Empathy: An Integral Model

in the Counseling Process

Arthur J. Clark

Expanding on a framework introduced by Carl Rogers, an integral model of empathy in counseling uses empathic
understanding through 3 ways of knowing: Subjective empathy enables a counselor to momentarily experience what
it is like to be a client, interpersonal empathy relates to understanding a client’s phenomenological experiencing, and
objective empathy uses reputable knowledge sources outside of a client’s frame of reference. Across the counseling
process, empathy is integral to treatment strategies and interventions.
In 1957, Carl Rogers published a classic and provocative to the treatment relationship. From an interpersonal perspec-
article that identified empathy as an essential variable for en- tive, Rogers (1964) emphasized the therapeutic value of a
gendering constructive personality change in the therapeutic practitioner’s accurate perception of the internal frame of ref-
process. Empathy, in addition to congruence and uncondi- erence of a client and communicating this understanding to the
tional positive regard, has achieved a consensus standing in person. Seeking to grasp the phenomenological experiencing
the professional literature as a core condition in facilitating of a client is a prominent and recurring theme throughout his
the treatment relationship in counseling and psychotherapy writings (Rogers, 1951, 1957, 1961, 1964, 1975, 1980, 1986).
(Feller & Cottone, 2003; Lambert & Barley, 2002). Although Maintaining a nonjudgmental attitude, a counselor endeavors
empathy and empathic understanding have been recognized to restrain his or her potentially biased perspectives while
for fostering open communication and trust since early in the attuning to the private meanings of a client.
20th century, Rogers and his colleagues brought prominence With respect to an objective way of knowing, Rogers (1964)
to the quality of the relationship as a critical factor in success- recognized that it is possible to direct a person’s empathic
ful treatment outcome (Barrett-Lennard, 2003; Duan & Hill, understanding toward the reactions of trusted reference groups
1996; Wispé, 1987). In a supportive emotional climate, clients who represent an external frame of reference. A consensus of
frequently experience both a sense of being deeply understood observations by qualified and competent individuals, usually
and a diminishment of psychological threat (Clark, 1998; My- one’s colleagues, forms a basis for collective understanding.
ers, 2000). With an enhancement of empathic understanding, As an example of an objective mode of knowing, Rogers
clients generally increase their level of therapy satisfaction, (1964) observed that the equation for the speed of light
likelihood of compliance, and involvement in the treatment has been precisely determined using similar operations by
process (Bohart, Elliot, Greenberg, & Watson, 2002). Over a prominent physicists. Rogers (1964) also cited behavioral
period of decades, Rogers’s definitions and descriptions of em- rating scales and empirical tests as other means of objective
pathy continued to evolve while he popularized its therapeutic knowing that involve externally observable behavior. As
function in a number of publications (Raskin, 2001). with his views of a subjective avenue of knowing, Rogers
Although Rogers’s comprehensive work on empathy has did not specify or endorse counseling applications relating
achieved wide acclaim in counseling, a particular book chapter to the objective modality and was consistent in his belief
(see Rogers, 1964), in a volume on behaviorism and phenom- in the importance of minimizing the influence of subjective
enology, is seldom mentioned in the research relating to em- and objective knowledge channels in direct interactions with
pathy in a therapeutic context. In an illuminating discussion, a client. In sum, Rogers (1964) empathically focused on the
Rogers (1964) conceptualized the capacity of individuals to perceptual field of a client largely through an interpersonal
experience empathy from three ways of knowing: subjective, way of knowing.
interpersonal, and objective. From a subjective perspective, a In a contrasting point of view, I believe that it is possible
person channels empathy in the context of his or her own frame to therapeutically direct subjective and objective empathic
of reference and empathically reacts to personal experiences modalities toward a client in the counseling experience.
that occur in everyday life. Related to a subjective modality, Thus, in addition to an interpersonal way of knowing, other
Rogers (1964) cited common examples, such as a reaction identifiable knowledge channels are integral to empathy and
to unfamiliar food, evaluating one’s feelings toward another empathic understanding in a treatment context. The purpose
individual, and experiencing a range of emotions. However, it of this article is to introduce a multiple-perspective model of
is important to note that, at this point in his thinking, Rogers empathy and discuss implications of the conceptualization in
did not suggest applications of a subjective way of knowing the counseling process.
Arthur J. Clark, Education Department, St. Lawrence University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Arthur J. Clark, Counseling and Human Development Program, Education Department, St. Lawrence University, Atwood Hall, Canton,
NY 13617 (e-mail: [email protected]).

