Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Progress in Energy and Combustion Science

journal homepage: [Link]/locate/pecs

Fuel consumption and CO2 emissions from passenger cars in Europe

Laboratory versus real-world emissionsI
TagedPD4X XGeorgios FontarasD5X X*, D6X XNikiforos-Georgios ZacharofD7X X, D8X XBiagio CiuffoD9X X
TagedPEuropean Commission, Joint Research Centre, Directorate for Energy, Transport and Climate, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, Italy

TAGEDPA R T I C L E I N F O TAGEDPA B S T R A C T

Article History: Official laboratory-measured monitoring data indicate a progressive decline in the average fuel consump-
Received 13 April 2016 tion and CO2 emissions of the European passenger car fleet. There is increasing evidence to suggest that offi-
Accepted 27 December 2016 cially reported CO2 values do not reflect the actual performance of the vehicles on the road. A reported
Available online xxx
difference of 30
40% between official values and real-world estimates was found which has been continu-
ously increasing. This paper reviews the influence of different factors that affect fuel consumption and CO2
TagedPKeywords: emissions on the road and in the laboratory. Factors such as driving behaviour, vehicle configuration and
CO2 emissions traffic conditions are reconfirmed as highly influential. Neglected factors (e.g. side winds, rain, road grade),
Certification cycle
which may have significant contributions in fuel consumption in real world driving are identified. The mar-
Real-world driving
gins of the present certification procedure contribute between 10 and 20% in the gap between the reported
Fuel consumption gap
Passenger cars values and reality. The latter was estimated to be of the order of 40%, or 47.5 gCO2/km for 2015 average fleet
emissions, but could range up to 60% or down to 19% depending on prevailing traffic conditions. The intro-
duction of a new test protocol is expected to bridge about half of the present divergence between laboratory
and real world. Finally, substantial literature was found on the topic; however, the lack of common test pro-
cedures, analysis tools, and coordinated activity across different countries point out the need for additional
research in order to support targeted actions for real world CO2 reduction. Quality checks of the CO2 certifi-
cation procedure, and the reported values, combined with in-use consumption monitoring could be used to
assess the gap on a continuous basis.
© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an open access article article under the CC BY-NC-ND license.
([Link]

Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Abbreviations: 10-15 mode, Japanese Test Cycle, Phased Out From 2005 To 2011; A/C, Air Conditioning; ACEA, Association des Constructeurs Europe
ens d'Automobiles - Euro-
pean Automobile Manufacturers' Association; ADAS, Advanced Driver Assistance Systems; ARS, Average Rectified Slope; ARTEMIS, Assessment and Reliability of Transport Emis-
sion Models and Inventory Systems; CO, Carbon Monoxide; CO2, Carbon Dioxide; CoC, Certificate Of Conformity; COPERT, Emissions Calculation Tool; Cw, Air drag coefficient;
DISI, Direct Injection Spark Ignition; E2HPAS, Energy Efficient Hydraulic Power Assisted Steering System; E10, Fuel containing 10% ethanol; E85, Fuel containing 85% ethanol; EC,
European Commission; EEA, European Environment Agency; EHPAS, Electro
Hydraulic Power Assisted Steering; EPA, Environmental Protection Agency; EPAS, Electric Power
Assisted Steering; EU, European Union; EUDC, Extra-Urban Driving Cycle; EV, Electric Vehicle; FTP, Federal Test Procedure; GDP, Gross Domestic Product; GHG, Green House
Gases; GPS, Global Positioning System; HBEFA, Handbook emission factors for road transport; HC, Hydrocarbons; HDV, Heavy Duty Vehicle; HPAS, Hydraulic Power Assisted Steer-
ing; HWFET, Highway Fuel Economy Test; ICT, Information And Communications Technology; IEA, International Energy Agency; IRI, International Roughness Index; JC08, Japanese
Test Cycle, Phased In From 2005 To 2011; JRC, Joint Research Centre Of The European Commission; LDV, Light Duty Vehicles; LED, Light Emitting Diode; MPG, Miles Per Gallon (US
€
Or UK Gallon); MPI-SI, Multipoint Injection -Spark Ignition; NEDC, New European Driving Cycle; NOx, Nitrogen Oxides; OEAMTC, Osterreichische Automobil-, Motorrad- Und
Touringclub; OEM, Original Equipment Manufacturer; PC, Passenger Cars; PEMS, Portable Emissions Measurement System; PM, Particulate Matter; RMS, Root Mean Square; RPM,
Revolutions Per Minute; RR, Rolling Resistance; RRC, Rolling Resistance Coefficient; SC03, US driving cycle designed to measure exhaust emissions with the use of air-condition-
ing; SFTP, Supplemental Federal Test Procedure; SUV, Sports Utility Vehicle; UDC, Urban Driving Cycle; UDDS, Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule; UK, United Kingdom; UN,
United Nations; UNECE, United Nations Economic Commission For Europe ; US06, US driving cycle designed to measure exhaust emissions at high speeds and aggressive driving;
VW, Volkswagen; WD, Wheel Drive (number of powered wheels); WLTC, Worldwide harmonized Test Cycle; WLTP, Worldwide harmonized Light Vehicle Test Procedure; WMTC,
Worldwide harmonized Motorcycle Emissions Certification/Test Procedure.
I
The views expressed in the paper are purely those of the authors and may not be considered under any circumstance as an official position of the European Commission.
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [Link]@[Link] (G. Fontaras).

[Link]
0360-1285/© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license. ([Link]
98 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131

2.1. Regulatory framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

2.2. Emissions measurements and road load determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.3. Divergence of official and real-world emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.4. Eco-innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3. Vehicle characteristics and sub-systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.1. Mass and road loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.1.1. Vehicle mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.1.2. Aerodynamic resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.1.3. Rolling resistance and tyres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.1.4. Factors affecting both mass and road loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.2. Auxiliary systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.2.1. Air conditioning (cooling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.2.2. Heating (electric heating or A/C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.2.3. Steering assist systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.2.4. Other electrical consumers and auxiliaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.2.5. Eco-innovations related to electrical systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.3. Friction and lubricants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.4. Maintenance and ageing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.4.1. Tyre maintenance and pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.4.2. Other factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4. Environmental and traffic conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.1. Weather conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.1.1. Rain and snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.1.2. Ambient temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.1.3. Cold-start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.1.4. Wind conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.2. Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.3. Road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.3.1. Road grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.3.2. Road roughness and texture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.4. Traffic conditions and congestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5. Driver and user related factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.1. Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.1.1. Aggressive driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.1.2. Driving mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.1.3. Eco
driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.1.4. Four-wheel drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.1.5. ADAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.2. Open windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.3. Occupancy rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.4. Fuel choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6. Vehicle certification test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.1. Test margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.2. Vehicle certification testing in Japan and the United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.3. The WLTP introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7. Summary discussion and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

1. Introduction (TagedP OEM) at 130 CO2/km (2015) and 95 CO2/km (2021) [9]. In recent
years, the issue of fuel consumption and CO2 emissions has received
TagedPRoad transport contributes about one-fifth of the European significant attention by the public, environmental and consumer
Union's (EU) total emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), the main organizations [10]; certain consumer organizations have taken legal
Greenhouse Gas (GHG), 75% of which originates from passenger cars action against vehicle companies claiming they have exaggerated
[1
3]. Despite the fact that these emissions fell by 3.3% in 2012, they the fuel-saving credentials of their vehicles.
are still 20.5% higher than in 1990. Transport is the only major sector TagedPCO2 emissions of passenger cars are measured as part of the vehi-
in the EU where GHG emissions are still rising [4]. The automotive cle certification [11] test which is based on the New European Driv-
sector accounts for 4% of the European GDP and 12 million jobs, or ing Cycle (NEDC), and is also referred to as the NEDC test. The fuel
5.6% of the employed population in Europe [5,6]. In terms of policy, consumption of the vehicles is indirectly derived from the measure-
the European Commission's (EC) 2011 White Paper for Transport [7] ment of carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon mon-
highlighted the importance of reducting GHG emissions in order to oxide (CO) emissions measured during the certification tests,
make the transition to a low carbon economy. In its 2016 communi- considering the carbon mass balance in the exhaust gas. Modern
cation to the European Parliament the EC stressed the potential of vehicles meet Euro standards (Euro 5 and 6) have low tailpipe CO
the transport sector to further contribute to reducing the EU's emis- and HC emission levels (contributing to approximately 1% of the fuel
sions and contribute to the EU's commitment under the Paris Cli- consumption). In this sense, CO2 emissions can be considered to be
mate Change Agreement [8]. Since 2009 the EU has set mandatory proportional to the fuel consumed during vehicle's operations. Here
targets for the average CO2 emissions of each vehicle manufacturer we use both terms interchangeably so any results and conclusions
 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131 99

