[Link]-UNIVERSITY COLLEGE K.R.

PETE MANDYA DISTRICT

Sub: Chemistry-34 Class: II P U C

UNIT NO CHAPTER NAME

1 SOLUTIONS

2 ELECTRO CHEMISTRY

3 CHEMICAL KINETICS

4 d& f - BLOCK ELEMENTS

5 CO-ORDINATION COMPOUNDS

6 HALO ALKANES AND HALOARENES

7 ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS AND ETHERS

8 ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

9 AMINES

10 BIOMOLECULES

BLUE PRINT

Question Question type Number of Marks

paper part questions
PART-A MCQ’s 15/15 15/15
PART-A Fill in the blanks 05/05 05/05
PART-B Short answer(2Mark) 03/06 06/12
PART-C Shortanswer(3Mark) 03/06 09/18
Inorganic chemistry
PART-C Shortanswer(3Mark) 02/04 06/12
Physical chemistry
PART-D Long answer(5Marks) 04/07 20/35
PART-E Shortanswer(Numaricals) 03/06 09/18
(3 Marks)
35/49 70/115

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II P U C QUESTION PAPER PATTERN

SECTIONWISE DISTRIBUTION OF MARKS
CHEMISTRY
TOTAL MARKS=105

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY INORGANIC CHEMISTRY ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

40 MARKS 23 MARKS 52MARKS
UNITWISE DISTRIBUTION OF MARKS
UNIT TITLE Mar PART-A PART-B PART-C PART-D PART-E
NO ks (MCQ+FIB) (2 MARK) (3MARK) (3mark
X 2 =6M 𝟒 X3=6M 5M
𝟐 𝟑
15 +5 =20M 𝟑
𝟔
𝒙𝟑 = 𝟗𝑴
𝟔
I II III IV V(I) V(II)
Physical chemistry [Link] [Link] [Link]. [Link]. [Link]. [Link].
section
1 Solutions 13 1 16 21 33 44,45
2 Electro chemistry 14 2,3 34,35 46,47
3 Chemical kinetics 13 4 17 22 36 48,49
X3=9M
Inorganic [Link] [Link]. 𝟑
𝑿𝟑 = 𝟗
chemistry section 𝟔
d& f –block 11 5 18 27,28,29
4
elements
Co-ordination 12 6 23 30,31,32
5
compounds
Organic chemistry [Link]. [Link]. [Link]. 𝟒
𝟕
𝑿𝟓 = 𝟐𝟎
section
Halo alkanes and 09 7 19 24 - 37
6
Hloarenes
7. Alcohols, Phenols 12 8,9 - 38,39
and Ethers
Aldehydes, Ketones 14 10,11 25 40,41
8 and Carboxylic
acids
Organic compounds 08 12,13 20 - - 42
9
containing Nitrogen
10 Biomolecules 09 14,15 26 - 43
Total marks 115 15 5 12 30 35 18
Total excluding 70 15 5 6 15 20 09
choices

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1. HALO ALKANES AND HALOARENES

2. ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS AND ETHERS

3. ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXILIC ACIDS

4.d& f - BLOCK ELEMENTS

[Link]-ORDINATION COMPOUNDS

[Link] KINETICS

[Link]

8. ELECTROCHEMISTRY

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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
HALO ALKANES AND HALOARENES
[Link] SN2 mechanism
When methyl chloride is heated with aqueous potassium hydroxide solution methyl
alcohol is formed.
CH3 – Cl + K OH CH3 – OH + KCl
In this mechanism the nucleophile OH – attacks the carbon atom from the side
opposite to the chlorine atom to form a new C–OH bond. The formation of C – OH
bond and the cleavage of C – Cl bond take place simultaneously through the
transition state.

 This is a one-step reaction. Hence this is the rate-determining step.

 The rate of this reaction depends on both the concentration
ofalkylhalide and nucleophile,
 R=k[CH3Br]1[OH-]1, hence is second order reaction.

2. Write the equations for the steps in SN1 mechanism of the conversion of tert-
butyl bromide into tert-butyl alcohol.
When tertiary butyl bromide is heated with aqueous potassium hydroxide,
tertiary butyl alcohol is formed.

The mechanism involves two steps :

Step 1: Formation of carbocation

Tertiary butyl bromide undergoes ionisation to form tertiary carbocation and
bromide ion. The carbocation formed has a planar structure.

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Step 2 :Attack of nucleophile on carbocation

The nucleophile OH – (obtained by the dissociation of KOH) attacks the
positive center of carbocation from any one of the directions forming the final
product, i.e., tertiary butyl alcohol.

fast

 Step-1 is a slow step and hence is a rate determining step.

 Since this reaction involves only one molecule, it is called unimolecular
substitution reaction.
 Therefore SN1 reaction is a first order reaction.

ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS AND ETHERS

[Link] the mechanism of dehydration of ethanol to ethene.

Step1: Protonation of alcohol yields protonated alcohol.

Step2: Protonated alcohol loses water molecule to form ethyl carbocation.

H
slow CH 2 H2 O
CH 3 CH 2 O CH 3

Protonated alcohol Ethyl carbocation

Step3: Ethyl carbocation loses a proton (from  carbon) to form ethane.

CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 H
H CH 2
Ethyl carbocation ethene
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ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXILIC ACIDS

Explain the mechanism of addition of HCN to aldehyde.

Aldehydes and ketones react with hydrogen cyanide (HCN) to give
cyanohydrine. This reaction is very slow. Therefore, it is catalysed by base and
the generated cyanide ions (CN-) is a stronger nucleophile which readily adds to
carbonyl compounds to yield corresponding cyanohydrin.

d& f - BLOCK ELEMENTS

[Link] is K2Cr2O7 manufactured from chromite ore?

Potassium dichromate is manufactured from chromite ore (FeO.Cr2O3)
Finely powdered chromite ore (FeCr2O4) fused with sodium or potassium carbonate.
4FeCr2O 4  8Na 2CO3  7O2   8Na 2 CrO4  2Fe 2O3  8CO 2
The yellow solution of sodium chromate and is acidified with dilute sulphuric acid to
get an orange coloured sodium dichromate solution.
2Na 2CrO 4  H 2SO4  Na 2Cr2O7  Na 2SO 4  H 2 O
Sodium dichromate is more stable than potassium [Link] concentrated
solution of sodium dichromate is treated with potassium chloride to get potassium
dichromate.
Na 2 Cr2O7  2KCl  K 2 Cr2O7  2NaCl
2. Describe the manufacture of potassium permanganateate (KMnO 4) from
pyrolusite ore (MnO2)
When MnO2 is heated with KOH in the presence of air or with KNO3(oxidising
agent) gives Potassium manganite.
2MnO24KOHO2 2K 2MnO 42H 2O
dark green
The green coloured solution of K2MnO4is treated with an acid, the disproportionation
takes place to give potassium permanganate.
3𝑀𝑛𝑂 + 4𝐻 → 2𝑀𝑛𝑂 + 𝑀𝑛𝑂 + 2𝐻 𝑂
pink or violet
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3. What is Lanthanoid contraction?What are the consequences of lanthanoid

contraction.
“Steady decrease in the size of lanthanides with increase in atomic number is known
as lanthanoid contraction.”
i) Due to lanthanoid contraction the elements of 5d series have almost the same
atomic and ionic radii as the corresponding elements of 4d series.
The atomic radii of Zr(160pm) and Hf(159m) is almost same. So they occur
together and hence it is difficult to separate them.
ii) Basic character of their hydroxide decreases.

