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;2Mi rBHH KQmMi QM i?2 L6a a2`p2` 7Q` bvM+?`QMBxiBQM M2+2bb`vX
M/ /BbF bT+2 bpBM;X
q?BH2 i?2 b2`pB+2b `2 7mM+iBQMBM;- h+F2` ;2Mi rBHH H;Q`Bi?K R, SH+2K2Mi H;Q`Bi?K
`2;mH`Hv `2TQ`i i?2 oL6 biimb BM+Hm/BM; i?2 mb;2 Q7
AMTmi , *QKTH2i2 :`T? G(V, E)- n,
*Sl M/ K2KQ`vX oL6J rBHH /2i2`KBM2 r?2M iQ b+H2
V Bb i?2 b2i Q7 +QKTmi2 MQ/2b M/ i?2 M2irQ`F MQ/2c
BM Q` Qmi oL6bX Pm` 2tT2`BK2Mib mb2 oL6b 7Q` 6B`2rHH-
n Bb i?2 MmK#2` Q7 oL6b BM  +?BM
GQ/#HM+2 M/ q2# b2`p2` iQ p2`B7v M/ K2bm`2 i?2
PmiTmi, lT/i2/ :`T? G(V, E)
2{+B2M+v Q7 Qm` H;Q`Bi?KbX
R `QQi ← :X`QQi

AoX a2`pB+2 6mM+iBQM *?BMBM; k r?BH2 M = y /Q

j m ← MmHH f m Bb i?2 +m``2Mi #2bi +M/B/i2 f
q2 BKTH2K2Mi a2`pB+2 6mM+iBQM *?BMBM; rBi? PT2M@
9 W eight(root, u) ← ∞
.vHB;?i *QMi`QHH2`X 7i2` PT2Mai+F h+F2` /2THQvb i?2
8 7Q` 7Q` 2+? M2B;?#Q` p Q7 `QQi /Q
oL6b- i?2 a6* KQ/mH2 Bb BM +?`;2 Q7 HBMFBM; i?2 oL6b
e B7 p M/ m ?p2 i?2 bK2 +T+Biv i?2M
BM  bT2+B}+ Q`/2` b /2}M2/ BM oL6.X a6* KQ/mH2
d B7 q2B;?iU`QQi- pV I q2B;?iU`QQi- mV i?2M
+[mB`2b BM7Q`KiBQM Q7 M2irQ`F iQTQHQ;v M/ biimb 7`QK
3 u←v
PT2Mai+F L2mi`QM M/ /2+B/2b i?2 ~Qr `mH2b iQ #2
N 2M/
BMbiHH2/X qBi? _1ah7mH SA- a6* KQ/mH2 TQbib ~Qr `mH2b
Ry 2M/
QM PT2M.vHB;?iX ++Q`/BM;Hv- PT2M.vHB;?i rBHH b2i mT
RR 2Hb2 B7 p ?b  H`;2` +T+Biv i?M m i?2M
i?2 ~Qr `mH2b QM i?2 PT2MparBi+?2b mM/2` Bib +QMi`QH iQ
Rk u←v
`Qmi2 i?2 T+F2ib Q7 2+? oL6 T`QT2`Hv M/ +QKTH2i2 i?2
Rj 2M/
7mM+iBQMHBiv Q7  b2`pB+2 +?BMX aQK2 oL6b- bm+? b HQ/
R9 B7 m ?b 2KTiv +T+Biv i?2M
#HM+2`- `2 +T#H2 Q7 /B`2+iBM; i?2 T+F2i ~Qr M/ i?2v
R8 `2im`M MmHH
/Q MQi M22/ ~Qr `mH2bX 6Q` i?Bb ivT2 Q7 oL6b- r2 M22/ iQ
Re 2M/
b2i mT T`QT2` ii`B#mi2b iQ /B`2+i i?2 T+F2ib iQ i?2 M2ti
Rd AM+`2b2 W eight(root, u) #v R
oL6bX q?BH2 /2THQvBM;  b2`pB+2 +?BM- r2 +M BMbiHH i?2
R3 n ← n− Ui?2 MmK#2` Q7 oL6b ?Qbi2/ i uV
~Qr `mH2b i i?2 bK2 iBK2- bBM+2 i?2 oL6b M22/ bQK2
RN root ← u
BMBiBHBxiBQM #27Q`2 7mM+iBQMBM;X
ky 2M/
PM+2 i?2 +?BM ?b bi`i2/ iQ b2`p2- `2/B`2+iBM; Kv
kR `2im`M G(V, E)
+mb2 bQK2 T`Q#H2Kb- bm+? b r?2M b+HBM; BM M/ QmiX
JQ`2 bT2+B}+HHv- r?2M b+HBM; Qmi- r2 M22/ iQ KF2
bm`2 B7 i?2 oL6b ?p2 #22M BMBiBHBx2/ T`QT2`Hv #27Q`2  b2`p2` i?i ?Qbib i?2 oL6b BM PT2Mai+F Bb +HH2/ 
r2 +M /B`2+i T+F2ib iQ i?2 M2rHv //2/ oL6bX AM Qm` *QKTmi2 LQ/2- r?B+? Bb 2[mBTT2/ rBi? M PT2MparBi+?