TagedPcan be considered to be applicable to any of the two, unless stated TagedPThe increasing divergence between real-world and type-approval
otherwise. fuel consumption, as well as the difficulty to evaluate the actual
TagedPData from the European Environmental Agency (EEA) for year effect of the CO2 reduction technologies, led the EU to review the
2015 [12] have confirmed that OEMs have achieved their 130 gCO2/ type approval procedure for passenger cars and light commercial
km in 2014, and that the average EU emissions of all manufacturers vehicles and resulted in the introduction of the new Worldwide har-
was 123.4 gCO2/km. In addition, provisional EEA data [13,14] sug- monized Light-duty Test Procedure (WLTP). The new test procedure
gests a further decrease as of 120.7 gCO2/km in 2015. The OEMs will be used for the assessment of emissions, including CO2, in the
have already achieved significant improvements in fuel efficiency. framework of the type approval of light duty vehicles as of Septem-
However, there is extensive criticism on the representativeness of ber, 1st, 2017. However, CO2 targets will be still assessed with
these figures in terms of real-world CO2 emissions and fuel con- respect to NEDC CO2 values [36]. Consequently, the present vehicle
sumption performance [15]. The difference between the two used to certification test and its shortcomings will remain relevant at least
be estimated of the order of 12
20% [16,17] while more recent stud- for another five years.
ies present even wider differences ranging up to 30% or 40% [18,19]. TagedPA series of factors have been identified that cause the increasing
There is indeed increasing evidence [20
28] suggesting that fuel divergence between the current official fuel consumption and the
consumption improvements originate from test-oriented optimiza- one experienced in real-world driving conditions [37]. Due to the
tions and test-related practices rather than from the implementation diversity of operating conditions, drivers' behaviour, car usage and
of fuel-saving technologies. An official investigation funded by the other external factors, it is unlikely that any test protocol, no matter
French ministry of transport [29] has shown that most of the how carefully designed, will be able to accurately capture the real-
reported CO2 values cannot be reproduced under laboratory test world performance of vehicles. As a result, there will be always a
conditions and that a reproduction of the certification test results in need to identify which factors influence emissions under real-world
consistently higher CO2 emissions by 15%, on average, with a stan- driving conditions and which are captured by the vehicle certifica-
dard deviation of 8%. Similar differences (3
17%), between declared tion tests in order to assess their impact on real-world fuel con-
CO2 and ex-post NEDC measurements, are reported by other sumption. Once this impact has been better quantified the real-
researchers [30]. Studies show (see Table 1.1) that the offset certification CO2 gap could be further analysed and broken down to
between officially reported values and real-world vehicle CO2 emis- contributing factors and, if possible, be corrected a posteriori.
sions is increasing over time. TagedPThis paper attempts to address two key questions of concern to
TagedPThe gap between the certification value and real-world emissions scientists, analysts, policy makers and the public through an exten-
raises scepticism at multiple levels: policy, industry, market. In sive literature review of existing publications on the factors affecting
terms of policy, the progress of the EU's commitments and the effec- passenger car fuel consumption in real-world driving and laboratory
tiveness of the measures adopted so far are put into question. For conditions. The questions are:
example, assessing current and planning future policy is hard
TagedP1. Which factors affect the fuel consumption of vehicles and to
because of the divergences in fuel consumption erode a significant
what extent?
portion of the expected CO2 benefits [32]. However, industry has rec-
TagedP2. What would be a realistic estimate of the in-use CO2 emissions
ognized that CO2 emissions from road transport have not decreased
of European passenger cars?
as expected [5]. In terms of market impact, targets that were origi-
nally set to be met with the introduction of new technologies (e.g.
TagedPIn the following sections the factors that affect fuel consumption
introduction of lightweight materials and vehicle electrification)
and CO2 emissions under real-world driving conditions and labora-
now misleadingly appear to be achievable only with conventional
tory tests are categorized as follows:
approaches, and thus, slowing down innovation [33]. In addition,
new fuel-saving technologies might be less appealing to consumers TagedPa) factors related to vehicle characteristics and systems. This category
when compared to existing widespread and cheaper options because focuses on the main contributors in energy consumption, which
their fuel consumption reduction potential appears to be smaller. define fuel consumption and CO2 emissions, such as vehicle
Furthermore, the consumer labelling legislation requires new cars to mass, vehicle aerodynamics, tyres and auxiliary systems;
display a label showing their fuel consumption and CO2 emissions in TagedPb) factors related to the environmental and traffic conditions, includ-
order to promote efficient vehicles and provide a stimulus for fuel ing factors such as weather conditions, road morphology and
saving options. According to an EC study [34], it is difficult to fully traffic conditions;
quantify the impact of labelling due to the divergence between TagedPc) factors related to the vehicle driver, such as driving style and vehi-
actual and communicated fuel consumption value. Inaccurate con- cle maintenance.
sumer information or diverging reference fuel consumption values
creates an uneven playing field and masks benefits of certain TagedPFinally the influence of vehicle certification test conditions,
vehicles and technologies or overestimates others [35]. boundaries and elasticities are discussed separately.
TagedPThe paper concludes with a consolidation of the information col-
Table 1.1 lected on the effect of the various factors, an estimate of the real-
Literature values of real world
certification test world CO2 emissions of an average European passenger car (as
CO2 divergence by year and region. defined in Table 2.1) and a short discussion on the findings of this
study. It should be noted that specific engine and drivetrain technol-
Year Real world
Certification Reference
value CO2 shortfall ogies have not been included and are only discussed in passing,
where they are linked to other vehicle-related factors affecting the
2005 12% [16]
2009 19% [17]
real world-certification gap. This is done for two main reasons. First,
2011 21% [20] it is hard to identify without detailed modelling tools the differences
2011 25% [21] in the performance of individual powertrain components, inside or
2012 22.5% [23] outside the current vehicle certification test. Second, their effect on
2013 30% [24]
vehicle fuel consumption is high, and hence, it would require a sepa-
2014 38% [25]
2014 44% [31] rate study in order to describe and present the influence of individ-
2015 41% [27] ual technologies and components on fuel consumption. In view of
the introduction of the WLTP, we attempt a targeted analysis on the
100 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131

Table 2.1
Average European vehicle characteristics by fuel 2015 (no alternative
fuels included) [14].

Fuel CO2 (g/km) Mass (kg) Capacity (cc) Power (kW)

All 120.7 1380 1600 66

Diesel 119.2 1526 1811 71
Petrol 122.7 1214 1358 59
Hybrids 88.1 1485 1821 81

TagedPperformance of specific powertrain related technologies, over real-

world and vehicle certification test protocols.

2. Background

2.1. Regulatory framework

TagedPThe NEDC and the respective test protocol were first introduced
in the seventies for measuring pollutant emissions and not CO2 or
fuel consumption. In the early 1980s, CO2 emissions measurement
was added to the European mandatory vehicle certification process,
also known as Type Approval process (TA). However, no specific lim-
its or targets were set at the time [38]. Curbing CO2 emissions from
road transport, especially passenger cars,1 is a cornerstone of Euro-
pean climate change mitigation policies [40]. In 1995 the EC made a
proposal to set a fleet average CO2 emissions target of 120 g/km for
2005. The subsequent discussions, between the EC and the vehicle
manufacturers, led to a voluntary auto industry commitment (1999)
to achieve fleet average emissions of 140 gCO2/km by 2008 [41];
reductions were monitored via an annual CO2 emissions monitoring
scheme [42]. The failure of the automotive industry to live up to
their commitment led to the addoption of the 2009 European regula-
tion for mandatory CO2 emission limits (EU Regulation 443/2009). A
fleet average mass-dependent CO2 limit of 130 g/km by 2015 was
adopted. Another 10 g of CO2 were expected to be gained from sup-
plementary measures not covered by the type approval test (i.e. bio-
fuels, gearshift indicators, improved air-conditioning systems, driver
education etc), in order to reach overall emission levels of 120 gCO2/
km [9]. Since then the EU implemented a strategy for reducing fur-
ther CO2 emissions and fuel consumption from passenger cars
[43,44] foreseeing compulsory, fleet average and mass dependent
targets of 95 g/km by 2021. Failure of a manufacturer to comply
with mandatory limits results in fines ranging from €5 to €95 per
gram of excess CO2 per vehicle sold. Fig. 2.1. Evolution of CO2 emissions from new passenger cars by fuel type (a) and of
TagedPThis policy has caused significant changes in the average official average vehicle characteristics (b). Chart adapted from [45], data for 2015 estimated
based on the EEA provisional data [14].
CO2 emisisons and a shift in the major characteristics of European
passenger vehicles over the past decade (see Fig. 2.1), resulting in
2015, in the sales-weighted average characteristics2 that are pre-
sented in Table 2.1 [14]. This has been accompanied by a reduction in TagedPdue to their low sales volume (»2.7% altogether). Consequently the
average engine capacity despite the apparent increase in engine steep annual reduction of CO2 emissions in this case, might be a result
power and is a direct result of engine downsizing for both diesel and of changes in the share of each fuel type within AFV each year. For
gasoline engines. In constast, mass has remained relatively constant example, ethanol vehicles have higher emissions than liquified petro-
between 1300 and 1400 kg despite its significance in vehicle energy leum gas vehicles which, in turn, have a higher market share in the
consumption. However, there is critiscism of the accuracy of these earlier years [45].
CO2 figures and how representative they can be considered in terms TagedPIn parallel, most major vehicle markets worldwide have adopted
of real-world CO2 and fuel consumption [15,45]. The generic term similar CO2 related targets or limits, (see Table 2.2). For comparison
Alternative Fuel Vehicles (AFV) refers to vehicles that utilize com- purposes the emission targets in Table 2.2 have been normalized to
pressed natural gas, liquified petroleum gas, ethanol, biodiesel and- NEDC equivalent values3 [46,47].
other non diesel and petrol fuels. These vehicles are grouped together
2.2. Emissions measurements and road load determination
1
Similar initiatives have been established for light commercial vehicles, where the
limit values are higher (2017: 175 g/km, 2020: 147 g/km), thus covering the entire TagedPThe reference methodology for measuring CO2 emissions, the test
light duty vehicle (LDV) market in the EU. This study focuses on passenger cars only
as their sales (89%) greatly outweigh those of light commercial vehicles (11%) [39].
cycle (NEDC) [48], test boundary conditions, vehicle set up and
2
If not mentioned differently, the average CO2 and vehicle characteristics’ values results collection and analysis follow the procedure for pollutant
used in the text hereafter refer to those of Table 2.1. emissions measurements that was originally established in the early
 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131 101