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CO-ORDINATION COMPOUNDS

Write postulates of Werner’s theory of coordination compounds.

1. In a coordination compound, central metal atom possesses two types of
valencies Primary valency and Secondary valency.
2. The primary valencies are ionisable and satisfied by negative ions.
3. Secondary valencies are non ionisable and are satisfied by neutral molecules
or negative ions.
Applications of VBT
1. Give the geometry, hybridization and magnetic property of
3
 C o  N H 3 6  based on VBT.
Electronic configuration of Co, ( Z=27)[Ar] 3d 7 4s2 4p0.
Electronic configuration of Co3+ [Ar] 3d6 4s0 .
Orbitals of Co3+ ions are
↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
3d 4s 4p
When strong ligand NH3 approaches the Co3+ ion, pairing of electrons takes
place in 3d orbital occurs against Hunds rule.

Co3+ ion can undergo d2sp3 hybridisations. The six hybrid orbitals the
overlap with orbitals of six NH3 ligands.

Thus, the complex has octahedral geometry.

 It has no unpaired electrons and hence it is diamagnetic.

 This complex uses inner d-orbitals (3d) for hybridization. It is an
inner orbital complex.
 The inner orbital complexes are also called spin paired complexes
or low spin complexes.

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2) Using VBT, explain the type of hybridization geometry and magnetic

property of  CoF6  .
3

Electronic configuration of Co(Z=27) is [Ar] 3d74S24P04d0

Electronic configuration of Co3+ is [Ar] 3d64S04P04d0.

When weak ligand F- approaches the Co3+ ion, it undergo sp3d2 hybridisation.
The six hybrid orbitals the overlap with orbitals of six F - ligands.

 It has octahedral geometry.

 It has unpaired electrons and hence it is paramagnetic.
 This complex uses outer d-orbital (4d) for hybridization. It is outer
orbitals complex.
 The outer orbital complexes are also called spin free or high spin
complexes.

3) Explain the hybridization geometry and magnetic property of  NiCl 4 

2

based on VBT.
Electronic configuration of Ni(Z=28 is [Ar] 3d8 4S2 4P0
Electronic configuration of Ni2+ is [Ar] 3d8 4S0 4P0

When weak ligand, Cl- approaches the Ni2+ ion, it undergo sp3
hybridisation. The four hybrid orbitals theory overlap with orbitals of four Cl -
ligands.

 Thus, the complex has tetrahedral structure.

 It has unpaired electrons and hence it is paramagnetic.

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4) Using VBT, explain the type of hybridization, geometry and magnetic

property of  N i  C N 4  2 

Electronic configuration of Ni,(Z=28) is [Ar] 3d8 4S24P0

Electronic configuration of Ni2+ is [Ar] 3d84S04P0

When strong ligand, CN- approaches the Ni2+ ion pairing of electrons takes place
in 3d-orbital against Hunds rule.

Ni2+ can undergo dsp2 hybridisation. The four hybrid orbitals then
overlap with orbitals of four CN- ligands.

3d dsp2 hybrid orbitals 4P

(Four pairs of electrons
f rom 4CN- ligands)

 Thus, the complex has Square planar structure.

 It has no unpaired electrons and hence it is diamagnetic.
 This complex uses inner d-orbital for (3d) for hybridization. It is
inner orbital complex.
 The inner orbital complexes are also called spin pair or low spin
complexes.

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CHEMICAL KINETICS

[Link] of integrate rate constant expression for zero order reaction:

Consider a reaction: R  P
d  R 
 k R 
0
Rate =
dt

d  R 
Rate=  k 1
dt

d[R]=kdt
Integrate on both sides

[R]= kt+I ----------- (1)

Where, I is the integration constant

At, t=0, then [R]=[R]0 Where, [R]0 is the initial concentration of reactants
Substituting in equation (1)

[R]0=k0+I

[R]0=I

Substituting the value in I in the equation (1)

[R]= kt+[R]0

kt=[R]0[R]

 R 0   R 
or k
t

This is called integrate rate expression for zero order reaction.

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[Link] of integrated rate constant expression for the first order reaction
Consider the general first order reaction

R  Products
d  R 
Rate=  k R 
dt

d R 
or   k  dt
R 
Integrate on both sides, we get
d R 
 R     k  dt

ln  R   kt  I -------------- (1)

Where, I is called integration constant.

When, t=0, then R=[R]0 is the initial concentration of the reactant.

Substitute the values of t and ER in equation (1)

ln[R]0=k0+I
ln[R]0=I

Substitute the value of I in equation (1)

ln[R]=kt+ln[R]0 ------------ (2)

rearrange,

kt  ln  R 0  ln  R 

 R 0
kt  ln
R 
1  R 0
k   ln
t R 
This is called integrated rate law for first order reaction.

Changing the above equation to log base 10.

2.303  R 0
k log
t R

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SOLUTIONS

Problems on colligative properties.

a) Relative lowering of vapour-pressure of the solvent
MB =
wA= massofsolvent. wB= mass of solute.
MA= molar mass of solvent .M b= molar mass of solute.

Problem:
On dissolving 2.34g of solute in 40 gm of benzene,the boiling point of solution was
higher than that of benzene by 0.81K. Kb value for benzene is 2.53 K kg mol-
1
.Calculate the molar mass of the solute.

K b  w B  1000
MB 
Tb  w A

. .
=
.

=182.72 g mol-1
b) Elevation of boiling-point of the solvent
K  w B  1000
MB  b wA= massof solvent. wB= mass of solute.
Tb  w A
Kb= Ebullioscopic constant.ΔTb=elevation in boiling point.

Problem:
The boiling point of benzene is 353.23 K when 1.80 g of a non-volatile, non-ionizing
solute was dissolved in 90 g of benzene, the boiling point is raised to
[Link] the molar mass of the solute.[Given Kb for benzene=2.53 K kg
mol-1]

Ans:Given, WB=1.80g WA=90g, Kb=2.53K Kg mol-1

T=354.11-353.23 =0.88K

K b  w B  1000
MB 
Tb  w A

. .
=
.