BKTH2K2MiiBQM- i?2 h+F2` ;2Mi rBHH MQiB7v h+F2` r?2M M/ +QKKmMB+i2b rBi? Qi?2` MQ/2b pB imMM2Hb U2X;X :_1-
oL6b ?p2 #22M BMBiBHBx2/- M/ i?2M h+F2` rBHH BMbiHH otHM- 2i+VX h?2 L2irQ`F LQ/2 Q7 PT2Mai+F Bb BM +?`;2
+Q``2bTQM/BM; ~Qr `mH2bX aBKBH`Hv- 7Q` b+HBM; BM- r2 Q7 pB`imH M2irQ`F b2`pB+2- r?B+? Bb 2[mBTT2/ rBi? M
+MMQi `2KQp2 i`;2i2/ oL6b `B;?i i?2 rvX q2 M22/ iQ PT2MparBi+? M/ +QKKmMB+i2b rBi? Qi?2` MQ/2b pB

190
imMM2HbX h?2 M2irQ`F 7mM+iBQMb Q7 oJb `2 ?M/H2/ #v H;Q`Bi?K k, a+HBM; H;Q`Bi?K
i?2 L2irQ`F LQ/2X Pm` TH+2K2Mi H;Q`Bi?K }M/b bmBi#H2 AMTmi , hrQ MQM@M2;iBp2 BMi2;2`b K M/ M,
*QKTmi2b LQ/2b 7Q` oL6b BM Q`/2` iQ `2/m+2 i?2 /2Hv M Bb i?2 MmK#2` Q7 oL6 7Q`  bBM;H2 b2`pB+2 BM i?2
#2ir22M irQ *QKTmi2 LQ/2bX "2`;2` (R3) ?b Q#b2`p2/ +?BMc
i?i imMM2HBM; #2ir22M MQ/2b M22/b MQM@i`BpBH +QKTmiBM; K Bb i?2 MmK#2` Q7 #mbv oL6
7`QK *SlX h?mb TH+BM;  b2`pB+2 +?BM BM  bBM;H2 MQ/2 PmiTmi, M BMi2;2` t, t Bb i?2 MmK#2` Q7 oL6
r?2M2p2` TQbbB#H2 rBHH bp2 i?2 *Sl +Qbi M/ i?mb i?2 /2THQv2/ Q` i2`KBMi2/
Hi2M+vX m
R HQ/ 7+iQ` ← n
H;Q`Bi?K R b?Qrb i?2 /2iBHb Q7 i?2 ;`22/v TH+2K2Mi k B7 HQ/ 7+iQ` 4 R i?2M
TT`Q+?X h?2 BMTmib BM+Hm/2 irQ T`ib,  ;`T? G(V, E) j B7 i?2`2 `2 2MQm;? `2bQm`+2 iQ ?Qbi MQi?2` M
BM/B+iBM; i?2 HQ;B+H iQTQHQ;v Q7 i?2 L2irQ`F LQ/2 M/ oL6b i?2M
*QKTmi2 LQ/2bc M/ M BMi2;2` n BM/B+iBM; i?2 MmK#2` Q7 9 `2im`M M
oL6b iQ #2 /2THQv2/X h?2 `QQi Q7 i?2 ;`T? Bb i?2 L2irQ`F 8 2M/
LQ/2- bBM+2 r?2M ++2bbBM; i?2 oL6b Bi }`bi M22/b i?2 e 2Hb2 B7 i?2 `2bQm`+2 Q7 i?2 bvbi2K Bb bm{+B2Mi i?2M
L2irQ`F LQ/2 iQ i`MbHi2 i?2 //`2bbX G(V, E) Bb +imHHv d B7 M = 9 i?2M
i`2i2/ b M mM@/B`2+i2/ +QKTH2i2 ;`T?- r?2`2 2+? TB` 3 B7 HQ/ 7+iQ` I Rf9 i?2M
Q7 LQ/2b +QMM2+i iQ 2+? Qi?2`X 1+? 2/;2 ?b  r2B;?i N `2im`M @Mfk
