibration exposure hazards and control measures in their occupational health and
safety (OHS) laws.

7.1.1 Alberta OHS Laws

Alberta’s Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) Act, OHS Regulation, and OHS Code do not
contain provisions specific to the control of exposure to vibration. However, Section 2 of the
OHS Act establishes a general duty for employers to protect the health and safety of workers
from workplace hazards:
Every employer shall ensure … the health and safety of workers engaged in the work
of that employer.

Part 2 of the OHS Code requires an employer to assess hazards at the work site. If a hazard
(or potential hazard) to workers is identified, workers must be protected.

7.1.2 British Columbia OHS Laws

British Columbia is unique among Canadian jurisdictions since it has set specific standards for
worker protection from vibration. British Columbia has adopted by reference the maximum
permissible vibration exposure limits set out in ACGIH and ANSI/CEN Standards for hand-
arm vibration and whole body vibration, respectively.

7.1.3 Canadian Federal OHS Laws

The Canada Labour Code Part II and regulations provide occupational health and safety rules
for federal government workplaces, federal undertakings, and workplaces of federally
regulated employers. In clause 125(1)(n), the Canada Labour Code Part II establishes a duty
for employers to
…ensure that the levels of ventilation, lighting, temperature, humidity, sound and
vibration are in accordance with prescribed standards (125(1)(n)).

The only “prescribed standards” referenced in clause 125(1)(n) are those in section 14.10 of
the Canadian Occupational Health and Safety Regulations, which states:

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 54

 …an employer shall ensure that all motorized materials handling equipment in use is
designed and constructed so that any employee required to operate or ride on it will
not be injured or its control will not be impaired by any vibration, jolting or uneven
movement of the materials handling equipment.

In summary,
(i) within the federal jurisdiction, occupational health and safety regulatory requirements
relating to vibration are those that apply specifically to vibration exposure from
operation of mobile material handling equipment and,
(ii) the employer is obliged to ensure that no “employee is injured… by any vibration”.

7.1.4 United States OHS Laws

As with Canadian jurisdictions, the United States federal and state occupational health and
safety laws establish general duties for employers to protect the health and safety of workers.
However, except in California, there are no specific requirements on vibration exposure
hazards.

California has enacted the Regulations on Repetitive Motion Injuries (Title 8 Regulations,
Subchapter 7, Group 15, Article 106, Section 5110). This law requires employers to establish
and put in place a program to minimize repetitive motion injuries in cases where such injuries
have occurred in the workplace. The regulations do not discriminate among causes of
repetitive motion injuries, and so programs are required in cases where injuries are caused by
overexposure to hand-arm or whole body vibration. Where a program is required, it must
include a worksite evaluation, control of harmful exposure and training for workers.

7.1.5 European Union OHS Laws

European Union Directives set standards that member countries must adopt directly or in
country-specific legislation. In 2002, the European Union adopted the European Vibration
Directive (2002/44/EC). This Directive sets minimum requirements for the health and safety
of workers exposed to vibration. The Directive establishes several requirements for the
protection of workers from vibration, including:
• employers must conduct risk assessments for vibration hazards (this requires the
employer to measure vibration levels of tools, machinery and equipment that can
expose workers to vibration and determine worker exposure)
• limits for maximum permissible vibration exposures
• requirements for employers to reduce worker exposures through control measures
• recommendations for the health surveillance of workers at significant risk of
vibration exposure

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 55

The legislated maximum permissible vibration exposure limits are:

For hand-arm vibration:

• A daily exposure limit value of 5 m/s2 standardized to an eight-hour reference
period.
• A daily exposure action value of 2.5 m/s2 standardized to an eight-hour reference
period.

For whole body vibration:

• A daily exposure limit value of 1.15 m/s2 (or, vibration dose value of 21 m/s1.75)
standardized to an eight-hour reference period.
• A daily exposure action value of 0.5 m/s2 (or, vibration dose value of 9.1 m/s1.75)
standardized to an eight-hour reference period.

7.1.6 United Kingdom OHS Laws

In 2006, the United Kingdom passed The Control of Vibration at Work Regulations 2005,
based on the European Vibration Directive (2002/44/EC). It requires employers to:
• assess vibration exposure risks
• determine if workers are likely to be exposed above the daily exposure action value
• where exposures exceed the daily exposure action value, introduce a program of
controls to eliminate or reduce exposures to as low a level as is reasonably practicable
• provide health surveillance to workers who continue to be regularly exposed above the
action value or otherwise continue to be at risk
• provide information and training to workers about health risks and actions to control
vibration exposure risks
• keep a record of risk assessments, control actions, and health surveillance records for
vibration exposed workers
• periodically review and update the risk assessment.