=58g mol-1

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c) Depression of freezing-point of the solvent

K f  w B  1000
MB 
Tf  w A
wA= massofsolvent. wB= mass of solute.

Kf= cryoscopic constant ΔTf=depression of freezing point.

Problem: The vapour pressure of pure benzene at certain temperature is 0.850 bar.
A non-electrolyte solid weighing o.5 grams when added to 39 grams of benzene
(molar mass 78 grams) vapour pressure of the solution, then is 0.845 bars. What is
the molar mass of the solid substance.

Ans: =

. . .
=
.
. .
MB = =170 g mol-1
.

d) Osmotic pressure of the solution

w RT
 B
M BV
w B RT
 MB 
V
Here, w B= mass of solute, R= universal gas constant,
T= the temperature in KelvinV=Volume of the solution

Problem:

A solution containing 18g of non-volatile non-electrolyte solute is dissolved in 200g

of water freezes at [Link] the molecular mass of [Link]: K F=1.86 K
kg/mol. freezing point of water =273K.

w B  1000
Ans:Tf = Kf x m or Tf  K f 
MB  wA

.
=
( . )

=180 g mol-1

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5) 200cm3 of an aqueous solution of a protein contains 1.26g of [Link]

osmotic pressure of such a solution at 300K is found to be [Link]
the molar mass of the protein.(R=0.083 L bar mol-1 K-1

Ans:M = RT V=450Ml=0.45L

. .
= =61039 g mol-1
. .

6) 1.0 gm 0f a non-electrolyte solute dissolved in 50g of benzene lowered the

freezing point of benzene by 0.4K. Find the molar mass of the solute.

[Given: Freezing point depression constant of benzene=5.12 K kg mol-1].

K f  w B  1000
Ans: M B 
Tf  w A

. .
=
.

= 256 g mol-1

ELECTROCHEMISTRY
[Link] a labeled diagram of standard hydrogen electrode(SHE).Write its half –
cell reaction and E0 value.
Standard hydrogen electrode consists of a platinum
foil coated with platinum [Link] electrode is
filled with hydrogen gas at one bar [Link] is
dipped in one molar acidic [Link]
equilibrium present between the adsorbed hydrogen
and hydrogen ionsw in the solution..
Working:
The half cell reaction is
1
H2 (g) H+ (aq) + e_
2

The potential of S.H.E is assumed to bezero volts.

SHE is represented as Pt, H2 (1 atm) / H+ (1M)

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2. Draw a neat labella diagram of H2 –O2 Fuel Cell

H2-O2 fuel cell consists of two electrodes made of porous graphite electrodes
containing catalysts such as Pt or Rh etc. Electrodes
are placed in concentrated KOH. Hydrogen and
oxygen gases are bubbled through the electrodes.

The electrode reactions are

Anode: 2H 2 q   4OH   aq  
 4H 2O l  4e 
Cathode: O2q   2H 2O l  4e  
 4OH   aq 
Overall reaction is 2H 2  q   O2 q  
 2H 2O l 

3. What is Daniel cell? Describe the construction and working of Daaniel cell.
 Daniel cell is a galvanic cell.
 It consists of zinc rod dipping into 1M ZnSO4 solution and
 copper rod dipping into 1M CuSO4.
 The two electrodes (half-cells) are connected by means of a salt bridge.
It starts producing electricity.

Working: The electrode reaction in the cell are

At the Anode: Zn   Zn 2  2e   oxidation 
 Cu  reduction 
At the cathode: Cu 2  2e  
Overall cell reaction: Zn  Cu 2   Zn 2  Cu
The cell is represented as : Zn | Zn 2 1m  || Cu 2 1m  | Cu
emfdanielcell = E 0cell = E0Cu E0Zn
= 0.34 – (- 0.76)
= 1.1V

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1. HALO ALKANES AND HALOARENES

2. ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS AND ETHERS

3. ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXILIC ACIDS

4. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING NITROGEN

[Link]

6.d& f - BLOCK ELEMENTS

[Link]-ORDINATION COMPOUNDS

[Link] KINETICS

[Link]

10. ELECTROCHEMISTRY

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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
HALO ALKANES AND HALOARENES
[Link] or Aryl halides are extremely less reactive towards nucleophilic
substitution reactions. Give reasons.
Ans:
1) C-X bond acquires double bond character due to resonance.

2) Difference in hybridization of C-atom in C-X bond: In haloarenes the carbon atom

is SP2 hybridised. The SP2 hybridised carbon atom has a greater ‘s’ character (33.33%)
and is more electronegative. Hence, in haloarenes, the electron pair of C-X bond is
more tightly held by C-atom.
3) Instability of phenyl cation.

Named raections

[Link]’s reaction:
Aromatic primary amines react with nitrous acid (prepared from NaNO2 and a
mineral acid such as HCl) at low temperature (273-278K) to form diazonium salt. This
reaction is called diazotization. Freshly prepared diazonium salt is treated with
curprous chloride or cuprous bromide to give aryl chloride or aryl bromide. This
reaction is called Sandmeyer’s reaction.

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[Link] reaction. Alkyl iodides are prepared by the reaction of alkyl chlorides or
bromides with sodium iodide in dry acetone. This reaction is known as ‘Finkelstein
reaction’.

R – X +NaI 
Acetone
R – I + NaX

Ex: C2H5 –Br +NaI dryacetone

 C2H5 –I + NaBr


Bromo ethane Iodoethane

3. Swart’s reaction

Alkyl fluorides are prepared by heating an alkyl chlorides or bromides in the presence
of a metallic fluoride such as AgF. This is known as ‘Swart’s reaction’

Ex: H3C –Br +AgF heat

 CH3 – F + Ag Br

Bromo methane Fluromehane

4. Wurtz reaction:

When two molecules of alkyl halides react with sodium in dry ether medium higher
alkanes are formed.

Example: When ethyl bromide is heated with sodium in dry ether medium, butane is
formed.

Ether
H3C CH2 Br 2Na Br CH2 CH 3 CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 2NaBr

5. Grignard reagent
When an alkyl halide reacts with magnesium powder in dry ether medium,
alkyl magnesium halide called Grignard reagent is formed.

Ex: When ethyl bromide reacts with magnesium powder is dry ether medium ethyl
magnesium bromide is formed.

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6. Friedel Craft’s alkylation:

When chloro benzene is heated with methyl chloride in presence of anhydrous AlCl3,
orthochloro toluene and parachloro toluene are formed.

Cl Cl Cl
CH3
AlCl3
+ CH3Cl  +

CH3

[Link] craft’s acylation: When chloro benzene is heated with acetyl chloride in
presence of annydrous AlCl3, ortho and parachloroacetophenones are formed.