Table 2.2 lTagedP abelling with regards to vehicle fuel consumption and CO2 emis-
Light Duty Vehicle CO2 emissions future targets for major vehicle markets [47]. sions, remains (as of 2017) unclear.
Country - Region CO2 Target [g/km] Year of enactment TagedPThe resistances applied during the NEDC test are determined
(expressed as NEDC through a coast down test which takes place at an outside test-
equivalent values) track prior to the measurement. In this procedure, the vehicle is
European Union (Passenger 95 2021 accelerated to 120 km/h and then it is allowed to coast down in
Cars) neutral gear until it slows down to 20 km/h or until it stops. The
European Union (Light Com- 147 2020 time and vehicle speed is recorded for regular speed intervals
mercial Vehicles)
allowing the calculation of the mean deceleration of the vehicle
United States & Canada 97 2025
Japan 122 2020
and the forces (resistances) acting on it. A second order polyno-
China 117 2020 mial model is applied in order to describe resistances [60] as
India 113 2021 follows.
South Korea 97 2020
Brazil 138 2017 dv XR
m D D f0 C f1 v C f2 v2 ð1Þ
Mexico 145 2016 dt
where:
TagedP1970s. The test procedure has undergone slight modifications since.
Currently it abides to the standard set in the global technical regula- TagedPm is vehicle reference mass
tion R83 [49] of the World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Reg- TagedPv is vehicle velocity
ulations of the United Nations’ Economic Commission for Europe TagedPR is a resistance acting on the vehicle
(UNECE) and is used in the type-approval system of several vehicle
markets in the world (with the exception of US, Japan and Canada). fx are the road load factors (road loads) fitted on the coast down data
The NEDC-based procedure for CO2 and fuel consumption measure-
ment is described in UNECE R101 [50]. TagedPThe model's coefficients f0, f1, f2, referred to as road loads, result
TagedPThe NEDC consists of mild accelerations and decelerations and from applying the above equation to the coast down test data; f0
several steady state points which fail to reflect modern driving pat- represents the rolling resistance that acts on the vehicle due to the
terns [51,18]. In addition, the test procedure disregards various real- deformation of the tyres, f1 the resistance that is proportional to
world conditions such as additional weight, number of passengers, velocity, which mainly originates from internal losses due to rotating
use of air conditioning, realistic gear shifting, cold starts, operation parts of the drivetrain such as the output shaft of the gearbox, and f2
at higher velocities and congestion [52,53] and examines only a the aerodynamic resistance that is proportional to a vehicle's frontal
small area of the operating range of the engine [51]. The testing pro- area (FA) and aerodynamic resistance factor (Cd) [61].
cedure exhibits unrealistic or loosely defined boundary conditions TagedPRoad loads together with vehicle mass are used for setting up the
such as temperature ranges of 20
25 °C, restricted use of auxiliary test facility (chassis dynamometer) in order to apply the appropriate
systems which are widely used in real driving, lower vehicle mass, resistances during a driving-cycle. Practically, the chassis dynamom-
lack of air-conditioning use, unclear or even erroneous definition of eter is being calibrated to reproduce the resistances calculated dur-
resistances. The combined effects of these factors result in a system- ing the coast-down test, with few differentiations in the boundary
atic bias in the recording of CO2 emissions. conditions that are imposed by the respective test procedure (e.g.
TagedPThe EU vehicle certification test foresees driving of the vehicle the simulated mass is not exactly equal to the reference mass as the
over the NEDC on a chassis dynamometer, an instrument that simu- legislation foresees a mass-based binning of vehicles). According to
lates the resistive forces imposed on the vehicle technically referred the NEDC test protocol, in laboratory conditions the total resistance
to as the road loads [54]. The chassis dynamometer consists of a applied at the wheel of the vehicle should match the sum of resistan-
roller, where the vehicle is placed and stabilized. The roller simulates ces described by Eq. (1). However, in real-world driving additional
road loads according to the test cycle's speed profile. During the test resistances and energy losses occur such as, the resistances to climb
exhaust emissions are collected into sample bags and are analysed up a slope, losses due to auxiliary consumers (e.g. air-conditioning),
after the test is completed [54]. The procedure takes place in a test and weather conditions. Furthermore, the vehicle mass is rarely
cell under controllable ambient conditions, in order to deliver accu- equal to the official reference test-mass, due to the presence of addi-
rate and reproducible results. Several other test cycles and accompa- tional passengers in the vehicle or other factors that increase the
nying protocols have been proposed as being more representative of total mass. Such factors are presented in detail in the following para-
real driving conditions. Most notable are the Artemis cycles [55], graphs.
which have served as a basis for emissions performance assessment
and emissions factors development for several years [56,57]. To 2.3. Divergence of official and real-world emissions
address the shortcomings of the existing test procedure and limit
the extent of the gap the new WLTP test procedure, designed at a TagedPVarious studies highlight the inadequacy of the certification test
global level [58], will be implemented in the European type- to simulate real-world vehicle performance [62
64,18,65,66], while
approval system in 2017. The development of the procedure was the European Automobile Constructors Association (ACEA) points to
supported by the automotive industry, governmental and non-gov- the influence of the drivers on the final vehicle CO2 emissions. For
ernmental organizations [5]. However, the WLTP is not expected to example, two drivers driving the same vehicle under the same con-
change the established CO2 targets or the way policy is being ditions are likely to have different CO2 emissions [66]. Meanwhile,
assessed [59], and a translation of the WLTP into the NEDC-based the pressure exerted by European laws for reaching the mandatory
system will take place until year 2020. To what extent, and how, the targets has resulted in vehicle OEMs exploiting the margins of the
new procedure will be used in Europe for policy making and vehicle prescribed test conditions. Such practices have widened the differ-
ence between the official values and those reported in real-world
3
CO2 measurements (see Table 1.1). As a result the gap between offi-
The methodology to estimate the conversion equation was based on the simula-
tion of representative vehicle models over the investigated cycles. Subsequently, the
cially reported and real-world CO2 emissions appears to increase
simulation results were imported in a regression model to estimate the conversion with time. Fig. 2.2 shows the evolution of the divergence between
coefficients. official and measured real-world fuel consumption according to
102 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131

Fig. 2.2. Evolution of the divergence between official and drive “real-world” fuel consumption according to different data sources. Adaptation from [19].

TagedPdifferent data sources [19]. It is expected that these divergences in sTagedP upplementary tests, in addition to the official test [72]. These sup-
CO2 emissions may appear also in countries where the European test plementary cycles include driving at higher speeds, use of air condi-
procedure (e.g. Australia and India) is used, while similar trends are tioning and low ambient temperatures. The adjusted fuel economy
reported for markets with different certification systems (e.g. US values are considered more realistic and are therefore communi-
and China) [67,68]. cated to car buyers. No extensive studies exist on the divergence
TagedPSeveral of these (Fig. 2.2) fuel consumption measurements origi- between US real-world and laboratory emissions; the US EPA, how-
nate from car magazines or car related portals and websites and can ever, monitors emissions of in-use vehicles to ensure that they
be questioned as to their scientific merit. However, editors state that remain within a margin of 30% of the standard limits [18, 38].
they follow a representative real-world driving pattern, while in
most of the cases the fuel consumption is estimated based on tank
fill-ups at the end of the test and subsequently CO2 emissions are
calculated assuming fixed carbon contents per fuel type [19]. It can
be argued that these datasets are biased. However, all sources pres-
ent the same increasing trend over time and similar relative annual
changes. Based on values reported in previous studies [16,62,69], 2.4. Eco-innovations
the gap in the period 2000
2005 was estimated to be 10%, a figure
very similar to the values presented in Fig. 2.2 for the same period TagedPThe European eco-innovation scheme is set out in legislation [9]
across all datasets. This demonstrates that any bias of these datasets and aims to promote the implementation of innovative technologies
is probably limited. that reduce CO2 emissions in real life and not (or only partially) in
TagedPAt this point one should distinguish between reported CO2 emis- the certification test. Eco-innovation means an innovative technol-
sions used for the assessment of specific policy targets and the fuel ogy which is accompanied by an EC approved evaluation (experi-
consumption values communicated to the driver of a vehicle. Indeed, mental or calculated) [74]. Vehicle manufacturers or component
the CO2 emissions are reported for the combined NEDC value and manufacturers can apply for a technology or a combination of tech-
monitoring is based on this single value that characterizes the vehi- nologies to be granted an eco-innovation status if they prove that
cle. However, with regard to fuel consumption vehicle labelling the “innovation” provides benefits of more than 1 gCO2/km com-
requires that three values for fuel consumption are communicated pared to the standard technology and fulfils certain applicability cri-
to the public corresponding to urban driving cycle (UDC) and the teria such as market penetration, technology relevance and
extra-urban driving cycle (EUDC) together with their combined 10X X
accountability [74]. EcoD-innovations enable a CO2 emissions dis-
(NEDC) value. These three fuel consumption values may vary from count of up to 7 g/km (at fleet level) depending on their effective-
10 to 30% depending on vehicle characteristics for the attributed ness. The latter is considered when assessing the D1X X performance of an
fuel consumptions tend to underestimate the equivalent conditions OEM with D12X X regards to the established CO2 targets (95 g/km sales
(e.g. when comparing UDC fuel consumption directly to that experi- weighted average emissions by 2021). It is expected that by 2020
enced over real urban driving). most of vehicles in the market will be fitted with such technologies,
TagedPIn United States (US), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) helping vehicle OEMs to reach their CO2 targets [9,75]. Eco-
revised its type approval procedure in 2008. It now provides two D13X X
innovations have a positive impact over real-world conditions and
fuel economy values, expressed in miles per gallon units (MPG) are likely to reduce the type approval real-world CO2 gap. However,
[70,71]. The first is the fuel economy measured following the official due to their “innovative” status limited scientific studies exist on
vehicle test procedure in the laboratory, and it used for monitoring these low carbon technologies. In subsequent chapters specific
policy related targets. The second is an adjusted value that is the implementations, which have been characterized as eco-innova-
weighted fuel economy measured over a combination of tions, are presented and discussed.
 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131 103