© 2010 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved.

348 Journal of Counseling & Development ■ Summer 2010 ■ Volume 88
Empathy: An Integral Model in the Counseling Process

An Integral Model of Empathy possible to describe each function in relatively discrete ways.
Through identification, a counselor engages in a partial and
After reflecting at length on Rogers’s (1964) threefold ways of transitory assumption of a client’s experiencing as if it were his
knowing, I realized that it is possible to expand on his perspec- or her own. The imagination capacity of a counselor has the
tives of empathy and conceptualize a new empathy structure potential to briefly evoke images and emotional reactions that
that is integral to the counseling process (Clark, 2002, 2004, may be similar to a client’s experiencing. In a third empathic
2007, 2009, 2010). In contrast with Rogers’s (1964) view that interaction, using his or her intuition enables a counselor
empathy and empathic understanding primarily relate to an to rapidly generate impressions and hunches relating to a
interpersonal modality, I am convinced that empathy may be client’s functioning. Finally, felt-level experiencing refers to
therapeutically directed toward a client through each of the a counselor’s sensitivity to somatic or physical reactions that
three knowledge channels. In a broadening of Rogers’s (1964) arise when empathically listening to a client.
original framework, the scope of empathy can surely extend Identification. When a counselor empathizes with a client,
beyond the immediate frame of reference of a client. From there is often a kinship with the person because of a perceived
a conceptual stance, subjective, interpersonal, and objective similarity of experiences (Stewart, 1956). Emotional inten-
modalities constitute an integral model for using empathy in sities and environmental conditions may vary qualitatively,
counseling. Subjective empathy enables a counselor to mo- but there is sufficient commonality of experiencing to evoke
mentarily identify with a client through intuitive reactions and a level of identification. The counselor’s identification and
fleetingly imagine and experience what it is like to be a client. engagement with a client may last for only a moment (Katz,
Using interpersonal empathy, the counselor attempts to grasp 1963). In a less favorable situation, a counselor may find it
the phenomenological experiencing of a client from an im- difficult to identify with a client because of a paucity of com-
mediate or extended perspective. Objective empathy features a mon life experiences and perceptions (Shapiro, 1974). The
counselor’s use of theoretically informed observational data and cultural backgrounds of the client and counselor may also
reputable sources in the service of understanding a client. be dissimilar to the point where the practitioner encounters
A basic assumption in extending Rogers’s (1964) empathy limitations and constraints in the identification process. At
framework is that multiple and complementary modes of knowl- these times, a counselor is in a position to engage other facets
edge can contribute to a more comprehensive and accurate of subjective empathy or call on other knowledge channels to
understanding of a client. Many counselors tend to view inter- gain an understanding of the client from a broader cultural per-
personal empathy as the primary focus of empathic understand- spective. In other instances, a counselor may not readily shift
ing, and subjective and objective empathy represent ways of out of a state of identification with a client, and psychological
knowing that conceptually may be less familiar to practitioners. boundaries begin to merge through an excessive emotional
At the same time, there are potential biases and cautions in using involvement (Teich, 1992). Over a period of time, treatment
an integral framework of empathy, and a counselor needs to be progress may reach an impasse unless the counselor gains an
aware of these concerns. In the following section, I introduce awareness of modes of knowledge that provide more expansive
an integral model of empathy in the treatment process relating and possibly more balanced perspectives.
to subjective, interpersonal, and objective empathy. Within the Imagination. Through the process of identification with
integral model, subjective empathy is closest to a counselor’s a client, it is possible for a counselor to engage his or her
immediate experience in interactions with a client; therefore, imagination in a quest to infer what it is like to be the person
this modality is addressed first. for a fleeting period of time (Watson, Goldman, & Vanaer-
schot, 1998). Accordingly, a counselor assumes a creative and
Subjective Empathy exploratory posture to stimulate emotionally toned mental
As a reciprocal process, subjective empathy relates to a images of the individual (Agosta, 1984; Margulies, 1989;
counselor’s awareness of his or her sensibilities and internal Poland, 2007). As an example, a school counselor visualizes
reactions in response to the experiencing of a client. Through events as a 15-year-old student plaintively recounts spending
a form of personal knowing, a counselor vicariously experi- weekend evenings in the company of her mother, while desper-
ences, for a momentary period of time, what it is like to ately wishing that the telephone would ring in order to avoid
be the client. When attempting to empathically understand the prospect of another night without the companionship of a
a client, the counselor fleetingly engages in processes in- friend. In such instances, counselors are typically able to recall
volving identification, imagination, intuition, and felt-level times when they felt rejected or overlooked, and these experi-
experiencing. In a sense, a counselor’s self becomes a tool ences facilitate imaginary associations. Although the capacity
for empathic understanding and forming hypotheses in an of a counselor to engage in imaginable activity has received
immediate counseling context. In many instances, counselors only a minimal degree of attention in the counseling literature
may already use the processes but may not be explicitly aware (Margulies, 1989), the function has a potential to broaden an
of their relationship to empathy. Although there are variations empathic understanding of clients in situations or conditions
in the sequence and intensity of the empathic interactions, it is that counselors may personally perceive as culturally distant.