BM/B+iBM; i?2 MmK#2` Q7 +?BMb TbbBM; #vX AMBiBHHv- i?2 Ry 2M/
r2B;?i Bb yX 1+? 2/;2 r2B;?i Bb BM+`2b2/ #v R- r?2M2p2` RR 2M/
i?2`2 Bb  M2r +?BM mbBM; i?Bb 2/;2X h?2 H`;2` i?2 i?2 Rk 2Hb2 B7 i?2 `2bQm`+2 Q7 i?2 bvbi2K Bb MQi bm{+B2Mi
2/;2 r2B;?i- i?2 KQ`2 b2`pB+2 +?BMb Tbb i?`Qm;?X q?BH2 i?2M
/2THQvBM; i?2 oL6b- r2 +?QQb2 i?2 2/;2b rBi? i?2 bKHH2` Rj B7 M = k i?2M
r2B;?ibX h?2 QmiTmi Q7 i?2 H;Q`Bi?K Bb i?2 ;`T? rBi? R9 B7 HQ/ 7+iQ` I Rfk i?2M
mT/i2/ 2/;2 r2B;?ibX R8 `2im`M @R
h?2 H;Q`Bi?K +QM/m+ib  ;`22/v b2`+? bi`iBM; i i?2 Re 2M/
L2irQ`F LQ/2 UrootV M/ HQQFBM; 7Q`  *QKTmi2 LQ/2 Rd 2M/
UuV rBi? i?2 bKHH2bi 2/;2 r2B;?i #2ir22M i?2K M/ i?2 R3 `2im`M y
H`;2bi `2KBMBM; +T+Biv iQ ++QKKQ/i2 i?2 oL6bX h?2
+T+Biv Q7  *QKTmi2` LQ/2 BM/B+i2b i?2 MmK#2` Q7 oL6
i?i +M #2 ?Qbi2/ QM BiX
A7  bBM;H2 *QKTmi2 LQ/2 Bb bm{+B2Mi iQ ?Qbi i?2 oL6b- i?2 MmK#2` Q7 o6Lb iQ #2 /Dmbi2/X h?2M Qm` bvbi2K mb2
i?2M r2 `2 /QM2c 2Hb2 i?2 H;Q`Bi?K +QMiBMm2b i?2 b2`+? LQp SA iQ KF2 i?2 /DmbiK2MiX
mMiBH Bi }M/b 2MQm;? LQ/2b 7Q` HH i?2 oL6bX qBi? i?2 2/;2 JQ`2 bT2+B}+HHv- i?2 H;Q`Bi?K ?b irQ bi;2b, Bi }`bi
r2B;?ib- r2 +M #HM+2 i?2 HQ/ Qp2` i?2 *QKTmi2 LQ/2bX /2i2`KBM2b B7 i?2 b2`pB+2 Bb Qp2`HQ/2/ Q` MQiX Pp2`HQ/BM;
++Q`/BM; iQ Qm` 2tT2`BK2Mib- Bi b?Qrb i?Bb TT`Q+? +M K2Mb i?i 2+? oL6 Q7  7mM+iBQM BM  +?BM Bb #mbvX
BKT`Qp2 i?2 2{+B2M+v mT iQ 8yW +QKT`2/ iQ i?2 /27mHi A7 Qp2`HQ/BM; M/ i?2 b2`p2` ?b bm{+B2Mi +T+Biv- i?2M
K2i?Q/ T`QpB/2/ #v PT2Mai+F >2iX 6BMHHv- r?2M  r2 /Qm#H2 i?2 MmK#2` Q7 oL6bX Ai iF2b bQK2 iBK2 iQ
+?BM 2M/b Bib b2`pB+2- r2 M22/ iQ `2KQp2 M/ `2+v+H2 i?2 /2THQv i?2 oL6bX A7 +m``2Mi `2[m2bi Bb MQi biBb}2/- M2r
oL6b M/ mT/i2 i?2 2/;2 r2B;?ib Q7 G(V, E)X `2[m2bi rBHH `2+m`X HbQ r2 Q#b2`p2 i?i r?2M i?2 *Sl
?b bm{+B2Mi +Q`2b- Bi iF2b #Qmi i?2 bK2 iBK2 iQ HmM+?