3. Vehicle characteristics and sub-systems

3.1. Mass and road loads

TagedP3.1.1. Vehicle mass

TagedPVehicle mass is one of the main factors influencing a vehicle's fuel
consumption under low velocity driving conditions [76
78,80]. The
operating mass of a vehicle consists of: (i) the empty vehicle; (ii) the
fuel in the tank; and (iii) the passengers and cargo. During the cur-
rent European vehicle certification test a single vehicle mass value is
considered (reference mass which is a vehicle empty mass aug-
mented by 100 kg) which is then used to identify a specific inertia
class for running the laboratory CO2 measurement. An increase in
the operating mass increases fuel consumption, as more power
is needed to accelerate the vehicle during acceleration phases and
rolling resistance is also increased proportionally [47
49]. Despite
its influence on energy consumption, the average official mass of
vehicles in Europe has remained constant over the past decade
(see Fig. 2.1) stabilizing between 1340 and 1400 kg. This suggests an
inversion of the trend of the previous years that led to continuous
mass increases as vehicles became bigger, safer and incorporated
more driver and passenger aids.
Fig. 3.1. Expected Increase in fuel consumption due to increases in vehicle mass.
TagedPThere are no common metrics or approaches for the measure- Error bars refer to maximum
minimum values. The references cited in this figure
ment and quantification of the impact of additional mass on fuel are [82,83,85,94-98,199
201].
consumption and CO2 emissions of passenger cars. A wide range of
values have been reported with most studies converging on figures
of the order of 5
9% (6.5
12 g/km over NEDC) for mass additions of cTagedP ars, where the vehicle is used for transporting passengers rather
50
200 kg over various cycles and operating conditions [50
54]. than goods. In real life, the factor causing the greatest variation in
TagedPSeveral studies demonstrate the effect of vehicle weight reduc- passenger vehicle weight is the number of passengers, also referred
tion on fuel consumption, particularly over vehicle certification con- to as the occupancy rate. A high occupancy rate reduces the CO2
ditions. In general, weight reduction is reported to reduce fuel emissions per passenger-kilometre, which is desirable from an envi-
consumption between 5 and 10% [87,88]. The NEDC [89] reports a ronmental perspective, and is examined separately.
linear relationship between mass reduction and fuel consumption
reduction with a 5%
10% decrease in vehicle weight leading to
decreases between 1.3
1.8% and 2.7
3.6%, respectively. Approxi- TagedP3.1.2. Aerodynamic resistance
mately a 0.6% reduction is achieved for each 1% saving in total vehi- TagedPVehicle aerodynamic resistance is one of the primary factors
cle mass [90]. A 100 kg reduction represents fuel savings of influencing fuel consumption over high speed driving conditions
0.3
0.5 l/100 km (6%
10% for a fuel consumption of 5 l/100 km) [101,79] and is expressed as a function of the square of vehicle's
[91] while a 100 kg increase in mass is reported by Mickunaitis et al. velocity and proportional to the product of aerodynamic drag coeffi-
[92] to increase fuel consumption by 6.5% (petrol cars) and 7.1% (die- cient (Cd), frontal area (A) and air density (r).
sel cars) [92]. Similar ranges are reported also in US vehicles with a TagedPThe aerodynamic drag coefficient is affected by the design of the
10% reduction in weight estimated to deliver a 5% improved fuel car. Increases in the Cd x A product, hence forward referred to as
economy [93]. aerodynamic drag, induced either by changes in the size of the vehi-
TagedPConsidering the effect of mass over real-world driving, an addi- cle or in its shape and aerodynamic design, translate directly into
tional 100 kg can increase fuel consumption by an average 5
7% for increased aerodynamic resistance, and thus, to decreased fuel econ-
a medium-sized car of 1500 kg [83]. In absolute numbers, an addi- omy and higher CO2 emissions. Aerodynamic resistance improve-
tional 100 kg load is reported to cause an increase from 0.3 to ment by 20% can result in fuel consumption reduction over NEDC of
0.5 l/100 km (7.5
12.5 gCO2/km) [94
98]. about 3
7% [102]; reductions of 5% and 10% in aerodynamic resis-
TagedPWeight reduction is also linked to powertrain characteristics tance could lead to a decrease of CO2 emissions for NEDC of about
such as engine power. With lighter vehicles and improvements in 0.6
1.2% and 1.2
2.4% respectively [89].
component efficiency, the peak power requirement of powertrains TagedPImprovements of aerodynamic characteristics reduce the aerody-
could further be reduced over time [99] leading to improvements in namic drag and increase vehicle stability by alleviating lift and side
fuel consumption. A 10% weight reduction can improve fuel econ- forces [79]. Focusing on the improvement of vehicle aerodynamic
omy by 4
8%, depending on whether or not the engine is downsized losses during the design and manufacturing process in the past deca-
to maintain the same acceleration performance [100]. des has resulted in the reduction of the vehicle drag coefficient
TagedPFrom a load carrying capacity perspective, which is more relevant [100]. However, a continuous increase in vehicle dimensions has off-
for light goods vehicles, an increase of a vehicle's mass equal to 50% set much of these resistance benefits as the frontal area of the
of its load carrying capacity results in an average increase of fuel vehicles has also increased [103].
consumption of about 5.6%, with a scatter not greater than §1.2% TagedPAerodynamic resistance under real-world driving conditions
[63]. Fig. 3.1 summarizes the effect of vehicle weight on fuel con- is also affected by various vehicle elements and different shape con-
sumption as found in the literature. figurations [104], which are not necessarily captured by the
TagedPAt this point it should be noted that not all literature sources current vehicle certification procedure. Even small modifications can
make clear reference to the reference vehicle mass considered during increase vehicle aerodynamic resistance leading to measureable
the measurements or the calculations of fuel consumption. In most changes in fuel consumption. It is estimated that an increase of the
cases discrete mass increases are reported together with their effect order of 10 to 20% can result in 2
4% additional fuel consumption in
on CO2 emissions. These discrete increases make sense for passenger highway operation [16]. Achieving drag coefficients of 0.24 in the
104 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131

TagedP ossibly non representative for modern vehicles. It is possible that

p
the practice of certain drivers of adding retrofit aerodynamic devices
on their vehicles for enhancing down-force and stability at high
speed driving actually increases fuel consumption. No studies on the
topic were found.

TagedP3.1.3. Rolling resistance and tyres

TagedPRolling resistance refers to the energy loss occurring in the tyre
due to the deformation of the contact area and the damping proper-
ties of the rubber [79]. The resistance in vehicle motion induced by
the tyre's deformation is proportional to the vertical force applied
on the tyre due to vehicle weight and to the rolling resistance coeffi-
cient. The rolling resistance coefficient is a dimensionless quantity
that is considered as constant or as proportional to vehicle velocity.
Rolling resistance is frequently expressed in mass per mass units
(kg/t). Many factors [61] influence rolling resistance tyre properties
such vehicle velocity, temperature, tyre type and size. Rolling resis-
tance of tyres under NEDC conditions is reported to account for
20
25% of total vehicle energy loss [109]. Reported reductions in
rolling resistance are of the order of 5
30% (see Fig. 3.3) which leads
to fuel consumption improvements of 1
3.5%. Not all reference
sources use the same drive cycles or make reference to the same
vehicle operating conditions and in most cases the absolute or rela-
Fig. 3.2. Effect of air drag changes on fuel consumption. Error bars for mini- tive values of the rolling resistance examined is not mentioned.
mum
maximum values. The references cited in this figure are [16,63,89,108]. Hence a more refined comparison is difficult to make.
TagedPDue to their influence on the fuel consumption of vehicles, tyres
TagedPnear future is plausible and could lead to savings of approximately are officially categorized in energy efficiency classes (see Table 3.1)
1.6 l/100 km over motorway driving (130 km/h) [105]. based on their measured rolling resistance. The European Regulation
TagedPFig. 3.2 presents a summary of the findings of the effect of air [110] lays down a scale of classes based on the rolling resistance
drag changes on fuel consumption. coefficient (RRC). The classes range from A being the most efficient
TagedPAir density, which varies depending on altitude and ambient con- to G the least efficient. For a passenger car, category A tyres have a
ditions, influences fuel consumption but is not directly related to the RRC of less than 6.5, while a category G tyre has a RRC of more than
aerodynamic design of the vehicle as will be presented onwards. 12.1. The variation in RRC can reach 90%, where such a difference in
TagedPFinally, one issue that is referenced in non-scientific literature is RRC could result in a consumption increase of 7.5% [111]. Choosing
the addition of designed devices such as spoilers [106,107], vortex tyres of the next higher energy class can signify a reduction in rolling
generators [108] or combinations of the two for improving the aero- resistance of the order of 10
15%, which translates to a reduction of
dynamics of passenger cars. The latter devices can reduce aerody- fuel consumption of approximately 1
1.5% [89,112]. Maximum RRC
namic resistance between 1 and 7% [106
108]. However, given the limits are foreseen for passenger car tyres sold in Europe post-2016.
importance CO2 emissions have gained in recent years it is likely The value of rolling resistance should not exceed 12 kg/t for
that vehicle manufacturers have already exploited most of the bene- all
season tyres and 13 kg/t for snow tyres from November 2016
fits obtainable by an improved aerodynamic design or the addition and 10.5 kg/t and 11.5 kg/t respectively from November 2018 [113].
of simple aerodynamic add-ons. Hence such improvements are It is estimated, based on tyre sales, that the average RRC of the tyres

Fig. 3.3. Decrease in fuel consumption, with the use of lower resistance tyres. The references cited in this figure are [16,61,94,95,119,175,176,178
180,189,202
205].
 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131 105

Table 3.1 TagedP3.1.4.1. Trailer towing. TagedPTrailer towing affects both the total mass and
Tyre categories according to [110] and mean rolling resistance coefficient.D1X X the road loads of the vehicle leading to increased fuel consumption.
RRC in kg/t Energy efficiency class Mean RRC of the class [kg/t] The total mass is increased due to the additional weight of the trailer
and its load, while the extra wheels introduce additional rolling
RRC  6.5 A