Cl Cl Cl

2 + 2 CH3COCl  COCH3 + + 2 HCl

COCH3

8. Wurtz – Fittig reaction: When a mixture of alkylhalide and arylhalide is heated

with sodium in dry ether, Alkyl benzene is formed.

X + 2 Na + X – R  

ether
R + 2 NaX

Alkyl halide Alkyl benzene

Ex:

Cl + 2 Na + Cl – CH3  
dry ether
CH3 + 2 NaCl

Chloro benzene Chloromethane Toluene

[Link] reaction:
When an aryl halide is heated with sodium metal, Diphenyl OR Biphenyl products
are formed.

2 X + 2 Na  
dry ether
+ 2 NaX

2 Br + 2 Na  
dry ether
+ 2 NaBr

Biphynyl

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UNIT-11
ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS AND ETHERS

1. How do you prepare phenol from cumene?

Manufacture of phenol by cumene process as follows.
a) Conversion of cumene to cumenehydroperoxide:
Cumene is oxidized by air or oxygen at 1300C to form cumenehydroperoxide.

b) Conversion of cumenehydroperoxide to phenol:

Cumenenhydroperoxide is heated with dilute HNO3 at 50-600C to form phenol.

Named raections

1. Esterification reaction:
Alcohols are heated with carboxylic acids or acid chlorides or acid anhydrides in
presence of concentrated H2SO4 to form ester. This reaction is known as esterification
reaction.
con.H SO
R  OH  R |  COOH    2 4 R  COO  R |  H 2O
Alcohol Ester
Ex:
con.H SO
CH3  COOH  CH 3CH 2  OH    2 4 CH3  COO  CH 2CH3  H 2O
Ethyl alcohol Ethylacetate

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[Link] Kolbe’s reaction with equation.

When phenols is treated with NaOH solution gives sodiumphenate and it is heated
with CO2 at 1400C under 6-7 atmospheric pressure to form sodium salicylate which on
acidification with HCl to get salicylic acid.

[Link]-Tieman reaction: When phenol is heated with chloroform and aqueous

sodium hydroxide solution, sodium salt of salicyladehyde is obtained which on
acidification with HCl gives salicyladehyde.

[Link] does phenol is converted to benzene?

When Phenol is distilled with zinc dust benzene is formed.

OH


Zn ZnO

Phenol

[Link] the conversion of phenol to picric acid.

When phenol is heated with a mixture of conc.HNO3 and conc.H2SO4 gives 2,
4, 6-trinitrophenol called picric acid (yellow crystalline solid).
OH OH

O 2N NO 2

3HNO3 3H2O

Phenol
NO2

Picric aicd (2,4,6-trinitorphenol)

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[Link]’s ether synthesis: When an alkyhalide is heated with sodium alkoxide,

an ether is obtained. (Both symmetrical and unsymmetrical ethers are obtained).
R  O  Na  R  X   R  O  R  NaX
Sodium alkoxide Ether
Ex:
C 2 H 5  O  Na  C 2 H 5  Br 
 C2 H 5  O  C 2 H 5  NaBr
Sodium ethoxide Diethylether

[Link] 10, 20 and 30 alcohols by Lucastest.

Test Observation Inference
Alcohol+[Link] Turbidity appears immediately Tertiary alcohol
+anhydrous ZnCl2 in a test tube Turbidity appears after five minutes Secondary
alcohol
Turbidity appears only on heating Primary alcohol

ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXILIC ACIDS

[Link] stephen’s reduction with an example.

When nitriles are reduced with stannous chloride in presence of
[Link] acid, imines are formed which on hydrolysis give
aldehydes.

Ex:CH3  C  N  2  H  S



nCl /HCl
2
CH3  CH  NH HCl H
3O
CH 3  CHO  NH 4Cl
. Ethanenitrile acetaldehyde
[Link] the Rosenmund’s reduction with example.
When Acyl chlorides are heated with hydrogen in the presence of
palladium catalyst using barium sulphate aldehydes are formed.

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[Link] the Etard’s reaction with example.

Or
How do you convert methyl benzene(toluene) to benzaldehyde.
When toluene is treated with chromyl chloride (CrO2Cl2) in CS2, toluene
is oxidised only to benzaldehyde.

[Link] Gatterman-Koch Reaction in the preparation of aldehyde.

When toluene is treated with carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride in the
presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride.

[Link] Clemmensen’s reduction with example.

Aldehydes and ketones are heated with zinc amalgam and concentrated
hydrochloric acid undergo reduction to form hydrocarbons. This process is
called clemensen’s reduction.
R  CHO  4  H  
zn  Hg
conc HCl
 R  CH3  H 2O
Aldehyde Hydrocarbon
1) CH 3  CHO  4  H  zn  Hg
 CH 3  CH 3  H 2O
conc HCl
Ex:
Aldehyde Ethane
CH 3  CO  CH 3  4  H  
zn  Hg
 CH 3  CH 2  CH 3  H 2 O
conc HCl
2)
Acetone Pr opane

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[Link] Cannizzaro’s reaction with example.

Aldehydes which do not have an hydrogen atom is heated with strong solution of
alkali gives alcohol and salt of carboxylic acid. This reaction is called Cannizzaro’s
reaction.

2HCHO  NaOH   CH 3OH  HCOONa
Ex: 1)
Formaldehyde Methyl alcohol Sodium formate
[Link] happens when benzaldehyde treated with strong alkali.
Cannizzaro’s reaction takes place to form benzyl alcohol and sodium benzoate.

[Link] aldol condensation with an example.

Aldehydes and ketones having at least one hydrogen undergo a self condensation
in the presence of dilute alkali as catalyst to form hydroxy aldehydes (aldol) or 
hydroxy ketones(ketol) resoectively. This is known as Aldol condensation.

[Link] Cross aldol condensation with an example.

Benzaldehyde condenses with acetophenone in presence of dilute NaOH at 293K
gives benzalacetophenone.

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[Link] Hellvolhardzelinsky (HVZ) reaction with equation.

Carboxylic acids having an hydrogen react with chlorine (or) bromine in the
presence of red phosphorous to give compounds in which hydrogen atoms get
replaced by halogen atoms. This reaction is called Hell volhard – zelinsky reaction.

[Link] Wolff-Kishner reduction reaction with example.

In this method reduction is carriedout by heating the Aldehydes and
ketones with hydrazine and NaOH or KOH in ethylene glycol at 200 0C .
R  CHO  NH 2 NH 2 
 RCH  NNH 2  H 2O
Aldehyde Hydrazine Hydrazone
RCH  NNH 2 
NaOH/ Ethylene glycol
2000 C
 R  CH3  N 2 
Hydrazone Alkane
Ex:
CH 3  CHO  NH 2 NH 2 
 CH 3CH  NNH 2  H 2 O
Acetaldehyde Hydrazine Hydrazone
CH3CH  NNH 2 
 CH 3  CH 3  N 2 
NaOH/Ethylene glycol
2000 C

Hydrazone Ethane

[Link] decarboxylation with an example.

