UNIT TWO

MEASUREMNT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES

1. Introduction

Every surveyor has to measure the horizontal distance between two points on the
surface of the earth. Measurement of horizontal distance or making linear
measurements is required in chain surveying, traverse surveying, and other types of
surveying.

In surveying the distance between two points means a horizontal distance. When slope
distances are measured in the field, these are always reduced to the equivalent
horizontal distances for preparation of map.

Slop
e dis
tanc
e

Horizontal distance

There are, in general, three methods of making linear measurements:

1. Direct methods

2. Optical methods

3. E.D.M. methods

In the direct methods, the distance is actually measured in the field using a tape.

In optical methods, the distance is not actually measured the field. It is computed
indirectly (for example: stadia tachometry).

Electromagnetic Distance Measuring (E.D.M) instruments have been developed since

the 60ties. Two different types are available:
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Surveying I -Unit 2
Prepared By: Yonas Asefa
Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, 2014

1. Electro optical instruments, which use light waves for measurement of distance.

2. Microwave instruments, which use radio waves for measurement of distance.

2. Approximate method

The following approximate methods are commonly used in reconnaissance surveying

for the measurement of horizontal distances. These methods are also use sometimes to
detect large mistakes in linear measurements obtained with a tape.

1. Pacing: A person can determine the distance walked by Counting the number of paces
made. The distance can be obtained by multiplying the number of paces by the average
length of the paces.

2. Measuring wheel: A measuring wheel consists of a wheel mounted on a lower end of

rod about 1 m long through a fork. The upper end of the rod has a handle. The wheel is
pushed along the ground. The distance traversed is recorded on the dial attached the
wheel. (See fig bellow)

3. Speedometer: All automobiles have a speedometer to indicate the speed and the
distance travelled. If the ground is smooth, the Speedometer can be used to
measure the distance.

3. Tapes

Measuring tapes can be classified into 5 types depending upon the material used in
their manufacture.

1. Liner or cloth tapes.

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Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, 2014

2. Glass-fibre tapes

3. Metallic tapes

4. Steel tapes

5. Invar tapes

a) Steel tape b) Invar tape

1. Linen or cloth tapes: These tapes are made of linen or cloth. The tape is light and
handy but not very accurate. These tapes are available in length of 10m 20m, 25m
and 30m.

2. Glass–fibre tapes: These tapes are similar to linen and plastic coated tapes but they
are made of glass-fibre. The tapes are quite flexible, strong and non-Conductive

3. Metallic tapes: These tapes are similar to liner tapes but are made of water proof
fabric or glass-fibre in which metallic wires are interwoven.

4. Steel tapes: The steel tapes are the most commonly used tapes in surveying. They
are more accurate than metallic tapes. The steel tapes are made of steel or stainless
steel strip.

5. Invar Tapes: Invar tapes are made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel (36%), which
has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion. Invar tapes are used for linear
measurements of very high precision.
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Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, 2014

4. Taping accessories

In addition to a tape, the following small instruments and accessories are required for
the determination of the length of a line.

1. Arrows (Chain pins)

2. Pegs

3. Ranging rods

4. Plumb bobs or rod levels

1. Arrows (Chain pins): They are used to mark the position of the ends of the tape on
the ground.

2. Pegs: Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the survey stations or the end
points of the survey line.

3. Ranging Rods: The process of locating a number of points on a long survey line is
called ranging. Ranging rods are used to locate intermediate points such that these
points lie on the straight line joining the end stations. Ranging rods are made of well-
seasoned, straight-grained timber.

4. Plumb bobs: The plumb bob plays a very important role in surveying. As a freely
suspended plumb bob always points towards the gravity, it indicates the direction of
the vertical line. In linear measurements plumb bobs are used for measuring

distances on sloping ground.

Ranging rods hold by ranging rod tripods plumb bob

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Surveying I -Unit 2
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Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, 2014

5. Ranging out lines directly

The process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line is known as ranging

out or aligning in surveying. It is necessary to establish intermediate points on a line if
the distance is greater then one tape lengths. The ranging out ensures that the straight
distance between two points is measured.

straight line
A B
line measured without aligning

The procedure is as follows:

- Two ranging poles are set up vertically on the two ends of the line to be measured.

A B

- The surveyor stands behind one ranging pole at a distance of about 2-3 meters.

- The assistant holds another ranging rod approximately on the line at a distance not
greater than one tape lengths.

- By looking left and right along the set up ranging poles the surveyor directs the
assistant to move the ranging pole towards the line

- The assistant has to hold the ranging pole vertically.

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A
2-3m
B
C
side view

A
2-3m
B
C
top view

Having more than one ranging pole to be aligned, start always with the farther one to
have a good visibility.