resistance. Vehicle aerodynamic resistance is also influenced by the
6.6  RRC  7.7 B 7.15
7.8  RRC  9.0 C 8.4 trailer, which can increase both the frontal area and the drag coeffi-
9.1  RRC  10.5 E 9.8 cient [120]. The driving style is also adjusted to the towing condi-
10.6  RRC  12.0 F 11.3 tions. In general, towing causes a reduction in vehicle speed and
12.1  RRC G N/A
leads to a milder driving. The reduced speed counterbalances
the effect of deteriorated aerodynamics. Finally, additional energy
is needed for lights and other trailer accessories.
TagedPsold in the EU 1was 9.25 kg/t (class E tyres) in 2015 presenting an TagedPThe increase in fuel consumption due to towing was examined in
improvement compared to 2013 (9.5 kg/t) due to the introduction of a study [121] in which a passenger car was tested towing an
the labelling scheme [114]. unloaded trailer and the same trailer loaded at 60% of full load
TagedPThe tyres sold with the vehicle are not necessarily of the same capacity. The total weight of the empty trailer was 310 kg and
energy efficiency class as the tyres that were fitted during certifica- 564 kg including the 60% capacity load. Tests were carried out at
tion. The vehicle during coast down should be equipped with the speeds ranging from 70 to 90 km/h. The vehicle mass was 1408 kg
widest tyre and if more than three tyre sizes are available, the sec- with a 2.15 m2 frontal area and the trailer had a length of 4.3 m and
ond widest should be chosen [48]. In general, the wider the tyre the a width of 2.2 m. The height of the trailer was minimal and its frontal
higher is its rolling resistance. Nevertheless, this does not define the area was within the frontal area of the vehicle, so any effect on aero-
energy class of a tyre, so the widest class “A” tyre can be chosen dynamic resistance is expected to be limited. Fuel consumption was
while a vehicle is sold with a narrower tyre of a lower energy class. correlated to vehicle speed and resulted in an increase from 33% to
It is expected that most vehicles when undergoing the type approval 43% for the unloaded trailer and from 37% to 45% for the loaded
procedure are equipped with a high energy class tyre (A or B) while trailer for the tested speed range. Experiments performed [122] on a
the majority of vehicles are sold with tyres of lower energy class. Sports Utility Vehicle (4.0 L V6 engine, 2268 kg, 2.53 m2 frontal area)
This situation creates a discrepancy between the certified and the towing a trailer of 1588 kg total weight, width of 1.83 m and height
in-use fuel consumption because the assumed rolling resistance dur- of 1.83 m revealed similar trends but higher increases compared to
ing the certification test is different from the one actually occurring the reference test performed without the trailer. The frontal area
on the road. An increase of 20% in rolling resistance, which corre- was increased by 37% (to 3.47 m2) when towing. Fig. 3.4 presents the
sponds to a change from tyre of energy class A to a tyre of energy fuel consumption in comparison to the standard configuration in the
class C, can increase fuel consumption by 2% [115]. This situation is two cases.
expected to improve with the introduction of the WLTP which stipu-
lates that a vehicle shall be measured with the best and worst case TagedP3.1.4.2. Roof rack and roof box. R
TagedP oof racks act as the basis for attach-
tyres. When the same vehicle is sold with tyres belonging to an ing a roof box (i.e. luggage box, ski boxes or for other equipment).
intermediate RRC class the fuel consumption should be corrected Although roof racks usually serve as a basis for installing a roof box,
accordingly via linear interpolation of the two limit values. they can be also found as a stand-alone component. Their installa-
TagedPAn important issue relates to the use of replacement tyres. The tion worsens the aerodynamic resistance of the vehicle and leads to
majority of aftersales tyres (replacement tyres) in the EU falls within increases in fuel consumption estimated of the order of 1
3% for a
classes C and E [116] with the penetration of higher energy class speed range of 70
90 km/h [121].
tyres in the market remaining as low as 1% [114]. The average annual
mileage of a passenger car is estimated to be 14,000 km [117], thus
over a 10 year period and until a vehicle is retired, three to five sets
of tyres are replaced. This tendency of European drivers to choose
low energy class tyres contributes in the widening of the gap. On
the other hand, important benefits in real world CO2 emissions
can be gained, relatively easily, by promoting replacement tyres of
higher energy class in existing, older model-year vehicles.
TagedPWinter tyres, which are mandatory during winter season in some
European countries (e.g. Germany) [118], also exhibit higher rolling
resistance compared to regular tyres and lead to an increase in fuel
consumption [119]. Winter tyres of the same characteristics and size
can be to be one or two energy efficiency classes lower. A 1 kg/t dif-
ference between all weather and winter tyres foreseen by the legis-
lation for maximal allowed values [114]. This can lead to increases of
the order of 2
3%. It is expected that winter tyre RRC will improve
with time as does RRC of regular tyres.

TagedP3.1.4. Factors affecting both mass and road loads

TagedPThe factors discussed below present two distinct characteristics.
Their effect on fuel consumption can be attributed to more than one
factor, namely changes in mass and road loads. In addition, their
contribution to the real world fuel consumption cannot be easily
captured with simple fuel consumption reporting or tests such as
those used for producing the data of Fig. 2.2. Hence, a wide variation
in test conditions and eventually the reported impacts on fuel con- Fig. 3.4. Increase in fuel consumption for towing a trailer for various speeds, based on
sumption should be expected. [122]. Adapted chart, bars correspond to percentage increase.
106 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131

Fig. 3.5. Percentage increase in fuel consumption for a non-laden roof box. The references cited in this figure are [82,121,122,124,125,206,207].

TagedPA roof box increases the aerodynamic resistance and mass of TagedPThe literature reviewed did not provide information to cover in
the vehicle leading to an increase in fuel consumption. The addi- full detail the effects of these add-ons individually. Nonetheless,
tion of a roof box on a roof rack increases vehicle frontal area vehicles with add-ons are expected to circulate in an urban environ-
between 0.22 and 0.45 m2 and increases vehicle aerodynamic ment with low relative speeds, where the effect of aerodynamics on
drag [123]. The average increase in frontal area is estimated to fuel consumption and CO2 emissions is minimal.
be 0.37 m2or 15% for an average European passenger car. Apart
from the effect on aerodynamics, the additional average weight
of the empty roof box is estimated at 15 kg, and hence, has a
marginal effect on fuel consumption. During motorway condi-
tions at 120 km/h a non
laden roof rack can on average increase
fuel consumption by 7.5% [124]. Depending on conditions and
box type, the effect of non-laden roof boxes is reported to be of
the order of 5
14% compared to the fuel consumption measured
without the box (see Fig. 3.5).
TagedPTaking into consideration an average maximum load of 60 kg
[123], a laden roof box increases the mass of the vehicle on average
by 75 kg resulting in a 5.5% mass increase for a vehicle with 1360 kg
mass, equal to the weight of an average passenger. According to the
values presented in Fig. 3.1, this can increase consumption between
by 2 to 5%., without taking into consideration the impact on air drag.
A study [125] observed an increase between 20 and 30% for a loaded
roof box in highway operation, without specifying the average
speed of the vehicle. Regarding the combined effect of weight and
aerodynamic resistance increase due to a laden roof box, an effect
ranging from 5 to 25% depending on the vehicle speed was found
averaging at about 15% for speeds between 100 and 120 km/h (see
Fig. 3.6).

TagedP3.1.4.3. Roof add-ons. TagedPVarious items such as taxi signs and advertis-
ing signs attached on a car can also increase the frontal area, drag
coefficient and fuel consumption (see Table 3.2). Based on the find-
ings of Chowdhury et al. [104] the combined effect on fuel consump-
tion was calculated for an average (see Table 2.1) European gasoline Fig. 3.6. Increase in fuel consumption because of laden roof box (influence on both
vehicle under realistic driving conditions. mass and aerodynamics considered). Different vehicle configurations considered in
each study.
 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131 107

Table 3.2
Examples of various add
ons and their effect on drag coefficient and frontal area [104]. Estimates on potential fuel consumption increase made according to [23]
assuming an average gasoline vehicle.

Add
ons Increase in drag coefficient Increase in projected frontal Increase in fuel Mass increase (%) Increase in fuel
(Cd) (%) area over the baseline (%) consumption (without consumption (including
mass) (%) mass increase) (%)

Advertising sign 7.2 0.8 4 »0 4

Taxi sign 5.1 2.0 3 »0 3
Roof rack 20.4 1.2 9 0.1 9.6
Roof rack with ladder 24.0 2.5 11 0.4 11.6
Barrel 33.1 4.9 15 0.1 15.4

3.2. Auxiliary systems TagedPAsian markets would be equipped with A/C systems [138], the
use of A/C is not included in the present (NEDC) or future (WLTP
TagedPThe auxiliary systems of a car comprise of all the elements that as of 2017) European type approval tests, but is considered for
improve driving safety and comfort. This however at the cost of an future inclusion.
increased electrical, or mechanical power supply that in turn TagedPThe effect A/C use on fuel consumption depends mainly on the
increase fuel consumption [126,86]. The main vehicle systems desired interior temperature [130] and ambient conditions (temper-
reported in literature are: ature, air humidity and solar radiation) and to a lesser extent on
TagedP other aspects such as speed and driving patterns [139]. Because of

TagedP Air conditioning systems; this weak connection to traffic conditions, the additional litres of
TagedP Heating systems; fuel per hour of driving (l/h) is proposed [135,139] as the most
TagedP Steering assist systems; and appropriate metric for quantifying the impact of A/C on fuel con-
TagedP Other electrical consumers and auxiliaries (e.g. headlights, sumption, instead of a percentile increase. Some researchers, how-
windscreen wipers, heated seats). ever, claim a stronger connection between traffic conditions and the
additional fuel consumption induced by the A/C operation, with the
TagedPVehicle's auxiliaries were found to represent 3.2% of the fuel con- relative influence being reduced as vehicle speed increases (4%, 2.5%,
sumption over the NEDC [127], a rather high value considering offi- and 1% for urban, rural and motorway driving respectively [140]).
cial European certification conditions. During the official This observation does not necessarily contradict the fixed fuel con-
certification test eventually the vehicle battery is fully charged, so sumption-per-driving-hour approach; increased fuel consumption
no engine power is directed to electric components, and auxiliary at high speed conditions reduces the relative fuel losses resulting
components operate at the lowest power consumption level possible from the A/C system.
(see paragraph 6.1D). 14X X The additional fuel consumption induced by TagedPThere is a lack of consensus on the measurement conditions
auxiliary systems in real world conditions is estimated to be of the and the reporting of the impact of A/C on fuel consumption.
order of 3% [128], with the air-conditioning effect not taken into Measured [133] CO2 emissions of an air conditioned vehicle
consideration. Other studies do not quantify the impact of auxiliary without any heat soaking and of a vehicle exposed to solar radia-
systems on fuel consumption but attempt to quantify fuel savings tion of 850 W/m2 resulted in increases in CO2 emissions over
gained by the application of certain technologies like the full electri- NEDC of 2056 gCO2/h (an additional consumption of 0.85 l/h).
fication of auxiliary systems. The latter is reported to reduce fuel Similarly an increase in fuel consumption of 1 l/h is reported in
consumption by 3% (gasoline and diesel) [129], a figure that is proba- [141] but without making explicit reference to the conditions of
bly overestimated given the findings of the studies presented previ- A/C operation. Certain studies report the effect of A/C on a
ously. l/100 km basis. According to [139], fuel consumption increases
TagedPIn terms of absolute energy consumption induced by auxiliary and exceeds 1 l/100 km at high load points, which are rare in
systems, a wide range of values is reported by Carlson et al. [130] real-world driving conditions, and the same study recommends
over chassis dyno tests, ranging from 135 W to 1200 W, depending common guidelines for determining A/C effect. An average
on the test cycle investigated. In the same study, the required on- increase of 1.25 l/100 km was found over the NEDC in an EU
road auxiliary load over 12 months, for a variety of ambient and funded project [142] aiming to develop a common type approval
driving conditions, was calculated to be between 310 and 640 W. procedure for A/C systems. Finally, relative increases of 14%, 10%
The electric power demands of auxiliary systems and other compo- and 11% for the urban, highway and combined cycle respectively
nents are expected to increase in the future bringing current 12 V have been reported [143] (see Table 3.3).
electrical systems to their limits of operation [131]. The total electric TagedPThe type of A/C, manual or automatic, has an impact on fuel con-
loads of present vehicles can reach up to 2.2 kW but could increase sumption. Manual A/C are considered systems that operate continu-
to 4.2 kW in the future pushing the need to adopt 48 V systems to ously while automatic A/C try to maintain a predefined cabin
handle higher loads with lower electric currents, and hence, with temperature. Tests of the effect of manual and automatic A/C at
less power lost due to Joule heating. According to Ku € hnlenz [131] 50 km/h and 100 km/h showed that the impact on CO2 emissions is
48 V systems can replace 12 V systems by 2030, facilitating also a higher in manual A/C than in automatic ones and that, similarly to
transition to mild hybrid vehicles.