Sodium salt of carboxylic acids are heated with sodalime undergo decarboxylation to
form hydrocarbons. This reaction is known as decarboxylation reaction.
R  COONa  NaOH 
CaO

 R  H  Na 2CO 3
Sodium carboxylate Hydrocarbon
CH 3COONa  NaOH CaO

 CH 4  Na 2CO 3
Ex:
Sodium acetate Methane

[Link] the conversion of ethyl alcohol ( ethanol) to acetic acid

( ethanoic acid).
When ethanol is heated with alkaline KMnO4, acetic acid is formed.
CH 3CH 2 OH  2  O  
alkaline KMnO 4
 CH 3COOH  H 2 O
Ethyl alcohol Acetic acid

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[Link] do you prepare carboxylic acid from Grignard reagent?

Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide (dry ice) to form addition product which
on hydrolysis gives carboxylic acid.

[Link] are carboxylic acids obtained from alkyl nitrile? Give example.
Alkyl cyanides or nitriles are hydrolysed by boiling with dilute acid to form
carboxylic acids.
 
R  CN  2H 2 O 
H or OH
 R  COOH  NH 3
Alkyl cyanide Carboxylic acid
Ex:
 
CH 3  CN  2H 2 O 
H or OH
 CH 3  COOH  NH 3
Methyl cyanide Acetic acid

[Link] is benzene converted to acetophenone?

When benzene is treated with acetyl chloride in presence of anhydrous
aluminium chloride, acetophenone is formed. This reaction is known as
Friedel-crafts acylation reaction.

[Link] does acetic acid reacts with sodium bicarbonate?

Acetic acid reacts with sodium bicarbonate to form sodium acetate with
liberation of CO2
CH3  COOH  NaHCO3  CH3COONa  CO2  H 2O
Acetic acid Sodium acetate

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[Link] does acetic acid reacts with PCl5?

Acetic acid reacts with PCl5 in presence of pyridine to form acetyl chloride

CH 3COOH  PCl5 
 CH 3COCl  POCl3  HCl
Acetic acid Acetyl chloride

[Link] does acetic acid reacts with PCl3?

Acetic acid reacts with PCl3 in presence of pyridine to form acetyl chloride.
3CH 3COOH  PCl3  3CH 3COCl  H 3PO3
Acetic acid Acetyl chloride
[Link] does acetic acid reacts with Thionyl chloride (SOCl2)?
Acetic acid reacts with thionyl chloride in presence of pyridine to form acetyl
chloride.
CH 3COOH  SOCl 2  CH 3COCl  SO 2  HCl
acetic acid acetyl chloride

21. Explain the conversion of acetic acid to acetamide.

Aceticacid react with ammonia to give ammonium acetate which on decomposes by
heating at high temperature give acetamide.

CH 3COOH  NH 3  
  CH 3COONH 4   CH 3CONH 2  H 2O
Ex: i)
Acetic acid Ammonium acetate Acetomide

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ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING NITROGEN

1. Explain Gabriel phthalimide synthesis with example.

Phthalimide reacts with alcoholic potassium hydroxide forms potassium salt of
phthalimide which on heating with alkyl halide followed by alkaline hydrolysis gives
corresponding primary amine.

Ex:

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[Link] is Hinsberg’s reagent?How to distinguish 10,20&30 amines by using

Hinsberg’s reagent.
Benzenesulphonyl chloride (C6H5SO2Cl), which is also known as Hinsberg’s
reagent, reacts with primary and secondary amines to form sulphonamides.
a) With primary amines:
Benzenesulphonylchloride react with primary amine to form N-
alkylbenzenesulphonamide.

b) With secondary amines:Benzenesulphonylchloride react with secondary

amine to form N, N-dialkylbenzenesulphonamide.

c) Tertiary amines do not react with benzene sulphonyl chloride (because tertiary
amines do not contain replacable hydrogen atom.
[Link] is primary amine is prepared by Hoffmann bromamide degradation
reaction?
When an amide is heated with bromine and sodium hydroxide solution or potassium
hydroxide solution, primary amine is obtained. This reaction is called Hoffmann’s
degradation.

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[Link] Carbylamine reaction with example.

Aliphatic and aromatic primary amines on heating with chloroform and

alcoholic potassium hydroxide to form isocyanides or carbylamines which are foul
smelling substances. This reaction is known as carbylamines reaction.

R  NH 2  CHCl3  3KOH  alc    R  NC  3KCl  3H 2O
10 amine isocyanide

Ex:

CH 3CH 2 NH 2  CHCl3  3KOH  alc    CH 3CH 2 NC  3KCl  3H 2O
Ethylamine Ethylisocyanide


C6 H 5 NH 2  CHCl3  3KOH  alc    C 6 H 5 NC  3KCl  3H 2O
Aniline Phenyl isocyanide

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BIOMOLECULES

[Link] the Haworth structure of Glucose.

[Link] the Haworth structure of Fructose.

[Link] the Haworth structure of Sucrose

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[Link] the structure of maltose.

[Link] the Haworth structure of lactose.

. ( D Galactose) (Lactose) ( D  Glucose)

[Link] are reducing sugars?Give an example.

Sugars which reduces the Tollen’s reagent and Fehling’s solution on heating are
called reducing sugars.

Eg: Glucose, Maltose, Lactose, etc

[Link] are non-reducing sugars?give an example.

Sugars which do not reduces the Tollen’s reagent and Fehling’s solution on
heating are called non-reducing sugars.
Eg: Sucrose

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[Link] are essential amino acids?give an example.

Ans: Amino acids which cannotbe synthesised in the human body are called
essential amino acids
Eg: Lysine, valine, leucine

[Link] are Non-essential amino acids?give an example.

Amino acids which can be synthesised in the human body are called non-essential
amino acids.
Eg: Glycine, alanine, serine
[Link] are Zwitter ion? Write the general structure of zwitter ion.
“The dipolar form of aminoacid which neither moves towards anode nor towards
cathode under the influence of electric field is called a Zwitter ion.”
The general form of Zwitter
ion is

[Link] is Isoelectric point?

“The PH of the solution at which the amino acid does not migrate either to
the cathode or to the anode under the influence of electric point is called
isoelectric point.”
[Link] are Peptides? What is a peptide bond?
Peptides are compounds formed by the condensation of two OR more amino
acids with the elimination of water.

‘The amide linkage (-CONH-) between two amino acid residues in the peptide is
called peptide bond.’
[Link] are fibrous proteins?Give an example.