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 Clark

It is likely, for instance, that most counselors must call on their example is, while empathically listening to a client who has
imagination to grasp client experiences involving long-term been diagnosed with an eating disorder, the counselor periodi-
physical neglect or lengthy periods of impoverishment. In cally experiences sensibilities of fullness in her stomach and
other contexts, a client’s physical state may seem corporally slight gagging reactions. These momentary reflexive actions of
foreign, and the counselor can only imagine the pain that is the counselor usually occur when the client recounts episodes
incurred when one is morbidly obese, chronically disabled, of binging and purging, and they are often accompanied with
or experiencing a life-threatening illness. visual images of the individual enacting the behaviors.
Intuition. Another subjective process that potentially con-
tributes to empathically understanding a client involves and is Interpersonal Empathy
dependent on a counselor’s intuitive faculty. In contrast with Through a relational process in the integral model, a coun-
a more conscious and deliberate use of reasoning, intuition selor strives to empathically understand the phenomeno-
relates to a counselor’s sensitivity to immediate responses logical experiencing of a client and demonstrate a sensitive
and hunches that come to mind in interactions with a client attunement to the perceptual field of the individual. As a way
(Eisengart & Faiver, 1996; Petitmengin-Peugeot, 1999). Con- of knowing, interpersonal empathy involves perceiving a
sequently, a counselor’s intuitive judgment relies on rapidly client’s internal frame of reference and conveying a sense of
formulating hypotheses about a client and generating tentative the private meanings to the person (Haugh & Merry, 2001;
means of apprehension. As the counselor experiences tacit Rogers, 1975). Through the counseling process, it is possible
images and flashes of insight, overall patterns of a client’s for a counselor to empathically understand a client on an
functioning begin to emerge (Bohart, 1999; Eisengart & immediate here-and-now basis and also develop a general
Faiver, 1996; Rea, 2001). From an instrumental perspective sense of how the client experiences life from an extended
in counseling, intuitive knowing has the potential to inform empathic perspective (Goldberg, 1999). For example, a
therapeutic interventions and facilitate strategic decisions young adult client is angry about being passed over for a
(Hankammer, Snyder, & Hankammer, 2006). In a specific promotion, and he expresses, in counseling, a determination
example, during an initial counseling session with a client, a to abruptly quit his job. The counselor empathically pro-
counselor intuitively senses that the individual may possibly cesses the client’s resentful feelings and his desire to leave
be suicidal. After consideration of other knowledge sources, in a place that he perceives has hurt him. Simultaneously, the
addition to intuition, the counselor initiates a comprehensive counselor hypothesizes that the client maintains an ingrained
psychological evaluation. More important, it is also necessary conviction that people in general treat him unfairly. Through
for a counselor to recognize that intuition entails tacit “gut an interpersonal exchange, over several treatment sessions,
reactions,” and these are inevitably susceptible to practitioner this perception becomes recognizable to the client with
distortion and biases. In this regard, a counselor may attempt respect to his outlook on life and the injustice of it all. As a
to balance intuitive judgments and perceptions of a client with consequence, processing the client’s immediate and extended
more examined processes. Finally, although intuition may be perspectives contributes to a deeper and more comprehen-
perceived as a somewhat mystical operation, it is a common sive level of empathic understanding. Finally, interpersonal
means for persons to ascertain understandings in everyday empathy is subject to biases and distortions inherent in the
life (Gladwell, 2005; Goodyear, 1979). perspectives of a client or in inaccuracies relating to the
Felt-level experiencing. When interacting with a client, a observations of significant others familiar with the individual
counselor may resonate with visceral sensations for a fleet- that may be shared with a counselor (Rogers, 1975).
ing period of time. In these instances, a counselor reacts, in a In a relational field, it is necessary for a counselor to em-
bodily felt way, to evocative expressions of a client (Fernald, pathically respond in order to demonstrate an understanding
2000; Vanaerschot, 1997). Gendlin (1962, 1978, 1998) rec- of the explicit and implicit messages of a client (Barrett-
ognized that, in counseling, a client continually experiences Lennard, 2003; Redfern, Dancey, & Dryden, 1993; Schmid,
physical or somatic responses and a flow of emotions and 2001). To this end, for more than 40 years, there has been a
meanings. This felt-level experiencing also occurs with a focus on developing the communication skills of counselors
counselor as he or she empathically responds to a client. In in many educational programs. Rogers (1975) was disdainful
these instances, a counselor may experience corporeal reac- of early training efforts because he thought that there was too
tions, such as a tightness in the throat or chest, which enables much emphasis given to technique-oriented interactions. This
him or her to build hypotheses relating to a similarity in the instrumental activity, in Rogers’s (1975) view, was in opposi-
client’s realm of experiencing (Cooper, 2001). Felt-level expe- tion to a practitioner attitudinal stance that values the integrity
riencing is grounded in the assumption that the counselor, in and personhood of the client. Late in his life, Rogers (1986)
an embodied way, receptively attunes to his or her own somatic further repudiated training procedures that depicted reflection
and emotional functioning. Drawing from the potential of a as a rigid and wooden exchange while equating the technique
sensing body, the counselor vicariously experiences, for a with empathy. At the same time, it is likely that Rogers would
momentary period of time, what it is like to be the client. An have agreed that it is necessary to attempt to develop a broad