Table 3.3
TagedP3.2.1. Air conditioning (cooling) Effect of A/C on fuel consumption (l/100 km)
TagedPOne of the most influential factors affecting real-world fuel over urban, highway and combined cycles
consumption is the operation of Air Conditioning (A/C) systems [143].
[132,16,133
136,130]. While in 1993 the share of cars sold with
City Highway Combined
A/C as standard was ca. 10%, it is reported to have risen to 85%
by 2011 [137]. Although it was estimated in 2002 that by 2014 A/C off 9.0 6.4 7.6
A/C on 10.4 7.0 8.6
the majority of the vehicles sold in the European, American and
108 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131

TagedPwhat has already been discussed, the overall impact is lower at a TagedP indscreens. Missing heat is compensated by electric heating which
w
speed of 100 km/h than at 50 km/h [144,145]. in turn leads to an increase in electric power demand [148]. Such
TagedPFor hybrid vehicles the relative effect of A/C operation is reported systems may require an additional 400
2000 W [149] of electric
to be higher compared to conventional vehicles, an expected out- power to operate. The additional power requirement has an impact
come as hybrid vehicles present much lower fuel consumption. on fuel consumption, with an increase of 600 W resulting in fuel
Comparing a conventional (1406 kg, 3000 cc) against a hybrid vehi- consumption increases of 5
10% (about 6
12 gCO2/km for a 2015
cle (907 kg, 1300 cc), [146] performed tests over the US SFTP SC03 average car) over the NEDC [150].
Supplemental Federal Test Procedure, which is a sub-cycle of the TagedPA study [148] examined the operation of heating systems for
FTP-75 test cycle where the A/C is turned on, at an ambient tempera- various outside temperatures and found that their use in Frank-
ture of 35 °C. Fuel consumption increased from 10.7 l/100 km to furt (Germany) resulted in an increase in fuel consumption of
14.7 l/100 km and from 2.77 l/100 km to 6.57 l/100 km for the con- 0.15 l/100 km and 0.25 l/100 km (3.7
6.2 gCO2/km), which corre-
ventional and the hybrid vehicle respectively. sponds to 2.6% and 4.4% respectively for an average European
TagedPRegarding the contribution of specific A/C components in the car. It is expected that hybrid electric vehicles, which exhibit
additional energy demand, Nielsen et al. [147] reports that 175 W of prolonged periods of engine shut-off, are affected more by the
the A/C imposed electrical load can be attributed to the cooling fan operation of heaters in terms of available range in electric mode
and the clutch operation of the compressor, while another 475 W of and fuel consumption.
the mechanical load can be attributed to the energy needs of the
compressor. Experimenting with various improvements they have
achieved a 46% reduction in the electrical load and a 27% in the TagedP3.2.3. Steering assist systems
mechanical load. TagedPSteering assist systems contribute to driving safety and comfort,
TagedPFig. 3.7 provides a summary of the results retrieved from the vari- but they also require an additional energy supply that results in
ous sources. In order to normalize the findings, an average speed of increased fuel consumption. Steering action is considered rare com-
100 km/h was assumed for calculating the respective values. Differ- pared to the total vehicle operating time. In typical highway travel
ent studies consider different assumptions regarding the ambient- the power steering assisted system can remain idle for about 76% of
cabin temperature; it has not been possible to take those into con- the time [151].
sideration. TagedPThere are three types of steering assist systems [152]: Hydraulic
Power assisted Steering (HPS); Electro
Hydraulic Power assisted
Steering (EHPS); and Electric Power assisted Steering (EPS). HPS has
TagedP3.2.2. Heating (electric heating or A/C) been the main power assisting system for many years and is pow-
TagedPRecent improvements in engine fuel efficiency have reduced the ered by the combustion engine belt drive, even when in standby
performance of the vehicle heating system, due to lower engine heat hence it is a significant energy consumer. In recent years, there has
rejection to the coolant, for systems that rely on engine heat to been an effort to implement power-on-demand type of systems that
maintain cabin temperature or remove the vapour from vehicle led to the evolution of EHPS, a partially on-demand system, and EPS.

Fig. 3.7. Estimated fuel consumption increase based on the findings retrieved from different sources. Use of A/C and an average speed of 100 km/h are assumed to normalize
values that are not expressed in l/100 km. The references cited in this figure are [16,94,128,135,136,140,143
145,163,209].
 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131 109

TagedPIn EHPS the hydraulic pump is driven by operating an electric motor TagedPEstimates on the effect of electrical systems on fuel consumption
that has a lower power demand. In contrast, the EPS steering assis- and CO2 emissions diverge. Johnson [159] claimed that the use of
tance comes directly from an electric motor, which is only activated accessories can increase fuel consumption by 2.8% (3.6 gCO2/km for
when power assistance is required, resulting in lower energy con- a 2014 vehicle), while a research found that a vehicle with all electri-
sumption [153]. In terms of required power, HPS can demand cal systems switched on can present an increase of up to 16% or
»270 W, EHPS »38 W and EPS »18 W [154]. The HPS system may about 20 g/km of CO2 in terms of certification values [18]. A study
cause an 8% increase in fuel consumption with the EHPS and EPS a [160] regarding lighting equipment found that complete lighting
2% and less than 1% increase, respectively [152]. According to [16], functions (i.e. Xenon headlamps, front position bulbs, rear LED
electrical power steering increases fuel consumption by 2
3%, a lamps, licence plate bulbs and interior lights) requiring 144 W of
value that lies probably in the high range considering modern electric power increase fuel consumption by 0.14 l/100 km
vehicles. (3.5 gCO2/km). Older lighting equipment technology used during
TagedPSince the HPS is the most fuel inefficient system it has been sug- the 1980s led to an increase between 0.18 and 0.28 l/100 km
gested [151] that the use of EHPS is needed, where HPS pump is dis- (4.5
7 gCO2/km). The use of LED headlamps in the future can
connected by an electromagnetic clutch when steering is not decrease power demand as they are more efficient. The use of day-
required. On-road measurements on vehicles featuring these sys- time running light can also increase fuel consumption by 0.28 l/
tems showed a decrease of 5% and 4.1% for highway and urban driv- 100 km (7 gCO2/km). This was one of the main arguments against
ing accordingly compared to normal use of the HPS system. The the mandatory adoption of this technology, a measure proposed by
overall decrease in the NEDC was 3.9%, where the decrease was the EC in 2008 [161,162]. Fig. 3.8 presents the power needs and the
higher in the UDC than the EUDC, 4.8% and 2.7% respectively. This potential increase in fuel consumption of various auxiliaries. Based
suggests that the steering system can have a measureable impact on on these results in a rainy, winter, night scenario (i.e. where use of
vehicle certification CO2 emissions. headlights, windscreen wiper, rear window heating and wiper and
TagedPBased on the data collected, the operation of the steering assist electrical booster heater is assumed) a car would consume 1.5 l/
system can increase fuel consumption by 1
2%. Part of this extra 100 km more fuel, an increase of 26% compared to the official value
fuel consumption is possibly also captured during the vehicle certifi- for an average European car.
cation test despite the lack of actual steering. Steering is fundamen-
tal under real-world operation therefore the impact of driving TagedP3.2.5. Eco-innovations related to electrical systems
assistance systems on CO2 emissions cannot be avoided. No specific TagedPThe EC has approved the implementations of innovative low-
study was found that quantifies the contribution of the steering energy consuming vehicle technologies. These can be categorized
assist system over the European vehicle certification fuel consump- into three groups: LED lighting; solar photovoltaic roofs; and effi-
tion test. Further investigation is therefore necessary to provide cient alternators.
accurate estimates. TagedPRegarding LED lights, various applicants have demonstrated
that LED lights were more efficient compared to standard lights,
TagedP3.2.4. Other electrical consumers and auxiliaries such as halogen headlights [164
167]. The average benefits in
TagedPComponents and devices such as lights, pumps or the ventilator, CO2 emissions from this technology are expected to be about
monitors and sound systems, can be classified in this category. These 1 gCO2/km. As of 2016, many new European cars are fitted with
require additional electric energy to operate and hence result in this technology.
increased fuel consumption and CO2 emissions. Systems such as TagedPSolar roof systems have been awarded an eco-innovative status
engine and vehicle control units, fuel pumps and injection systems, [168,169] and such systems utilize a photovoltaic panel that is
various sensors (i.e. gas, speed, temperature, force and torque, etc.) attached to the roof and charges an on-board battery. The stored
are excluded as they affect fuel consumption under any driving con- electricity is then used for powering various electric systems of the
ditions and it is difficult to distinguish potential CO2 increases they vehicle and can result in direct savings due to reduce electric power
impose over real driving compared to the vehicle certification test demand. The expected benefits in terms of real world CO2 reductions
[155,156]. are estimated at 2 gCO2/km.
TagedPDuring the past 40 years there has been a trend towards a higher TagedPVarious high efficient alternator implementations (See Table 3.4)
in-use electrical power demand, which in the case of the US market, have also been granted eco-innovation status. In this case, a compar-
appears to be increasing since 2005 [156]. Such trends are expected ison was conducted with a baseline alternator exhibiting 67%
also for the European passenger cars as new and more sophisticated
auxiliary systems such as GPS, air cleaning, air conditioning, adap-
tive cruise control, collision warning and avoidance systems are Table 3.4
introduced in the fleet [155]. Such devices impose higher electrical High efficient alternator technologies by applicant.

loads resulting in increased alternator operation, which in turn Alternator technology Commission
increases the engine power demand and subsequent fuel consump- implementing decision
tion. Officially, the total electrical power requirements of a European Alternator utilizes synchronous rectification using [170]
passenger car over real-world driving are estimated to be 750 W metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors
[157]. This figure is lower compared to the 2500 W reported for US achieving efficiency of at least 77%
vehicles [156] but still higher than the 350 W estimate for the Euro- Reduced rectification, stator iron and stator copper [171]
losses. At least 77% efficiency
pean vehicle certification test [157]. Only limited use of electrical
Alternator output from 100 A to 250 A [172]
consumers takes place during the European vehicle certification test Alternator utilizes high efficiency diodes and syn- [173]
and some OEM experts suggest that 350 W might be an overesti- chronous active rectification achieving efficiency
mated value and that 150 W is a more representative one [158]. This of at least 78%
discrepancy, however, suggests a measureable shortfall between Reduced rectification losses by utilizing low-energy [174]
loss diode
type approval and real-world consumption. In addition to the above Reduced stator iron losses by utilizing thin, high-
a standard practice, in the present certification scheme, is to run the grade electromagnetic steel stator core
test with battery fully charged, hence the operation of the alternator Reduced stator copper losses by utilizing ultra-high
is restricted further increasing the deviation between real fuel con- fill factor stator and applying axial cooling
structure
sumption.
110 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131

Fig. 3.8. Power consumption and fuel consumption increase of various auxiliaries [163].