Proteins consists of long polypeptide chains arranged parallel to each other and held
together by disulphide (-S-S-) and hydrogen bonds.
Eg: Keratin (present in hair,skin, nail), Myosin (present in muscles)

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[Link] an example of globular proteins.

Ans: Egg albumin, insulin, etc.

[Link] the protein present in hair.

Ans:Keratin.
[Link] is denaturation of proteins?Which level of structure remains intact during
denaturation of globular protein?
Ans: Denaturation of proteins means “The loss of biological activity of proteins and
breaking of the hydrogen bonds as a result of which the globlues unfold and helix get
uncoiled due to the action of heat or addition of electrolyte.”
Primary structure remains intact during denaturation of globular protein
Hormones:
[Link] are hormones?Give an example.
“Hormones are molecules secreted by a endocrine glands that act as intercellular
messenger.”
Ex: Insulin
18..Which hormone regulates the sugarlevel in the blood?
Ans: Both glucagon and insulin regulate the sugar level in the body.
Enzymes:
19..What are Enzymes?Give an example.
Enzymes are proteins produced by living organisms to catalyse specific biochemical
reactions.
Enzymes are very specific for a particular reaction and for a particular
substrate.
Ex: The enzyme which catalyses the hydrolysis of maltose into glucose is named as
maltase

Vitamins:
[Link] are Vitamins?
“Vitamins are the organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to
perform specific biological functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth
and health of the organism.”
[Link] water soluble vitamin.
Ans:Vitamins B complexes –B1, B2, B6, B12, Vitamin C, etc
[Link] fat soluble vitamins.
Ans: Vitamins A, D E and K.

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[Link] the sources and diseases caused by the deficiency of vitamins

Sl. Name of
Sources Deficiency diseases
No. Vitamins
Carrots, Fish, Liver oil, Night blindness xerophthalmia
1 Vitamin-A
butter and milk (hardening of carnea of eye)
Vitamin-B1 Yeast, milk gree, Beriberi (loss of appetite, retarded
2
(Thiamine) vegetables and cereals growth)
Cheilosis (fissuring at corners of
Vitamin-B2 Milk, egg white, liver, mouth and lips), digestive
3
(Riboflavin) kidney disorders and burning sensation of
the skin
Vitamin-B6 Yeast, milk egg yolk,
4 Convulsions
(Pyridoxine) cereals and grams
Pernicious anaemia (RBC deficient
5 Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg and Curd
in haemoglobin)
Vitamin-C
Citrus fruits amla and
6 (Ascorbic Scurvy ( bleeding gums)
green leafy vegetables
acid)
Rickets (bone deformities in
Exposure to sunlight, fish
7 Vitamin-D children) and osteomalacia (soft
and egg yolk
bones and joint pain in adults)
Vegetable oils like wheat Increased fragility of RBCs and
8 Vitamin-E
germ oil, sunflower oil muscular weakness
9 Vitamin-K Green leafy vegetables Increased blood clotting time
[Link] vitamin deficiency of causes the disease ‘Rickets’?
Ans: Vitamin-D
[Link] of which vitamin causes the disease pernicious anaemia?
Ans:B12 or Vitamin B1
[Link] of which vitamin causes the disease scurvy?
Vitamin-C
[Link] areHarmones?
“Hormones are molecules secreted by a endocrine glands that act as intercellular
messenger.”
[Link] the different types of hormones with examples.
Types Examples Function
Peptide hormones Insulin/glucagons Maintains blood sugar
level
Amine harmones Thyroxine/Epinephrine Growth and development
Steroid hormones. Testosteron/Estradiol/progestrone Devolopment of
secondary sexual
characters.

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NUCLEIC ACIDS
[Link] is nucleoside?
Ans:The molecules in which one of the nitrogen bases is bonded with a sugar
molecule is called nucleoside.i.e, Base + Sugar = Nucleoside
[Link] are nucleotides?
Ans:The compound formed, when the phosphate group is attached to the nucleoside
is called nucleotide.
i.e, Base + Sugar + phosphate = Nucleotide
[Link] the nitrogenous bases present both in DNA and RNA.
Adenine or guanine or cytosine

[Link] is the nitrogenous base present only in DNA, but not in RNA.
Ans:Thymine
[Link] the nucleic acid which is responsible for genetic information.
Ans: DNA

d& f - BLOCK ELEMENTS

1. What is the composition of Mischmetall? Give its one use.

Ans : The composition of mischmetal95% lanthanoid metal + 5% iron + traces of S,
C, Ca and Al

Misch metal is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and lighter flint.

2. Write spin only formula to calculate magnetic moment of transition elements.

  n  n  2
Where, ‘n’ is number of unpaired electrons and  is magnetic moment in units of Bohr
magneton (BM).

3. Calculation of the magnetic moment:

a) Ni2+(ag): Ni2+ contains 26 electrons. Electronic configuration of Ni2+ is [Ar] 3d8
4s0
n=2
 = n( n  2)
= 2( 2  2)
= 8
=2.84B

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b) Fe3+(ag): Fe3+ contains 23 electons:  electronic configuration of Fe3+ (Ar)3d5

n=5
  = n ( n  2)
= 5(5  2)
= 35 =5.92B

c) Ti4+(ag): It has 18 electrons: Electronic configuration ofTi4+ (Ar)3d04s0

n=5
 = n( n  2)
= 0(0  2) =0
4. Why transitional elements acts as good catalysts?
a). They provide more surfacearea
b) They have partially filledd-orbitals
c) They exhibits variable oxidationstate.
5. Explain the formation of interstitial compounds
Interstitial compounds are
thecompounds,whichareformedwhensmallatoms(H,CorN)aretrappedinsidethecrystal
lattices ofthemetals.
Ex:TiC, Mn4N, Fe3H, VH0.56 andTiH1.7

6. Give reason:
i).Zr and Hf have almost identical atomic radii. (Mar 2016)
Ans:Due tolanthanoid contraction
ii).Transition elements shows variable oxidation states
Because,
i) Energy difference between (n-1)d orbital and ns orbital is less.
ii) Participation of both (n-1)d and ns orbital electrons in bonding.
iii).Most of transition metal compounds are coloured
The colour is due to
i) The presence of unpaired electrons in their d-orbital.
ii) Due to d-d transition..
iv).Zinc salts and Sc3+ ionsare colourless
Because of the absence of unpaired d-electrons.

v) Electronic configuration of Cr is [Ar] 4s1 3d10 but not [Ar] 4s2 3d4
This is because of extra stability of half filled d-orbitals which is due to symmetry and
exchange energy.

vi) Electronic configuration of Cu is [Ar] 4s1 3d10 but not [Ar] 4s2 3d9
because of extra stability of completely filled d orbitals which is due to symmetry and
exchange energy.