The legislated maximum permissible vibration exposure limits are the same as those specified
in the European Vibration Directive (see Section 7.1.5).

As a result of this law, a considerable amount of in-depth information on workplace vibration

exposure and control methods is available from sources in the United Kingdom.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 56

7.1.7 International Labour Organization

In 1977, the International Labour Organization held the “The Convention Concerning the
Protection of Workers against Occupational Hazards in the Working Environment Due to Air
Pollution, Noise and Vibration” (ILO No. 148, 1977). This event focused on the protection of
workers from vibration. Resolutions of the Convention include the following:

National laws or regulations shall prescribe that measures be taken for the prevention
and control of, and protection against, occupational hazards in the working
environment due to air pollution, noise and vibration. Article 4(1)

Provisions concerning the practical implementation of the measures so prescribed may

be adopted through technical standards, codes of practice and other appropriate
methods. Article 4(2)

As far as possible, the working environment shall be kept free from any hazard due to
air pollution, noise or vibration. Article 9

ILO standards are expected to guide public policy in countries that are signatories to specific
ILO conventions. Canada has not adopted this ILO standard.

7.2 OHS Guidelines and Standards Related to Vibration

This section provides information about non-regulated and voluntary standards relating to
vibration exposure limits, vibration measurement techniques, minimizing vibration through
design and fabrication, and vibration control methods.

7.2.1 American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists® Threshold Limit

Values®

The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH®) is a not-forprofit

and member-based organization that stimulates workplace and environmental health by
providing education and information for professionals on how to apply recommended
standards. Allowable workplace exposure limits recommended by ACGIH® are published
each year in its booklet titled Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical
Agents and Biological Exposure Indices (“the TLV® booklet”).

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 57

The TLV® booklet presents recommended maximum permissible occupational exposure limits
for both hand-arm vibration and whole body vibration.

Hand-arm vibration limits are set out in Table 2 of the TLV® booklet. These vibration
exposure limits are set with the goal of preventing most workers repeatedly exposed at the
stated levels from progressing beyond Stage 1 of the Stockholm Workshop Classification
System for Vibration-Induced White Finger.

Whole body vibration exposure limits are determined in accordance with a specified
methodology and reference values set out in Table 3 of the TLV® booklet. The exposure
limits set mechanically induced whole body vibration levels and durations under which it is
thought that most workers may be exposed repeatedly with minimum risk of back pain,
adverse health effects to the back, and inability to operate a vehicle properly.

7.2.2 International Organization for Standardization - Whole Body Vibration

Exposure Standard

ISO 2631-1, 1997 - Mechanical vibration and shock - Evaluation of human exposure to
whole-body vibration -- Part 1: General requirements, is a standard that,
(i) incorporates assessment methods for both steady state and shock type whole body
vibration, and
(ii) provides guidance for acceptable workplace vibration exposures.

The standard classifies vibration exposures into three categories or “zones”:

• likely health risk zone, where vibration exposure is likely to be a risk to health (based
on evidence of documented exposure-health effects)
• caution zone, where vibration exposure is a potential risk to health
• below the caution zone, where the vibration exposure level is considered acceptable
and unlikely to be a risk to health.

These zones are not intended to be treated as absolute predictors of risk, but rather as guidance
for health risk assessment by professionals.

7.2.3 Hand-Arm Vibration Measurement Standards

Several standards have been developed by the International Organization for Standardization
to classify recognized good practices for evaluating hand-arm vibration exposure, and
measuring vibration emissions of hand-held tools. These include:

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 58

 • ISO 5349-1 (2001): Mechanical vibration measurement and evaluation of human
exposure to hand-transmitted vibration, Part 1: General requirements

• ISO 5349-2 (2001): Mechanical vibration – Measurement and evaluation of human

exposure to hand-transmitted vibration, Part 2: Practical guidance for measurement
at the workplace.

• ISO 8662-1 (1988): Hand-held portable power tools – Measurement of vibrations at

the handle, Part 1: General

• ISO 8662-3 (1992): Hand-held portable power tools – Measurement of vibrations at

the handle, Part 3: Rock drills and rotary hammers

7.2.4 Other Vibration Standards Published by Non-Regulatory Governmental

Agencies and Non-Governmental Standards-Promulgating Organizations

Several non-regulatory governmental standards agencies and non-governmental

standardspromulgating organizations have produced standards for vibration exposure
assessment, vibration measurement methods, recommended maximum permissible exposure
limits, vibration control measures, and design and fabrication criteria for vibration reduction
in equipment and vehicles. Several of these standards are listed below.