- Never take an intermediate point for ranging out a further intermediate point. If the
first intermediate point has been aligned incorrectly you would align the second one
into a wrong line.

A B
C
D
second incorrect intermediate first incorrect intermediate point
point aligned into line AC

After establishing all intermediate points the result of the ranging out has to be
checked. Therefore, sight left and right along the line the ranging poles have to appear
one after the other in the right order that means from the nearest to the most distant
one.

6. Ranging out lines and working with optical square

A useful instrument, which is often used in combination with tape surveys, is the optical
square. It is an instrument for producing rectangular angles (100 gon, 90 degree).

An optical square consists of two prisms and a field of view. The upper prism provides a
view to the right, the lower to the left. The view in front of the prism can be seen
through the field of view. An optical square is held freehand with the help of a plumb
bob over a point.
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Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, 2014

Mostly it is used for setting outs or for measurement of offsets. Offsets are short
lengths measured to points of detail from points along the main framework line, as
shown in figure 1.
















 









 

Figure 1

With the optical square a surveyor can align himself into a line without the help of an
assistant.

The procedure is as follows (see also figure 2):

Ranging poles are set up at both ends of the line AB. The surveyor stand approximately
on the line and while looking through the optical square he is moving forward and
backward until the pictures of the ranging poles are properly aligned along a vertical
line. The plumb bob indicates the correct position of the aligning.

P1

A P2 B

Image of ranging
pole at B

Image of ranging
pole at A

View at point P2 View at point P1

figure 2
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Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, 2014
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Surveying I -Unit 2
Prepared By: Yonas Asefa
Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, 2014

With the optical square a surveyor can drop a perpendicular from a point to a line.

The procedure is as follows (see also figure 3):

First the surveyor aligns himself into the line AB like explained in the passage above.
Then he is moving along the line, either to the left or to the right until the building
corner is aligned with the images of the two ranging poles .The plumb bob indicates the
correct position of the foot of the perpendicular (offset point).

Building

°
90

A P2 P1 B

Image of ranging
Building pole at B
corner

Image of ranging
pole at A
View at point P2 View at point P1

figure 3

Note: In a semicircle all inscribed angles will be 

right angles. Therefore it is not possible to

determine a right angle only between two points. 

This constellation has infinite solutions!

While working with the optical square the following precision can be achieved:
the centring precision : 2cm
the sighting precision : 2 minutes/  4 cgon
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The optical square itself has an accuracy of  1 minute/ 2 cgon

Having a perpendicular of 30m, the foot of the perpendicular can be
determined with an accuracy of 4 cm.

7. Taping horizontal distance over level ground

The simplest taping operation is measuring over level ground where the tape can be
stretched out while fully supported by the ground as shown in the figure below. Range
pole is set at each end of the line and the tape is unwind and laid out on the ground with
the zero ends forward. The front tape person then takes the zero end of the tape hands
one pin to the rear tape person, and moves forward along the line.

8. Taping horizontal distance over sloping ground

Consider two point A and B which are several tape lengths apart along a slope. The
horizontal distance between the two points can be measured by supporting the tape at
the two ends only, as shown in the figure below.

Assuming that the distance is to be measured downhill, the front tape person holds one
end of the tape at a comfortable height above the ground so that the straight line
joining the two ends are approximately level. Tension is applied and the position of the
end of the tape is transferred by means of a plumb bob to the ground. Where a point is
set or on a hard surface, a keel mark is mode if accurate work is needed. The tape is
stretched a second time and the mean of the two measurements taken.
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Surveying I -Unit 2
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Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, 2014

It is hardly feasible or good practice to hold the tape more than 5 ft above the ground; if
the slope is more than 5ft per tape length it is necessary to break tape.

9. Correction for systematic errors in Taping

Steel tapes are calibrated under a specific temperature and tension. Change in
temperature, tension and mode of support affect the result of taping. The errors caused
by these sources behave according physical laws and can be expressed with mathematic
expressions. They are systematic errors.

1. Correction for standard

A steel tape will normally be provided with standardizing data, for example it may be
designated as 30m long under a tension of 50N a temperature of 20 C when laid on the
flat. With use the tape may stretch and it is imperative that the tape is regularly checked
against a reference tape kept specifically for this purpose.
The correction for standardization in taping is required if the absolute length or true
length of tape is not equal to the nominal length or the designated length

Correction per tape length (C) = L' - L

Where, L = nominal length of the tape
L'= actual length of the tape

The correction is positive when the actual length (L') is greater than the nominal length
(L) and vice versa

Total correction in the measured distance (L)

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l '− l CXL
Ca = xL = (c = l '− l )
l l

Example

Nominal length (L) = 20.00m, Distance = 200

Actual length (under standard conditions) (L’) = 19.995

Correction per tape length = AL – NL = -0.005

Number of tires tape used = 200/20 = 10

Total correction = 10*- 0.005 = - 0.05

Corrected length = 200 – 0.05 = 199.95

Or 19.995/20*200 = 199.95

2. Correction for tension (Pull correction)

Since a steel tape is elastic to a small extend it length is changed by variation in the
tension applied. The correction, which should be applied, is

(P − PS )L
Cp =
AE

Where; P is the tension applied in the field.