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vii)Actinoid contraction is more than lanthanoid contraction

Actinoid contraction is more thanlanthanoid contraction due to poor shielding effect
by 5f electrons from nuclear charge.
viii) The chemistry of actinoids is more complicated than lanthanoids.
Ans : The actinoids are radioactive elements having half lifes varying. Some
members can be prepared only in [Link] facts render their study
more difficult.
ix) Cu2+ salt solutions are coloured.
Because, Cu2+ ions contains unpaired electrons.

7. Give the differences between lanthanoids and actinoids:

Sl Lanthanoids Actinoids
1. These shows structural variability due to
These do not show structural variablility
irregularity in their size.
2. Magnetic properties are complex Magnetic properties are more complex
4. These shows oxidation state +3, +4, +5,
Lanthanoid shows oxidation +3, +2, +4
+6 and +7

Unit-9: CO-ORDINATION COMPOUNDS

[Link] the crystal field the splitting in tetrahedral co-ordination

entities.

The splitting of d-orbitals in tetrahedral crystal field takesplace in such a way

that dxy dxz and dyz are orbitals experience rise in energy and form t2g
orbitals(higher energy orbitals).

while d x 2
 y2
d z 2 are experiencing fall in energy and form eg) orbitals .

Tetrahedral splitting t = 4  0
9

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[Link] the crystal field splitting in octahedral co-ordination entities.

State1 state2 state3

The splitting of d-orbitals in tetrahedral crystal field takesplace in such a way

that d x  y d z are orbitals experience rise in energy and form eg orbitals(higher
2 2 2

energy orbitals).
while dxy dxz and dyz are experiencing fall in energy and form t2g orbitals (lower
energy orbitals).
The energy separation between two split sets is denoted as Δ0 . The energy of
e orbitals increase by 3/5 Δ0 and that of t2g set decrease by 2/5 Δ0.

[Link] ionization isomerism in complexes. Give an example.

Ans : Co-ordination compound having same molecular formula but produces

different ions when dissolved in water are called ionization isomers, and
phenomenon is called Ionisation isomerism.
Ex:  Co  NH 3 5 Br  SO 4 pentaamminebromocobalt(III)sulphate.(red violet colour)

2)  Co  NH 3 5  SO 4   Br pentaamminesulphatocobalt(III) bromide(red colour)

[Link] is linkage isomerism? Give an example.

Ans: Co-ordination compounds having same molecular formula but differ in the
mode of attachment of ambidentate ligand to the central metal ion are called
linkage isomers and the phenomenon is called linkage isomerism.

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Co  ONO  NH 3 5  Cl 2
Ex:
Pentaamine nitrito-O-cobalt(III) chloride (red)

(Here nitrile ligand is bond through O)

Co  NO 2  NH3 5  Cl2

Pentaamine nitrito-N-cobalt(III) chloride (yellow)
(Here nitrile ligand is bond through N).

[Link] is solvated isomerism? Explain with an example.

Ans : Co-ordination compounds having same molecular formula but differ in the
number of molecules of solvent as ligands are called solvated isomers and the
phenomenon is called solvated isomerism.
Ex: The compound with a molecular formula Cr Cl 3. 6H2O can from three hydrate
isomers as follows.
1)  Cr  H 2 O 6  Cl3 hexaaquachromium(III)chloride
(violet)
2)  Cr  H 2 O 5 Cl  Cl 2 . H 2 O pentaaquachloridochromium(III) chloride
monohydrate.
(light green)
3)  Cr  H 2 O 4 Cl 2  Cl.2H 2 O tetraaquadichloridochromium(III) chloride di
hydrate.
(dark green)

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CHEMICAL KINETICS

[Link] that Half-life period of first order reaction is independent of initial

concentration of reactants:
For the first order reaction,

2.303  R 0
K log
t R

At, t=t1/2, then R 

 R 0
2
So, the above equation becomes

2.303  R 0
K log
t1  R 0
2
2

2.303
K log 2
t1
2

0.693
K
t1
2

0.693
or t1 
2 K
Thus half-life period of a first order reaction is independent of the initial
concentration of reactants.

[Link]-life period of Zero order reaction

For zeroorder reaction, integrated rate equation

 R 0   R 
k
t
 R 0
When t  t 1 then  R  
2 2
R 
 R 0  0 2  R 0    R 0 
k 2 =
t1 2
2

t1 
R  0
2 2K

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[Link] any two differences between molecularity and order.

Molcularity Order
1. Molecularity is the number of reacting 1. Order is the sum of the powers of the
species undergoing simultaneous collision concentration terms in the rate law
in the elementary reaction. expression.
2. Molelcularity has whole number values 2. Order may be whole number or fractional
only. i.e. 1, 2, 3, etc. value.

[Link] is Pseudo First order reaction:

A reaction which appears to be of higher order, but made to follow first order
kinetics is called pseudo first order reactants.

Ex 1): Acid hydrolysis of ethyl acetate


CH 3COOC 2 H 5  H 2O 
H
 CH 3COOH  C2 H 5OH

[Link] is Activation energy?

The minimum excess energy acquired by the reactant molecules to reach their
energy equal to the Threshold energy is called Activation energy or Energy of
activation

[Link] the effect of catalyst on the activation energy of a reaction with graph.
Sol:The effect is explained by intermediate complex formation theorey.
 According to this theorey a catalyst,combines with reactants to form an
intermediate complex which is decomposes to products.
 A positive catalyst incresese the rate of a reaction by providing an alternative
pathway with lower activation energy.

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[Link] Arrhenius rate constant equation and explain the terms involved in it.
 Ea

k  Ae RT

Where, A= Arrhenius factor (or) frequency factor R = gas constant

T=Absolute temperature. K=rate constant

Ea= is activation energy measure in Joules per mole (J mol-1)

UNIT - 1
SOLUTIONS

[Link] differences between ideal and non-ideal solutions

Ideal solutions Non ideal solutions

[Link] obey Raoult’s law. 1. They do not obey Raoult’s law.

2. Hmixing = 0. 2. Hmixing 0.
3.Vmixing = 0. 3 .Vmixing 0.

[Link] differences between Positive deviation and Negative deviation.

Positive deviation Negative deviation

1. AHmixjng> 0 1. AHmixjng< 0.

2. AVmixing> 0 2. Vmixing< 0
3. Solvent-solute interaction is weaker than [Link]-solute interaction is stronger than
solvent-solvent and solute-solute interaction. solvent-solvent and solute-solute interaction.

3. State Henry’s law. Give its mathematical expression.

“At constant temperature mass a gas dissolved in a liquid is directly
proportionalto the partial pressure of the gas above the solution”.
p = KH x

[Link] solubility of a gas in liquid varies with temperature and pressure?

