ESC195: Calculus II
Tutorial 5
Sequences
Sequences can be thought of as an infinite, ordered list of numbers
𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … 𝑎𝑛 …
∞
𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … = 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑛=1
They are ordered in such a way that can be represented with a function:
1 1 1 1
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛 , 1, , , … , 𝑛 , …
𝑛 4 27 𝑛
Limit of a Sequence
Intuitively, a sequence 𝑎𝑛 has the limit 𝐿 if we can make the terms as close
to 𝐿 as we like with sufficiently large 𝑛:
lim 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿
𝑛→∞
If the limit exists, the sequence is convergent. Otherwise, it is divergent.
More precisely, a sequence has the limit 𝐿 if for every 𝜀 > 0, there is an
integer 𝑁 such that if 𝑛 > 𝑁, then 𝑎𝑛 − 𝐿 < 𝜀.
For a sequence where lim 𝑎𝑛 = ∞, it must be that for every 𝑀 > 0, there is
𝑛→∞
an integer 𝑁 such that if 𝑛 > 𝑁, then 𝑎𝑛 > 𝑀
Properties of Sequences
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and 𝑓 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 , then lim 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿
𝑥→∞ 𝑛→∞
lim 𝑎𝑛 ± 𝑏𝑛 = lim 𝑎𝑛 ± lim 𝑏𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
lim 𝑐𝑎𝑛 = 𝑐 lim 𝑎𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
lim (𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 ) = lim 𝑎𝑛 ∙ lim 𝑏𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
lim 𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞
lim = , lim 𝑏𝑛 ≠ 0
𝑛→∞ 𝑏𝑛 lim 𝑏𝑛 𝑛→∞
𝑛→∞
𝑝
𝑝
lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑝 > 0, 𝑎𝑛 > 0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
Properties of Sequences
If 𝑎𝑛 ≤ 𝑏𝑛 ≤ 𝑐𝑛 for 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛0 and lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim 𝑐𝑛 = 𝐿, then lim 𝑏𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
If lim |𝑎𝑛 | = 0, then lim 𝑎𝑛 = 0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
If lim 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿 and the function 𝑓 is continuous at 𝐿, then lim 𝑓(𝑎𝑛 ) = 𝑓(𝐿)
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
{𝑟 𝑛 } is convergent if −1 < 𝑟 ≤ 1 and divergent for all other 𝑟:
0, −1 < 𝑟 < 1
lim 𝑟𝑛 =ቊ
𝑛→∞ 1, 𝑟 = 1
Monotonic and Bounded Sequences
A sequence {𝑎𝑛 } is increasing if 𝑎𝑛 < 𝑎𝑛+1 for all 𝑛 ≥ 1, and
decreasing if 𝑎𝑛 > 𝑎𝑛+1 for all 𝑛 ≥ 1. A sequence that is either
increasing or decreasing is called monotonic.
It is bounded above if 𝑎𝑛 ≤ 𝑀 for all 𝑛 ≥ 1 and bounded below if 𝑚 ≤
𝑎𝑛 for all 𝑛 ≥ 1. A sequence that it bounded above and below is a
bounded sequence
Every bounded monotonic sequence converges, as do
increasing/bounded above and decreasing/bounded below
Series
∞
In short, a series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. For example, the series for 𝑎𝑛 𝑛=1 can be written as
∞
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 + ⋯ = 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛
𝑛=1
We can determine whether a series sums to a finite number by considering the sequence of partial sums:
𝑠𝑛 = {𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , … , 𝑠𝑛 , … }
𝑛
𝑠𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑖
𝑖=1
If this sequence is convergent and lim 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑠 exists as a real number, then the series converges, and σ 𝑎𝑛 =
𝑛→∞
𝑠. If {𝑠𝑛 } is divergent, then σ 𝑎𝑛 is divergent.
Geometric Series
Geometric series are an important class of series:
∞
𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 + ⋯ = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 , 𝑎≠0
𝑛=1
Which is convergent for 𝑟 < 1:
𝑛−1
𝑎
𝑎𝑟 =
1−𝑟
And divergent for 𝑟 ≥ 1
Divergence and Convergence
If the series σ 𝑎𝑛 is convergent, then lim 𝑎𝑛 = 0. However, the converse is not generally
𝑛→∞
1
true. (σ 𝑝 converges for 𝑝 > 1 and diverges for 𝑝 ≤ 1)
𝑥
If lim 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 or does not exist, then the series is divergent.
𝑛→∞
If σ 𝑎𝑛 and σ 𝑏𝑛 are convergent, then
𝑐𝑎𝑛 = 𝑐 𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝑛 ± 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 ± 𝑏𝑛