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Empathy: An Integral Model in the Counseling Process

range of counselor interventions that integrate empathic un- When counselors encounter such questions, their use of objec-
derstanding. Empathy can remain an abstract phenomenon tive empathy involves integrating referential information with other
only at the interpersonal level unless it is somehow operation- ways of knowing that are more experientially grounded. In this
alized. In this regard, it is possible to significantly expand the regard, Kohut (1977, 1982) referenced a counselor’s capacity to
function of empathy beyond the technique of reflection in the blend experience-near and experience-distant perceptions of a cli-
counseling process. For example, after a counselor confronts ent to effect a deeper level of empathy. In an experience-near stance,
a client because of inconsistencies in his or her behavior, the the counselor attempts to empathically grasp the functioning of a
counselor empathizes with the individual with respect to what client through a close emotional relationship. This observational
it is like to be challenged. material may be processed through the counselor’s experience-
distant mode, which represents his or her theoretical knowledge
Objective Empathy and informed perspectives. Finally, there is a potential for error and
From a referential perspective of the integral model, it is advan- biases relating to objective data, when such materials arbitrarily
tageous for a counselor to use theoretically informed resources categorize or stereotype clients, regardless of the best practices of
to enhance an empathic understanding of a client. Objective peer review and peer acceptance from the literature (Duffy, Gillig,
empathy relies on a consensus of judgments from reputable Tureen, & Ybarra, 2002). In interactions with a client, it is possible
reference groups composed of individuals external to a client’s for the counselor to pursue a human engagement with the person
frame of reference (Clark, 2004, 2007). Accordingly, a counselor by calling on the full breadth of empathic understanding through
uses conceptual material and formalized observations that offer a multiple ways of knowing (Hansen, 2000).
potential for informing and enriching a way of knowing a client.
Examples of referential data are multicultural research findings, Counseling Implications of an Integral
normative self-report inventories, and diagnostic classification
manuals. As nomothetic and externally situated information, the
Model of Empathy
material potentially contributes to an idiographic understand- The counseling utility of a multiple-perspective model of
ing of a client (Aiken, 2003). Specifically, a familiarity with a empathy largely depends on the quality of a counselor’s
nomothetic or a general way that persons experience cultural strategic and technical applications of the ways of knowing.
forces enables a counselor to assess how an individual client From a strategic standpoint, it is appropriate for a counselor
responds to influences within his or her particular culture (Ivey, to use subjective, interpersonal, and objective empathy on
D’Andrea, Ivey, & Simek-Morgan, 2007; Sciarra, 1999). Norm- an individual basis or through a combination of the modali-
based, self-report inventories permit a comparative evaluation of ties. Most often, a counselor is able to develop hypotheses
a single client through a range of standardized procedures. As a about a client by integrating data from multiple perspec-
classification instrument for evaluating psychological function- tives. An awareness of the potentialities and constraints of
ing, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders distinct knowledge channels enables a practitioner to use
(4th ed., text rev.; DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association the modalities more effectively. From a technical stance, a
[APA], 2000) represents the consensual opinion of authorities in counselor may integrate empathic understanding as a com-
the field. Another publication, the Psychodynamic Diagnostic ponent of a broad range of counseling interventions. As an
Manual (PDM Task Force, 2006), details the collaborative project instrumental activity of a counselor, empathy has a potential
of task force members from five major psychoanalytic organiza- to inform the judicious use of therapeutic techniques across
tions. The manual describes a broad range of mental functioning the counseling process.
in infants, children, adolescents, and adults. Although the use of
theoretically informed data is a common practice in counseling, Strategic Applications in Counseling
the relationship of the resource material to empathy is likely to Although there are variations in the importance that contempo-
be unfamiliar to most counselors. rary theoretical orientations attribute to empathy, most theories
Referential sources of information may be integrated with of counseling and psychotherapy acknowledge the therapeutic
subjective and interpersonal knowledge avenues to enhance value of empathically understanding a client. A multiple-
an empathic understanding of a client. With respect to self- perspective model has the potential to enrich and deepen the
report inventories, for example, what is it like for a client to empathic process, and integral empathy may effect concilia-
live when his or her responses to normed-referenced inventory tion between theoretical positions that appear incompatible. In
items reflect high scores on depression and substance abuse? a counseling context, the consciousness of a counselor oscil-
In terms of cultural experience, what is it like to live in a place lates between the three ways of knowing relating to empathy,
where a person’s behavior is perceived as markedly different and these states have a capacity to serve a purposeful function.
from that of the majority culture? Regarding the DSM-IV-TR There are therapeutic limitations inherent in each knowledge
(APA, 2000), how does an individual experience life when he channel, and a comprehensive definition of empathy should
or she meets the specific diagnostic criteria for a schizophrenia include a counselor’s attunement to a client’s experiencing
disorder or those for an obsessive-compulsive disorder? from both immediate and extended perspectives.