Solubility of a gas in liquid decreases with temperature, increases with pressure.

[Link] Roult’s law. Give its mathematical expression.

“For a solution of volatile liquids, the partial pressure of each component in the
vapour phase is directly proportional to the mole fraction of the respective component

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in the solution phase at a given temperature.”

pA  x A
p A  p0A x A

[Link] Raoult’s law of relative lowering of vapour pressure.

“The relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution containing non volatile
solute is equal to mole fraction of solute.”

[Link] molarity?How does it vary with temparature?

Number of moles of the solute dissolved in one litre of the solution.
Molarity varies inversely with temparature.

[Link] is reverse osmosis ?Mention any one of its use.

Flow of solvent out of a solution through semipermiable membrane,when pressure
larger than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution side.
Ex:desalination of sea water.

[Link] are azeotropes?

Binary liquid mixtures having the same composition in liquid and vapour phase
and boil at a constant temparature are called azeotropic mixtures.

Minimum boiling azeotropes: Mixture of ethanolC 2H5OH(95.57%)+H2O(4.43%))

[Link] are isotonic solutions?

Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are called isotonic
solutions.

[Link] are hypertonic solution?

A solution having higher osmotic pressure with respect other is called hypertonic
solution.

[Link] are hypotonic solution?

The solution having lower osmotic pressure with respect other is called hypotonic
solution.

[Link] do you expect to happen when RBC is placed in

(i) 1% NaCl solution. Ans: RBC will Shrink.

(ii)0.5% NaCl solution. Ans: RBC will Swell.

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[Link] is the value of vantHoff factor

(i) for K2SO4 Ans: 3

(ii) MgSO4 Ans: 2

(iii) Ethanoic acid in benzene? Ans: 0.5

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

1. State Faraday’s first law of electrolysis. Write its mathematical form.

“The amount of substance deposited or liberated at any electrode during
electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the
electrolyte”.
W=Z I t
[Link] faraday’s second law of electrolysis.
The law states that “the masses of different substances liberated (or) deposited
by passing same amount of electricity through different electrolytic solutions are
proportional to their respective chemical equivalent masses”.
[Link] Kohlrasch law of independent migration ?
“Limiting molar conductivity of an electrolyte can be represented as the sum of the
limiting molar conductivities of cation and anion of the electrolyte.

Ex:  0m  NaCl    0m Na  0m Cl


   


Applications: (i) It is used to determine the molar conductivity of a weak electrolyte.

(ii) Used to determine the degree of dissociayion and dissociation constant for a weak
electrolyte.
[Link] molar conductivity .How is it related to conductivity:
The molar conductivity of a solution is defined “The conductance due to the ions
produced from one mole of an electrolyte dissolved”.
K
m 
C

S. I. Unit of molar conductivity is Sm2mol-1

[Link] limiting molar conductivity.

“The conductivity of electrolytic solution at infinite dilution is called limiting
molar conductivity,  0m  or Molar conductance at infinite dilution.”

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6. What is a primary battery/cell?Give an example.

The batteries which cannot be recharged are called primary batteries.
Example: i) Dry cell, ii) Mercury cells

7. What is a secondary battery/cell? Give an example.

A cell which can be recharged by passing current through it in the opposite direction
so that it can be used again is called secondary cell.
Ex:Lead storage battery

[Link] is Corrosion? During the rusting write the cathodic and anodic reactions.
The process of deterioration of a metal as a result of its reaction with air or weater
with air or water in its sorroundings is called corrosion.
Reactions:
At anode: 2Fe   2Fe2+ + 4e-
At cathode: O2+4H++4e-   2H2O
+
The overall reaction :2Fe+O2+4H   2Fe2++2H2O
Chemical Composition of Rust :(Fe2O3.xH2O).
9. Explain methods of preventing corrosion.
Corrosion can be prevented by
i) Barrier protection
ii) By galvanization
iii) Cathodic protection (Sacrificial method)

Problems
[Link] Nernst [Link] the terms

Where, [M] = Concentrationof the metal M [Mn+] = Concentration of ions in

the solution
E = Electrode potential at concentration Mn+ Eo = Standard electrode potential
R= Gas constant T= Temperature in K
F= 1 Faraday (96500 coulombs)
n = Number of electrons involved in the electrode reaction

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Write Nernst equation For Daniel cell.

 0.0591   Zn 2 
EE 0
cell   log
 2  Cu  

Write the relationship between cell potential and Gibb’s energy.

G 0  nF  Ecell
0

[Link] on Gibb’s energy

∆G0 = -nFE0cell

The cell in which the following reaction occurs 2Fe3+(aq) + 2I-(aq) → 2Fe3+(aq)+ I2(s)
has E0cell = 0.236 V at 298K. Calculate the standard Gibb’s energy.
Solution : n = 2 ∆G0 = -nFE0cell
= -2 X 96500 X 0.236
= -45548 J

Problem on Faraday’s Law

A solution of Na(NO3)2is electrolysed between platinum electrodes using a

current of 5 amperes for 20 minutes. What mass of nickel is deposited at the
cathode ? (Mol mass of Ni = 58.7).
Q = It = 5 X 20 X 60 = 6000C
Ni2+ + 2e- → Ni
For 193000C of electricity mass of nickel obtained = 58.7g

.
For 6000C of electricity =

= 1.812 g

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Problem on molar coconductivity

[Link] of 0.01 M NaCl solution is 0.12 Sm-1. Calculate its molar conductivity.
λm=

.
= .

λm =1.2 x10-2 sm2 mol-1

Problems on Cell Constant(G*) , Conductivity(k), Molar conductivity(λm)

A conductivity cell when filled with 0.01KCl has a resistance of 747.5ohm at

[Link] the same cell was filed with an aqueous solution 0.05M CaCl2
solution the resistance was 876 [Link] i) Conductivity of the solution, iii)
Molar conductivity of the solution
(Given conductivity of 0.01M KCl=0.14114 sm-1).
Cell constant G*=Rk
=747.5x0.14114
=105.5 m-1
Conductivity k =
.
=

= 0.1204 Sm-1

Molar conductivity λm=

.
=
.

=0.00241 sm2 mol-1

𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗𝟏 [𝑷]
Problems on: Ecell=E0cell – 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑹]
𝟐

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Calculate emf of the cell in which the following reaction takesplace.

Ni(s) +2Ag+ (0.002M) →Ni2+(0.160M) +2Ag, Given: E0Cell=1.05v

.
Ans: Ecell=E0cell – 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ ]

. [ . ]
= 1.05 – 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ . ]

=1.05-0.02955 log4 x104

=1.05-0.02955(log1000+log4)

=1.05-0.02955(4+0.6021)
Ecell =0.914 V

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