Ps is the standard/ calibration tension (tape at AU: 50N=5kp)

A is the cross sectional area of the tape.

E is Young’s modulus of elasticity for the tape material (N/ mm2)

L is the observed length.

Note: The sign of the correction takes that of quantity (P - Ps),

If P > Ps correction is positive (add) and vice versa.

To apply this correction a tension handle is needed.

Example
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Given: 30m steel tape, Ps = 50N, P = 100N, A = 0.02cm2,

Distance = 182.716, E = 207.27 * 105

Required: Tension error, corrected distance

Cp =
(P − PS )L
, P – Ps =100-50 = 50N
AE
(P – Ps)*L = 50*30 = 150

AE = 0.02* 207.27 * 105

= 414540

Cp = 150/414540 = +0.0036m per length

(182.716)
Number of tires tape used = = 6.0905
30
Total correction = 6.0905 * 0.0036 = 0.0219

Corrected length = 182.716 + 0.0219 = 182.738

(P - Ps) *182.716
Or total correction =
AE

9135.8
= = 0.022
414540
Corrected length = 182.716 + 0.022 = 182.738

3. Correction for sag

A tape supported only at the ends will sag in the centre by an amount that is related to
its weight and the pull (tension). In the case of a long tape intermediate supports can be
used to reduce the magnitude of the correction.

The correction that is applied reduces the curved length to the chord Length
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w2 L3
Cs = −
24P 2
Where; w is the weight of the tape per unit length
L is the observed length
P is the tension applied in the field.

Note: If the tape in used on a plane surface, which can be considered, flat then no
correction is applicable.

When converting a measurement to its equivalent chord length this correction is always
negative.

To apply this correction a tension handle is needed.

W
w= , where, W is the actual weight of the tape
L

W 2L
Therefore, we can rewrite the formula for correction due to sag by: C s = −
24P 2

4. Correction for temperature

If a tape is used at a field temperature different from the standardization temperature

then the correction is

Ct = L (T − Ts )

Where; - is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material.

Steel: 0.0000116 per degree Celsius. It means that the tape
stretched by 0.0000116 units for every rise of one degree Celsius
temperature.
Invar: 0.000001 m/ (mC)
T -is the field temperature
Ts -is the standardization temperature
L -is the length of the tape or length of the line measured
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Note: The sign of the correction takes the sign of (T- Ts).

To apply this correction a thermometer is needed.

5. Correction for slope

In surveying it is essential that horizontal lengths are determined. When a distance lies
along a uniform slope and when the difference in height between the two end points
has been determined it may be preferable to measure the distance directly (see also
figure below).

A slop
ed
ista
nce
h

horizontal distance

Afterwards the horizontal distance can be computed by applying the following

correction:

h 2 h 4 h 2
Cg = − = −
2S 8S 3 2S
Where; h is the difference in height between the end points
S is the measured slope distance
Cg is the correction of height due to slope

The obtained correction Cg is subtracted from S to obtain the corrected tape length of
the horizontal distance two points on the slope line:

d = S - Cg

6. Correction to mean sea level

In the case of long lines the relationship between the length measured on the ground
and the equivalent length at mean sea level has to be considered.
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distance (Lm)

earths surface

H
distance to msl (Lmsl)

mean sea level

m)0k
637
(R=
ius
rad
In the measured length is Lm and the height of the line above datum is H then the
correction to be applied is

H
C msl = − Lm
R
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Exercise on basic tape measurements

1. A survey line was measured with a tape, believed to be 20m long, a

length of 284.62m resulted. On checking, the tape was found to
measure 19.95m long.

a) What was the correct length of the line?

b) If the line measured is a slope distance and the difference in

height between the end points is 14.20m what would be the
reduced horizontal length used in the plotting of the survey?

c) What reading is required to produce a horizontal distance of

15.08m between two site pegs, one being 0.66m above the
other?

Solution

a) A length of 20m has been booked overall, but actually only a length
of 19.95m has been covered.

19.95  284.62
Correct length of line = = 283.91m
20

b) the correction for slope has to be applied:

14.20 2
Cg: = = 0.36m
2  283.91

Therefore, the horizontal distance is: 283.91-0.36 = 283.55m

c) the following reading is required:

Slope distance = (0.66 2

)
+ 15.08 2 = 15.09m