Canadian Standards Association (CSA)

Agricultural Wheeled Tractors – Operator’s Seat – Laboratory CAN/CSA-M5007-03

Measurement of Transmitted Vibration
Earth-Moving Machinery – Laboratory Evaluation of Operator Seat CAN/CSA-M7096-00
Vibration
Procedure for Measurement of Sound and Vibration Due to Blasting CAN3-Z107.54-M85
Operations (R2001)

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

Guide to the Evaluation of Human Exposure to Vibration in Buildings ANSI S2.71-1983 (R2003)
Guide for the Measurement and Evaluation of Human Exposure to Vibration ANSI S2.70-2006
Transmitted to the Hand
Mechanical Vibration and Shock – Evaluation of human exposure to ANSI S2.72-2002 (R2007)
wholebody vibration / ISO 2631-4-1997
(R2007)

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (United States Department of Health and
Human Services)

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 59

 Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Exposure to Hand- NIOSH 89-106
Arm Vibration

European Committee for Standardization (European Normalization (CEN))

Mechanical vibration and shock - Measurement and evaluation of single CEN ISO/TS 15694:2004
shocks transmitted from hand-held and hand-guided machines to the
handarm system
Hand-held portable power tools - Measurement of vibrations at the handle - CEN ISO/TS 8662-
Part 11: Fastener driving tools 11:2004
Whole body vibration - Guidelines for vibration hazards reduction CEN/TR 15172:2005
Mechanical vibration - Guideline for the assessment of exposure to CEN/TR 15350:2006
handtransmitted vibration using available information including that provided
by manufacturers of machinery
Hand-arm vibration - Guidelines for vibration hazards reduction CR 1030:1995
Mechanical vibration - Guide to the health effects of vibration on the human CR 12349:1996
body
Mechanical vibration - Testing of mobile machinery in order to determine the CEN 1032:2003
vibration emission value
Mechanical vibration - Declaration and verification of vibration emission CEN 12096:1997
values
Safety of industrial trucks - Test methods for measuring vibration CEN 13059:2002
Mechanical vibration - Industrial trucks - Laboratory evaluation and CEN 13490:2001
specification of operator seat vibration
Mechanical vibration - Measurement and calculation of occupational CEN 14253:2003+A1:2007
exposure to whole body vibration with reference to health - Practical
guidance
Hand-held portable power tools - Measurement of vibrations at the handle CEN 28662:1992
Mechanical vibration - Laboratory method for evaluating vehicle seat CEN 30326-1:1994
vibration - Part 1: Basic requirements (ISO 10326-1:1992)
Mechanical vibration and shock - Hand-arm vibration - Method for the CEN ISO 10819:1996
measurement and evaluation of the vibration transmissibility of gloves at the
palm of the hand (ISO 10819:1996)
Mechanical vibration and shock - Hand-arm vibration - Method for CEN ISO 13753:1998
measuring the vibration transmissibility of resilient materials when loaded by
the hand-arm system (ISO 13753:1998)
Mechanical vibration - Hand-held and hand-guided machinery - Principles CEN ISO 20643:2005
for evaluation of vibration emission (ISO 20643:2005)
Earth-moving machinery - Laboratory evaluation of operator seat vibration CEN ISO 7096:2000
(ISO 7096:2000)
Human response to vibration - Measuring instrumentation (ISO 8041:2005) CEN ISO 8041:2005

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

Human response to vibration – Measuring instrumentation ISO 8041:2005

Earth-moving machinery - Laboratory evaluation of operator seat vibration ISO 7096:2000
Agricultural wheeled tractors - Operator’s seat - Laboratory measurement of ASABE/ISO 5007:2003
transmitted vibration
Mechanical vibration and shock – Human exposure - Vocabulary ISO 5805: 1997

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 60

 Agricultural wheeled tractors and field machinery - Measurement of whole ASABE/ISO 5008:2002
body vibration of the operator
Mechanical vibration and shock – Evaluation of human exposure to whole ISO 2631-1-1997 (R2007)
body vibration

Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

Human Mechanical Response Characteristics, Dynamic Response of the SAE J1460/1

Human Abdomen
Human Tolerance to Impact Conditions as Related to Motor Vehicle Design SAE J885

Japanese Standards Association (JIS)

Method of Measurement and Description of Hand-Transmitted Vibration JIS B4900

Level

Australia Standards Association (ASA)