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 Clark

Inclusiveness. It is possible to identify empathy as a salient grounded findings or observations. By recognizing differences
construct, with varying degrees of qualitative emphasis, across in how theory-based materials traverse the ways of knowing, a
most treatment orientations. In a review of current theories of counselor may be more receptive to the use of potential tools
counseling and psychotherapy, I was able to identify 13 mo- for empathically understanding a client. For example, the tra-
dalities that provide a relative focus to empathy and empathic dition of individual psychology emphasizes understanding the
understanding (Clark, 2007). Although empathy is widely uniqueness and indivisibility of a client (Adler, 1927; Oberst
recognized by numerous treatment approaches, the attention & Stewart, 2003). Toward this end, a counselor typically calls
given to empathic understanding in the professional literature on experiential and phenomenological knowledge channels
differs considerably among the various traditions (Cochran & to grasp a sense of a client’s functioning. At the same time,
Cochran, 2006; Gilbert, 2007; Hartley, 1995; Nystul, 2011; within the Adlerian literature, constructs such as the tasks of
Watson, 2002). With respect to particular therapies, empathy life and safeguarding tendencies represent an objective way
holds a significant position in person-centered therapy and self of knowing that may be applied on a subjective basis to par-
psychology. Rogers and the person-centered approach have ticular individuals (Oberst & Stewart, 2003). Attempting to
been pivotal in identifying empathy as a core condition and empathically understand a client from different modalities, and
critical factor in the counseling relationship (Kirschenbaum, appreciating these differences, allows for the possibility of rec-
2004). The self psychology framework of Heinz Kohut ex- onciling conceptually varying perspectives. In another example,
panded the treatment function of empathy in terms of a data- numerous counselors may be adverse to the use of diagnostic
gathering activity with the potential to inform curative treat- systems, such as the DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000), because of its
ment interventions (Kohut, 1977, 1982; Tobin, 1991). Other emphasis on classifying and labeling clients. Assuming that
traditions, such as individual psychology, existential therapy, the DSM-IV-TR framework has a potential to objectify a client,
cognitive and cognitive behavior therapy, and psychoanalytic a counselor is able to reconcile his or her use of the text by inte-
therapy, reference empathy as a prominent construct in their grating perspectives from other ways of knowing that represent
respective literatures. In particular, psychoanalytic treatment more developmental and contextual perspectives (Ivey & Ivey,
has a lengthy, albeit variable, history among the writings of 1998; Lopez et al., 2006). In this way, each modality can make
scholars in the field (Ornstein, 1979). Numerous other con- a legitimate contribution to empathically understanding a client
temporary approaches mention empathy as a recognizable through theoretically different knowledge bases.
factor in their counseling models. Consciousness. Although a counselor may have a prefer-