TagedPefficiency over the NEDC, a value that is assumed representative for TagedPalternating motor oil of high and low viscosity between summer and
new passenger cars. The average benefits in CO2 emissions from this winter seasons could also contribute to decreased fuel consumption
technology are expected to be about 1
2 gCO2/km. [180].
TagedPMotor oil viscosity is inversely dependent on temperature: the
3.3. Friction and lubricants higher the temperature, the lower the viscosity but the measure of
viscosity decrease is important. At low ambient temperatures lower
TagedPIt is estimated that up to 25% of fuel energy spent during the viscosity allows easier engine cranking and starting, rapid oil distri-
vehicle certification test is consumed to overcome the friction bution in various components and lower friction losses. At normal
of the car's components, which refers to the engine, transmis- engine operating temperatures (T>90 °C) viscosity should be in the
sion and brakes. According to [175], a passenger car consumes proper range to maintain good lubrication characteristics, minimize
on average 340 l of fuel annually to overcome friction for an oil consumption and friction losses [181]. For a cold start cycle such
average mileage of 13,000 km. The most common technology as the NEDC, normal operating temperature is reached close to the
option for reducing friction in the vehicle's mechanical parts is end of the test (1180 s), while it could take longer in congested traf-
the use of lubricants with low viscosity. A lubricant's viscosity fic [182]. During the warm up phase the fuel consumption is affected
should be: by the rate of viscosity decrease with temperature. A 5W-30 oil at
TagedP 30 °C fuel consumption can be up to 20% higher than at 80 °C [183].

TagedP Low enough for the lubricant to flow to the parts that need it; Another study [184] focuses on the effect of oil temperature on fuel
and consumption over the NEDC for initial ambient temperatures of 25
TagedP High enough for the lubricant to form a protective film between and ¡7 °C. The higher viscosity of the oil at ¡7 °C resulted in signifi-
the surfaces it is supposed to protect from contact. This lubrica- cant increases of about 15% compared to 25 °C ambient temperature.
tion film must have the appropriate properties to withstand Fig. 3.9 summarizes the findings regarding the impact of lubricant
the loads and pressures occurring between the surfaces. on fuel consumption.
TagedPIt is expected that for the vehicle certification test, OEMs use the
TagedPWhen viscosity is lower than necessary, the film formed by the most appropriate and fuel efficient lubricants exploiting any poten-
lubricant will not provide sufficient protection for the moving parts. tial CO2 benefit. The same practice is advisable for in-use operation
This can result in increased friction, wear, heating and oxidation. but cannot be guaranteed. It is up to the driver or the car owner to
When viscosity is higher than necessary problems may also occur. follow the manufacturer's suggestion regarding the replacement/
Inadequate flow could lead to increased drag and friction leading to use of fuel efficient engine lubricants
higher operating temperatures and energy consumption. Low vis-
cosity lubricants maintain their ability to protect the mechanical 3.4. Maintenance and ageing
parts of the vehicle. Therefore the characterization of a lubricant as
low-viscosity or energy efficient has to take place considering the TagedP3.4.1. Tyre maintenance and pressure
type, characteristics and the operation of the respective mechanical TagedPIn addition to tyre category and characteristics, tyre condition
component. and maintenance can also influence the RRC. While tyre wear may
TagedPAccording to literature, the use of low friction lubricants reduce the RRC it is also associated with loss in grip and other unde-
decreases fuel consumption [94,175
179]. This effect seems to be sirable characteristics that can make tyres unsafe and dangerous to
greater in the urban than in the suburban cycle [177]. An average use [185]. It is difficult to assess these influences on fuel consump-
improvement in fuel consumption is estimated at about 4% and tion. Tyre wear control is part of the mandatory technical inspection
 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131 111

Fig. 3.9. Decrease in fuel consumption by switching to lower viscosity motor oil. The references cited in this figure are [94,95,176
180,210].

TagedPof European cars that is performed on a biannual basis [186]. The TagedP y 0.3 and 0.5 bar while a 35% had underinflated tyres by more than
b
most important aspect of proper tyre maintenance is tyre pressure 0.5 bar below the recommended pressure. Only 32% of the vehicles
control. had pressure levels within the recommended range and 12% had
TagedPAgeing, accumulated mileage and temperature variations can over inflated tires by 1 bar reducing rolling resistance by 20% in the
lead to pressure losses. Low tyre pressure results in higher rolling expense of tire life.
resistance [16,187], directly increasing fuel consumption [188,189]. TagedPA study [122] examined the effect of low tyre pressure on fuel
All tyres have a designated operating pressure and deviating from it consumption over constant speed conditions in a range between
affects their rolling resistance. Fig. 3.10 demonstrates how rolling 64 and 129 km/h with an 8 km/h interval and found a 6
10%
resistance and fuel consumption can be linked to tyre pressure, mak- (0.40
0.46 l/100 km) increase in fuel consumption. An average
ing use of data reported in [61]. The effect of pressure on rolling under-inflation of 0.18 bar results in a 0.7% increase in fuel con-
resistance is not linear with deflations of 0.3 bar causing increases of sumption in a city and 1% on a highway [190]. Fig. 3.11 presents a
6%, while deflations of 1 bar causing increases of 30%. The same summary of the findings of tyre pressure effect on fuel consumption.
study found that 21% of the French vehicles had under-inflated tyres TagedPDue to the influence of tyre pressure on fuel consumption and
safety all new passenger car models released in the United States
(from 2008), and the European Union (from 2012) must be equipped
with a tyre pressure monitoring system (TPMS). The extent of the
availability of technology in the EU is presently unknown. In addi-
tion, no studies were found regarding how much drivers respond to
the indications of the TPMS or whether tyre deflation has been
improved.

TagedP3.4.2. Other factors

TagedPOther factors related to vehicle maintenance and condition may
also affect fuel consumption in real-world driving conditions. In par-
ticular, wheel misalignment, suspension system maintenance and
air filter clogging.
TagedPWheel alignment is the adjustment of the tyre's camber, toe and
caster angles to ensure that the vehicle is not deviating from its
direction [191]. Misaligned wheels can increase fuel consumption by
Fig. 3.10. Evolution of tyre rolling resistance as a function of tyre pressure. Base roll- increasing hysteresis losses [16,137,192,193] by up 3% for a 2 mm of
ing resistance equals 100%, measured at 2.1 bar according to ISO 8767 (Adapted from toe misalignment [194]. In some extreme cases, it is suggested that
Michelin [61]). wheel misalignment can reduce tyre life from 80,000 km down to
112 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131

cTagedP reates a layer of water that the wheels have to overcome and
increases road loads and hence fuel consumption. A limited number
of studies have quantified the effect of rain and wet roads on fuel
consumption. A study [211] examined the effect of water presence
on the fuel consumption of real vehicles travelling under transient
conditions. Tests in two flat routes with water depths of 1, 2 and
4 mm were compared against tests on a dry road surface and con-
cluded that the fuel consumption in each case increased by 30%, 90%
and 80% respectively. Fuel consumption was found to be higher for
2 mm than 4 mm depths because of the reduced vehicle speed at
4 mm caused by the increased amount of rain and reduced visibility.
A US study regarding heavy-duty vehicles (HDV) also indicates that
fuel consumption increases [212] with rain. Snow and ice can also
increase fuel consumption. The wheels can slip on the road wasting
energy as they have reduced grip, while driving speeds are lower
than normal. In addition, some cars use four
wheel drive for better
grip, fact which results in higher fuel consumption [213].