"X a+HBM; KmHiBTH2 oJb b 7Q`  bBM;H2 oJX 1p2M i?Qm;? Qm` bi`i2;v
h?2 b+HBM; H;Q`Bi?K /Dmbib i?2 /2THQvK2Mi Q7 oL6bX Kv Qp2`bmTTHv oJb- Bi iF2b QMHv HBiiH2 iBK2 iQ `2H2b2
q?2M i?2 `2[m2bi BM+`2b2b- i?2 H;Q`Bi?K //b M2r oL6b i?2 2t+2bb oL6bX
iQ i?2 +?BM iQ KBiB;i2 i?2 HQ/X PM i?2 Qi?2` ?M/- A7 i?2 b2`pB+2 Bb MQi Qp2`HQ/2/- i?2M i?2 H;Q`Bi?K
i?2 H;Q`Bi?K rBHH `2/m+2 i?2 oL6b r?2M HQ/ Bb mM/2` /2i2`KBM2b B7 i?2 oL6b `2 Qp2`bmTTHB2/X q2 BKTH2K2Mi
 i?`2b?QH/X  7mM+iBQM Bbam{+B2MiUV iQ +?2+F B7 i?2 T?vbB+H K+?BM2b
H;Q`Bi?K k b?Qrb i?2 /2iBHb Q7 i?2 b+HBM; H;Q`Bi?K- ?p2 2MQm;? `2bQm`+2 Q` MQiX A7 i?2 `2bQm`+2 Bb bm{+B2Mi
r?B+? iF2b irQ BMi2;2` T`K2i2`b, m M/ n- r?2`2 m M/ i?2 HQ/ 7+iQ` Bb bKHH2` i?M Rf9 rBi? n > 4- i?2M
BM/B+i2b i?2 MmK#2` Q7 #mbv oL6b M/ n Bb i?2 MmK#2` i?2 H;Q`Bi?K rBHH `2/m+2 i?2 bBx2 #v ?H7 M/ i?Bb rBHH
Q7 iQiH oL6b Q7  bBM;H2 7mM+iBQM M/ m/n /2}M2b i?2 KBMiBM i?2 HQ/ 7+iQ` `QmM/ RfkX h?2 `2[mB`2K2Mi Q7
HQ/ 7+iQ` Q7 i?2 7mM+iBQMX q?2M i?2 Hi2M+v Q7  b2`pB+2 n > 4 Bb iQ pQB/ 7`2[m2MiHv BM+`2bBM; M/ /2+`2bBM; i?2
BM+`2b2b- r2 bv i?2 oJ ?QbiBM; oL6 #2+QK2b #mbv- MmK#2` Q7 oL6bX q?2M i?2 `2bQm`+2 Bb BMbm{+B2Mi- i?2
?Qr2p2` Bi rBHH /2T2M/ QM i?2 T`QT2`iv Q7 i?2 oL6X 6Q`  H;Q`Bi?K rBHH i`v iQ `2H2b2  `2/mM/Mi oL6 7Q` i?2 Qi?2`
q2# a2`p2`- B7 Bib *Sl `i2 `2+?2b NyW- i?2M Bi H2/b iQ +?BMb BM M22/X AM i?Bb +b2- B7 i?2 HQ/ 7+iQ` Bb bKHH2`
HQM;2` Hi2M+v M/ Bi Bb #mbv 7Q` bm`2X "b2/ QM i?2 HQ/ i?M Rfk M/ n > 2- i?2M i?2 H;Q`Bi?K rBHH `2/m+2 i?2
7+iQ` i?2 b+HBM; H;Q`Bi?K /2+B/2b i?2 b+HBM; TQHB+v M/ MmK#2` Q7 oL6b #v RX aBKBH`Hv- i?2 `2[mB`2K2Mi Q7 n > 2

191
Bb iQ pQB/ mMM2+2bb`v 2t+2bbBp2 BM+`2bBM; M/ /2+`2bBM;