Enrichment. Integrating perspectives from multiple ways of ence for engaging a specific knowledge channel in counseling,
knowing potentially contributes to an empathic understanding it is inevitable that he or she will spontaneously experience
of a client that is more accurate and comprehensive. Draw- shifts in the modalities (Clark, 2007). Typically, there is a
ing together converging lines of synthesis in an orderly way vacillation among the ways of knowing that emerge into a
may also reduce the possibility of biases and distortions that counselor’s consciousness in a therapeutic context. For ex-
tend to occur when a counselor relies on a single knowledge ample, in an initial counseling session, as a client in middle
channel (Eagle & Wolitzky, 1997). Rogers (1964) recognized adulthood expresses feelings of anxiety, the counselor em-
the importance of deliberately interweaving the three ways of pathically resonates with a slight tension in her own face
knowing in order to form evolving hypotheses that may be and chest. Almost simultaneously, the counselor observes
confirmed or disconfirmed. An integration of perspectives the client’s fixed body posture and trembling hands. Within
involves a hermeneutic method by repeatedly attempting to seconds, in a less than empathic response, the counselor has
empathically understand a client from different trajectories a tangential thought about her daughter’s recent breakup of
(Keil, 1997; Packer, 1985). Hermeneutic activity also provides a long-term relationship. Each of these impressionistic reac-
a cross-check or corrective procedure for deepening awareness tions comes into the counselor’s awareness from a particular
and appreciation of a client’s functioning in a broader context knowledge avenue, and even thoughts that seem intrusive may
(Edwards, Dattilio, & Bromley, 2004). As an example, it is yield important understandings for treatment consideration. In
possible for a counselor to develop a hypothetical model of a particular, countertransference material may surface that rep-
client that becomes progressively more refined and accurate resents conflictive issues of a counselor that have a potential to
by making numerous and varied attempts to empathically hinder an empathic understanding of a client (Rosenberger &
understand the person (Greenson, 1967; Pepinsky & Pepinsky, Hayes, 2002). In another example from psychoanalytic theory,
1954). Over a period of time, a coherent and holistic client Sullivan (1953) observed that a practitioner’s experiencing
model begins to emerge that serves to organize what is known may shift between subjective and objective capacities in a
about the individual in terms of his or her experiencing and participant observer role. Sullivan recognized the therapeutic
potentialities (Berger, 1987; Levy, 1985). utility of empathically responding to a client may traverse from
Conciliation. An awareness of a multiple-perspective model an emotionally engaged position to a more reflective stance
enables a counselor to integrate theoretical conceptions in coun- and vice versa. Finally, in recent research in neuroscience
seling that may initially seem incompatible with experientially (Decety & Jackson, 2006; Gallese, 2001), with implications

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Empathy: An Integral Model in the Counseling Process