Vibration and Shock - Hand-transmitted vibration - Guidelines for and AS 2763-1988

measurement and assessment of human exposure
Vibration and Shock - Dynamic characteristics of the human body AS 2993.1-1987
Evaluation of human exposure to whole body vibration – General AS 2670.1-2001
requirements

Chinese Standards (GB/T)

Reduced comfort boundary and evaluation criteria for human exposure to GB/T 13442-1992
whole body vibration
Comfort evaluation of human exposure to whole body vibration in GB/T 13442-1992
recumbent position
Vibration and shock - Mechanical transmissibility of the human body in the GB/T 16441-1996
z direction

Deutsches Institut für Normung Standards (DIN) (Holland)

Hand-held portable power tools; measurement of vibrations at the handle DIN CEN 28662

Several of the European Committee for Standardization’s standards are based on ISO
standards, and the standard listed for Holland is a country-specific adoption of the
corresponding CEN standard. Also, the ASA standard for evaluation of human exposure to
whole body vibration is very similar to the CEN and ISO standards.

Appendix 1

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 61

1.0 Principle for Measuring Vibration

Vibration measurement requires the use of an instrument that can convert physical vibration
into an electrical signal. The electrical signal is then relayed to a display telling the user how
much vibration is coming from a source. The components of a vibration measuring
instrument are shown in Figure A1.

Figure A1 – Components of a Vibration Measurement Instrument (Adapted from

Accelerometers, Honeywell, 2007)

The typical arrangement of equipment includes a mechanical transducer attached to a

vibrating surface or object, a preamplifier, filters and a display.

The transducer is a microphone used to pick up a vibration signal. There are various types of
transducers, including accelerometers, vibrometers, and displacement meters. The most
common is the accelerometer. The transducer is placed firmly and securely on the vibrating
surface in an area that most closely approximates where the user holds the vibrating tool or
sits on the vibrating equipment. Often the transducer needs to be attached to the vibrating
surface by some means (e.g. wax, soft glue, magnet) so that it makes good contact with the
vibrating surface.
Attached to the transducer is a preamplifier. The preamplifier intensifies the signal that is
provided from the transducer. Once amplified, the vibration is converted into an electrical
signal. This signal may need to be converted into specific units. In such cases, an integrator /
differentiator is used. The integrator is placed between the preamplifier and the filters. It
allows vibrations to be measured with an accelerometer or accelerations with a vibrometer.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 62

Since vibration is harmful according to its frequency, the electrical signal then passes through
filters where the vibration signal is weighted according to frequency. In simple terms,
weighting means that the signal is divided into various frequencies and ranked based on the
amount of each frequency present. The weighted vibration levels can then be read from a
display attached to the filters.

Measuring Hand-Arm Vibration

In the case of hand-arm vibration, the transducer is affixed to the vibrating surface where the
worker holds the tool. The vibration that would normally be transmitted to the worker’s hand
and arm is transmitted directly to the instrument. The instrument then converts the
mechanical energy (vibration acceleration) into an electrical signal.

Vibration is characterized by acceleration in multiple directions. The International

Organization for Standardization (ISO) specifies that vibration from a tool should be
measured in three directions or axes (x, y, z) as illustrated in Figure A2:

Figure A2 – Axes for Measurement of Hand-Arm Vibration

(Adapted from the Hand-Arm Vibration Guide, Griffin et al, 2006)

Transducers are highly directional and therefore only measure vibration in one direction at a
time. The transducer should be used to measure the acceleration in each of these three axes.
Diagrams and descriptions explaining the specific method for placing the transducer are
generally outlined in the equipment manufacturer’s instruction manual. Figure A3 provides
an example of the transducer placement).

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 63

 Figure A3 – Placement of the Transducer

Measuring Whole Body Vibration

The specific procedure for measuring whole body vibration can be found in ISO 2631-1:
1997, Mechanical vibration and shock – Evaluation of human exposure to whole body
vibration (Part 1: General requirements).

For whole body vibration assessments, the transducer is affixed to a seat cushion in the case of
seated workers, or to a standing surface in the case of exposure while standing on a vibrating
surface. These positions are intended to closely approximate the worker’s position during
work so that the exposure can be measured.

Unlike hand-arm vibration, whole body vibration is evaluated based on the amount of
vibration in all of the axes, rather than in each individual axis. For this reason, specific
transducers (e.g. triaxial accelerometers) that are able to integrate vibrations emitted in all
directions rather than measuring vibration in each of the axes, are often used to measure
whole body vibration exposure.

Best Practices - Vibration at the Worksite 64

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