Q7 oL6bX h?2 T2`7Q`KM+2 Q7 i?2 b+HBM; H;Q`Bi?K +M #2
DmbiB}2/ rBi? KQ`iBx2/ MHvbBb b 7QHHQrbX
h?2Q`2K RX h?2 KQ`iBx2/ +Qbi 7Q` 2+? QT2`iBQM 7Q` 
b2[m2M+2 Q7 N b+HBM; Qmi QT2`iBQMb Bb O(1)X
S`QQ7X a+HBM; Qmi  b2`pB+2 BM  +?BM /2T2M/b QM i?2
HQ/ 7+iQ` m/nX G2i S #2 i?2 oL6 b2i Q7  bT2+B}+
b2`pB+2 M/ S.n M/ S.m BM/B+i2b i?2 MmK#2` Q7 oL6b
BM S M/ i?2 MmK#2` Q7 #mbv oL6b- `2bT2+iBp2HvX .2}M2
 TQi2MiBH 7mM+iBQM Φ(S) = 2S.m − [Link] AKK2/Bi2Hv
7i2` /Qm#HBM; i?2 bBx2 Q7 S- r2 ?p2 S.m = S.n/2 M/
Φ(S) = 0X AKK2/Bi2Hv #27Q`2 /Qm#HBM;- S.m = S.n- M/
i?mb Φ(S) = [Link] 6Q` b+HBM; Qmi QMHv- r2 Hrvb ?p2
S.m ≥ S.n/2X 6Q` i?2 +Qbi Q7 i?2 i@i? b+HBM; Qmi- H2i mi
#2 i?2 MmK#2` Q7 #mbv oL6b M/ ni #2 i?2 MmK#2` Q7
oL6b BM S- `2bT2+iBp2Hv- M/ Φi #2 i?2 TQi2MiBH 7i2` i?2
i@i? b+HBM; QmiX G2i ĉi M/ ci #2 i?2 KQ`iBx2/ +Qbi M/ 6B;X kX 1tT2`BK2Mi `+?Bi2+im`2
+imH +Qbi- `2bT2+iBp2Hv 7i2` i?2 i@i? b+HBM; QmiX AMBiBHHv-
m0 = n0 = Φ0 = 0X
"v i?2 TQi2MiBH K2i?Q/- r2 ?p2 ĉi = ci + Φi − Φi−1 X A7 h?2 pB`imH LA* Q7 oJ Bb +QMM2+i2/ iQ i?2 PT2M@
i?2 i@i? b+HBM; /Q2b MQi /Qm#H2 S- i?2M ni = ni−1 M/ mi parBi+? Q7 *QKTmi2 LQ/2- r?B+? ?b i?2 ~Qr `mH2b
BM+`2b2b i KQbi RX h?mb ĉi ≤ 3 Bb #QmM/2/ #v  +QMbiMiX iQ /B`2+i i?2 T+F2ib iQ i?2 BMi2M/2/ /2biBMiBQMX q2
A7 i?2 /Qm#HBM; Bb 2t2+mi2/- i?2M ni = 2ni−1 M/ ni−1 = ?p2 j *QKTmi2 LQ/2b BM Qm` 2tT2`BK2MibX
mi−1 = mi − 1X aQ ĉi = ci + Φi − Φi−1 = mi + (2mi − ni ) − 9V h?2 L2irQ`Fb `2 #mBHi rBi? pB`imH #`B/;2b- BM@
(2mi−1 − ni−1 ) = 3X h?Bb +QKTH2i2b i?2 T`QQ7X biHH2/ rBi? oJr`2 qQ`FbiiBQM- r?B+? +QMbBbib Q7
j T`ib 7Q` 2ti2`MH M2irQ`F- KM;2K2Mi M2irQ`F
h?2 7QHHQrBM; Bb bBKBH` iQ i?2 `;mK2Mi 7Q` /vMKB+
M/ BMi2`MH M2irQ`FX h?2 2ti2`MH M2irQ`F +QM@