for empathy, mirror neurons activate when a person observes process as the quality of the therapeutic relationship develops
an individual perform an action, and there is a concurrent and there is a deepening understanding of a client. Particular
stimulation of corresponding neural circuits as if the observer counselor interventions at one end of the continuum, such as
were executing the action. silence and reflection, are minimally leading and are close
Constraints. There are inherent limitations for empathi- to perspectives aligned with a client’s frame of reference.
cally understanding a client when a counselor inflexibly or When a counselor demonstrates empathic understanding in
exclusively uses a particular modality (Clark, 2007; Rogers, these instances, empathy serves to affirm a client’s experi-
1964). In this regard, Rogers (1964) was critical of some cur- encing. In contrast, other interventions at the other end of
rent existentialist thinkers for largely rejecting an objective the continuum, such as confrontation and interpretation,
way of knowing and accused behaviorists of placing too much may largely be outside of a client’s awareness, and empathy
emphasis on the objective mode and being scornful of other provides a means to acknowledge a client’s experiencing
modalities. The person-centered approach of Rogers has also of new perspectives. In a counseling example, in response
been criticized for overemphasizing the interpersonal chan- to an adolescent’s expression of anger toward her sister, a
nel of knowing by primarily focusing on the internal frame counselor uses the technique of reflection to affirm the ex-
of reference of a client (Bozarth, 1998). Yet Rogers certainly tent of the client’s feelings within her frame of reference. In
did express his personal views and emotional reactions in a contrasting intervention, at a later point in counseling, the
counseling, especially in a later period of his life through counselor uses a confrontation to identify contradictions in
the form of feedback in groups (see Barrett-Lennard, 2003; the client’s behavior that are less familiar to the individual
Kirschenbaum, 2004). in terms of her awareness. In this instance, however, the
Definition. A basic assumption when using multiple ways client rejects the counselor’s observations, and therefore it
of knowing in counseling is that a definition of empathy in- is necessary for the counselor to empathically process with
volves understanding the emotional meanings of a client from the client what it is like for her to feel misunderstood.
a broad perspective. In keeping with current terminology in Of the various counseling techniques, reflection is most
counseling (Ivey, Ivey, & Zalaquett, 2010), a comprehensive intrinsic to a counselor’s expression of empathy, and, as a result,
definition of empathy also conveys the essence of Rogers’s reflection has incorrectly been equated with empathy. Within a
(1957, 1959) classic formulations. With these assumptions in three-stage model of counseling, various interventions in addi-
mind, the following definition of empathy would seem to have tion to reflection enable a counselor to therapeutically use empa-
a counseling use: “attunement with the feelings and meanings thy (Clark, 2004, 2007). Assessment, counselor self-disclosure,
of an individual’s experience from an immediate or extended questions, and the use of touch are selected interventions with
perspective” (Clark, 2007, p. 162). the potential to integrate empathy into their functions in early
periods of counseling. In more challenging phases of the coun-
Technical Applications in Counseling seling process, when the treatment focus emphasizes exploring
Beyond strategic applications, a counselor may use empathy as therapeutic material beyond the client’s frame of reference,
an integral component of various interventions throughout the other techniques can contribute to empathically understand-
counseling process. Concurrently, an empathic implementa- ing a client (Pearson, 1999; Ridley, Ethington, & Heppner,
tion of counseling techniques has an effect of advancing the 2008). In particular, confrontation, cognitive restructuring,
quality of the counseling relationship (Kelly, 1997; Trusty, reframing, and interpretation are representative of counseling
Ng, & Watts, 2005). As a counselor acquires an empathic interventions with a potential to stimulate new client perspec-
understanding of a client, this awareness may contribute to tives in an empathic context. Finally, for counselors working
effectively formulating and executing a range of therapeutic with groups, empathy has a prominent function in enhancing
interventions. In this respect, empathy may serve as a higher the treatment quality of various interventions and for improving
order frame of reference with the potential to guide and in- empathic communication among group members (Clark, 2007;
form the instrumental activity of the counselor. Accordingly, Scheidlinger, 1966; Stone & Whitman, 1980).
across each of the multiple stages of counseling, it is possible
to identify specific treatment techniques that allow for a key Summary
role of empathy (Clark, 2007).
The relationship of empathy to particular counselor interven- In an extension of Rogers’s (1964) conceptualization, a multiple-
tions in the counseling process may be understood with respect perspective model of empathy relates to a counselor’s use of three
to a client’s frame of reference. In this regard, Welfel and Pat- ways of knowing in counseling. An awareness of an integral
terson (2005) referred to a “continuum of lead” (p. 174) that model of empathy, including its strengths and limitations, enables
differs in terms of a client’s awareness and frame of reference. a counselor to empathically understand a client from subjective,
The continuum provides a useful framework for comparing the interpersonal, and objective knowledge channels. Integral empathy
therapeutic impact of different counselor techniques. The extent contributes to developing a therapeutic relationship, understanding
of a counselor’s lead typically increases through the counseling a client, and informing treatment strategies and interventions. With

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 Clark

a focus on empathically understanding a client over the course Eagle, M., & Wolitzky, D. L. (1997). Empathy: A psychoanalytic
of the counseling process, it is possible to view empathy from a perspective. In A. C. Bohart & L. S. Greenberg (Eds.), Empathy
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