i#H2 (RN)X
M2+ib iQ Tm#HB+ M2irQ`FX h?2 KM;2K2Mi M2irQ`F
h?2Q`2K kX h?2 KQ`iBx2/ +Qbi 7Q` 2+? QT2`iBQM 7Q`  ?M/H2b i?2 2t+?M;2 Q7 KM;2K2Mi BM7Q`KiBQM
b2[m2M+2 Q7 N b+HBM; Qmi M/ b+HBM; BM QT2`iBQMb Bb O(1)X Q7 PT2Mai+F (kR)X h?2 BMi2`MH M2irQ`F Bb mb2/
#v oJb 7Q` +QKKmMB+iBQMX q2 HbQ BMbiHH :_1
S`QQ7X aBKBH`Hv- H2i S #2 i?2 oL6b Q7  bT2+B}+ b2`pB+2X
imMM2Hb KQM; PT2MparBi+?2b Q7 *QKTmi2 LQ/2b
>2`2 r2 /2}M2 i?2 TQi2MiBH 7mM+iBQM b 7QHHQrb,
 M/ L2irQ`F LQ/2X
2mi − ni , B7 HQ/ 7+iQ` ≥ 1/2- 6Q` *QMi`QHH2` LQ/2 M/ L2irQ`F LQ/2- r2 2+? HHQ@
Φi (S) =
ni /2 − mi , B7 HQ/ 7+iQ` < 1/2X +i2 R *Sl +Q`2 M/ 9:" _JX 6Q` 2+? *QKTmi2 LQ/2-
qBi?  bBKBH` `;mK2Mi b #Qp2- r2 +M b?Qr i?i i?2 r2 HHQ+i2 9 *Sl +Q`2b M/ 3:J _JX q2 +`2i2 oL6b
KQ`iBx2/ +Qbi Bb #QmM/2/ #v  +QMbiMiX 7Q` }`2rHH- HQ/ #HM+2 M/ r2# b2`p2`X 1+? oL6 ?b
8RkJ" _J M/ R pB`imH *SlX aBM+2 i?2 2M/TQBMi Q7 Qm`
oAX 1tT2`BK2Mib b2`pB+2 +?BM Bb r2# b2`p2`- r2 mb2 T+?2"2M+? U#V (kk)
b b?QrM BM 6B;m`2 k- r2 mb2 oJq`2 rQ`FbiiBQM(ky) iQ 2pHmi2 Qm` 2tT2`BK2MibX T+?2"2M+? Bb bT2+B}+HHv
iQ b2i mT Qm` 2tT2`BK2Mi 2MpB`QMK2Mi- r?B+? +QMbBbib Q7 j mb2/ iQ i2bi i?2 T2`7Q`KM+2 Q7 p`BQmb q2# a2`p2`b- M/
*QKTmi2 LQ/2b M/ j M2irQ`FbX h?2 7mM+iBQMHBiv Q7 2+? Bi T`QpB/2b b2p2`H T`K2i2`b iQ imM2 i?2 bvbi2K 7Q`
+QKTQM2Mi Bb BHHmbi`i2/ b 7QHHQrb, 2tT2`BK2MibX aBM+2 T+?2"2M+? HbQ T`QpB/2b i?2 b2`pB+2
Q7 q2# a2`p2` M/ i?mb Bi +M K2bm`2 i?2 T2`7Q`KM+2
RV h?2 *QMi`QHH2` LQ/2 Bb mb2/ 7Q` i?2 +QMi`QH THM2 Q7
Q7  +?BM i?i BM+Hm/2b q2# a2`p2`X h?2`27Q`2- Bi Bb 
PT2Mai+F- r?B+? +QMbBbib Q7 b2`pB+2b 7Q` B/2MiBiv-
p2`v ?M/v iQQH 7Q` 2pHmiBM; Qm` TH+2K2Mi M/ b+HBM;
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