TagedP4.1.2. Ambient temperature

TagedPAmbient temperature can influence all kinds of external resistan-
ces on the vehicle. Low ambient temperature results in increased air
density and higher aerodynamic resistance [103], while increased
air temperature decreases aerodynamic resistance [214]. The tyre
Fig. 3.11. Effect of lowered tyre pressure on fuel consumption. The references cited in condition is also affected by the increased temperature, as the con-
this figure are [16,61,82,187,208]. tained air pressure, the stiffness and the hysteresis of the rubber all
change, resulting in lower rolling resistance [189,215]. Temperature
TagedP8000 km and increase vehicle fuel consumption by 30% compared to can also have a more significant impact on the fuel consumption of
its operation with wheels fully aligned [195]. Only a few studies hybrid electric vehicles under real-world driving conditions because
quantify this effect. However, there are several studies for heavy- battery capacity is reduced with lower temperatures [216].
duty vehicles, where the impact seems to be greater [193,196].
TagedPClogged air filters were found to increase fuel consumption in old TagedP4.1.3. Cold-start
carburetted cars by 2 to 6% [126], but there was no information on TagedPAmbient temperature determines the temperature of the vehicle
similar effects occurring on modern fuel injection spark ignition and its components when starting after prolonged parking periods,
cars. It is assumed that the effect is much lower as fuel injection in resulting in increased fuel consumption during the their warm up
modern cars is adapted to ensure a correct mixture. One report [16] phase (cold start effect). Cold start occurs when the vehicle starts
states that fuel consumption can increase by 6% due to filter clog- operating and lasts until all vehicle components reach their nominal
ging. This case, for old carburetted cars, is also verified by the U.S. operating temperature for the first time (warm up phase). Cold start
Department of Energy - U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [120] is known to influence fuel consumption particularly in the case of
and presented on their fuel economy website. Tests [197] on two short distance trips [213,217]. Lubrication systems and their compo-
turbocharged vehicles with clean and clogged air filters resulted in nents [218], tyres [188,189], vehicle transmission, engine and
no significant change in fuel economy or CO2 emissions. According exhaust after-treatment system [201,219] operate differently at
to [198] for compression ignition engine vehicles the greatest starting conditions and during the warm up phase of the trip, leading
effect of a clogged air filter is a decrease in maximum power and to increased fuel consumption. The effect of cold start depends on
acceleration. the initial temperature of the various components and the duration
of their warm up phase. The latter is not the same for all components
4. Environmental and traffic conditions with exhaust after-treatments system usually reaching operating
temperature within 200 s regardless of the operating conditions,
4.1. Weather conditions while components such as the gearbox stabilize thermally after
more than 15
20 km, depending on the operating conditions
TagedPWeather conditions refer to all factors associated to meteorologi- [220
223]. The cold start effect of each individual component on
cal phenomena that can have a direct or indirect influence on vehicle fuel consumption disappears after its warm up phase. Predicting the
fuel consumption. The current vehicle certification test is performed full impact of ambient temperature at cold start conditions on a
at fixed temperature, pressure and humidity; such conditions do not vehicle's fuel consumption is not straightforward.
reflect weather variations that a driver experiences throughout the TagedPThe type approval test foresees a starting temperature of
D15X X
year. Three categories appear to have the largest impact on the fuel 20
30 °C, with most tests performed at 25 °C, although according to
consumption and CO2 emissions of passenger cars: wind, tempera- [224] starting a vehicle at 25 °C is not representative of average real-
ture and altitude (ambient pressure) [211]. Weather conditions such world operation. A temperature in the range of 14 § 4 °C is consid-
as rain, snow or fog can also impact fuel consumption by affecting ered more representative of the European average ambient tempera-
the way the vehicle is driven and by influencing resistance, the oper- ture in autumn and spring [224]. Starting temperatures lower than
ation of auxiliary units or the engine. Ambient conditions are not sta- 20 °C instead of 25 °C can result in a 6% increase in fuel consumption
ble and may vary depending on geographical location, weather due to excess cold start consumption [201]. Even within the foreseen
pattern, and yearly seasons. temperature range, measured fuel consumption can vary by more
than 2% [18,225], while [214] reports an increase of 2
3% in fuel
TagedP4.1.1. Rain and snow consumption per 10 °C decrease in air temperature. Finally,
TagedPRain and snow affect the grip and the rolling resistance of the despite that type approval foresees emissions tests also at very
vehicle as they change the characteristics of the road surface. Rain low temperatures (¡7 °C), which are not uncommon in northern
 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131 113

TagedPEuropean countries, CO2 and fuel consumption are not reported in rTagedP esult in additional fuel consumption compared to the officially
this case. According to [226] the fuel consumption of Euro 4 petrol reported value. According to [205], performing many short trips under
and diesel cars was measured to be 78% lower at 23 °C (0.04 l) com- urban conditions instead of a single long trip amplifies the effect of
pared to ¡20 °C (0.18 l) and 69% lower compared to ¡7 °C (0.13 l). cold start and may lead to high fuel consumption up as much as 30 l/
TagedPThe cold start effect may have a different impact on vehicle fuel 100 km. However, allowing the car to idle in order to warm up and
consumption depending on powertrain technology. Vehicles tested reduce the cold start effect does not save fuel [120,231].
[227] over NEDC under temperatures of 25 °C and ¡7 °C showed TagedPAdvanced thermal management systems can accelerate the
increases in fuel consumption of 21% for a multiport injection (MPI) warm up phase for the engine and gearbox and limit the effect of
spark ignition vehicle and 16% for a direct injection spark ignition cold start on fuel consumption These systems incorporate separate
vehicle (DISI). An American study [221] on the effect of the cold start cooling circuits for engine block and cylinder head, cooling systems
in the urban cycle found an increase of 15% and 20% for conventional with switchable components (e.g. the coolant pump, cooled exhaust
vehicles and a 20% to 37% for hybrids at temperatures of ¡6.7 °C manifolds), exhaust gas heat recovery (e.g. Rankine cycle and ther-
compared to warm operation. In the same study, the difference moelectric generator) and other technologies that control the vehi-
between cold start at 22 °C and warm operation was between 6% cle's cooling system. Fig. 4.2 presents the effect of such systems.
and 12%. Measurements in Europe over the NEDC [217] on 8 petrol Advanced thermal management can have a benefit over the vehicle
and 5 diesel cars at temperatures of 22 °C and ¡7 °C showed an certification test cycle and real-world conditions but it is not possi-
increase a 15% increase in fuel consumption for the gasoline vehicles ble to quantify the contribution of such systems to the gap between
and 20% for the diesel. Finally, the effect of cold start on the starting official and real fuel consumption. In the case of hybrid vehicles,
temperature is more pronounced in hybrid electric vehicles. A Cana- heat storage systems ensure that the cooling down of the powertrain
dian study [228] tested a conventional petrol vehicle and three system during low load or fully electric operation mode does not
hybrids at temperatures of ¡8 °C and 20 °C. The increase in fuel con- exceed certain boundaries [232].
sumption for the hybrids varied from 56% to 107% for the city cycle
and from 31% to 77% in the unified cycle, while the discrepancy for TagedP4.1.3.1. Eco-innovations related to cold start. TagedPTwo groups of technolo-
the conventional car was lower at 23% and 19% respectively. gies that relate to cold start have received the Eco-innovation status:
TagedPFig. 4.1 presents a summary of the values found in literature link- engine encapsulation and enthalpy storage tanks. Engine encapsula-
ing cold start temperature to excess fuel consumption over certifica- tion is a technology that reduces the cold start effect by reducing the
tion cycles. Literature data are combined with the results of an cooling of the powertrain system during the stop time [233]. The
analysis undertaken by the EC's Joint Research Centre (JRC) [229] system reduces the heat loss by slowing the cool-down of the engine
that was based on internal vehicle measurements following the when it is turned off. This technology can have important savings in
NEDC at various temperatures [217,230]. urban driving where a large number of non-consecutive trips take
TagedPIn real-world driving conditions the effect of cold start on fuel con- place.
sumption depends on the distance travelled, the duration of the trip TagedPWith regard to the enthalpy storage tank, heat from the coolant is
and the number of sub-trips. Short distance trips exhibit higher fuel stored into a thermally insulated tank when the vehicle is turned off
consumption compared to medium or longer distance due to high [234]. Upon restarting the engine, the hot coolant is circulating in
energy losses of non-thermally stabilised components [120,231]. For a order to heat the engine compartments, therefore reducing the cold
trip with characteristics similar to those of NEDC (11 km, 20 min, start effect. The average CO2 emissions benefits of these two technol-
20
25 °C, 33 km/h) fuel consumption increases by 10% due to cold ogies considering various parking times at a 14 °C ambient tempera-
start (Fig. 4.1). This increase is higher for shorter distance trips and ture (the average European temperature) are expected to be about
lower average speed values. An increased frequency of short urban 1
4 gCO2/km depending on the vehicle type, size and technology.
trips where vehicle components are partly or fully cooled down can
TagedP4.1.4. Wind conditions
TagedPAmbient winds are almost always present and affect the aerody-
namic performance of vehicles when driving at higher speeds. Wind

Fig. 4.1. Percentage increase in fuel consumption related to starting temperature. The Fig. 4.2. Decrease in CO2 emissions by technology type. The references cited in this
references cited in this figure are [16,18,227,228]. figure are [127,278,279].
114 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131

TagedPdirection tends to change during on-road driving due to weather 4.2. Altitude
conditions, the varying landscape or vehicle turning. Wind perpen-
dicular to the car's motion is called crosswind and apart from pre- TagedPAn increase in altitude is reported to decrease fuel consumption
vailing ambient winds it can be caused by another passing vehicle [18] as lower atmospheric pressure leads to reduced air density and
and result in an asymmetric flow around the vehicle affecting drag, lower air drag [81,239]. At 1000 m above sea level the density of air
lift and pitching moment that can cause instability [235]. When the is approximately 10% lower compared to that foreseen for the official
vehicle turns, or when the velocity is reduced, the angle between testing of vehicle road loads (air drag) and fuel consumption. The
the direction of the apparent wind and that of the vehicle speed resulting decrease in air drag can lead to a 2
3% reduction in fuel
(yaw angle) changes and the car exposes a larger area to the wind consumption reduction.
than its actual frontal area. Depending on the conditions this may TagedPLower air density can also influence fuel consumption by affect-
lead to increases in aerodynamic resistance. In real-world conditions ing engine operation when the air/fuel mixture in the engine is con-
wind is affected by roadside objects and other vehicles that cause a trolled by means of throttling. Due to the lower oxygen content of
non
uniform airflow and turbulence, conditions that deviate from air, a wider throttle opening is necessary for charging the engine in
the ideal ones found in the laboratory or during the coast down test order to achieve the same power output, fact which in turn may
[236]. Despite the effect of crosswinds, yaw angle and speed, the result in lower pumping losses and lower fuel consumption. Operat-
majority of published studies examine aerodynamics at zero yaw ing at high altitude has been found to result in a 3.5% decrease in
angle wind conditions [237]. fuel consumption compared to the NEDC measurement and 2.6%
TagedPWind tunnel tests for yaw angles from 0° to 40° found that the decreased compared to the FTP cycle [240]. Decreases in the same
aerodynamic coefficient obtains the maximum value at a 35° yaw order of magnitude (4
5%) have been also reported for test tracks
angle [238] having a significant impact on large square shaped located at high altitude and in warm climates [18]. Paradoxically, an
vehicles such as sports utility vehicles (SUVs) or trucks. A study increase in fuel consumption of 6.2% was found [240] in highway
[235] focusing on the impact of crosswind angle and velocity on the driving conditions. A possible explanation of this observation at high
air drag coefficient showed a decrease in drag coefficient from speed/load conditions could be that the vehicle operated close to full
0.55 to 0.45 when yaw angle changed from 0° to 15° respectively. load conditions. In such cases the reduction in engine power output
However, drag coefficient increased at higher yaw angles reaching due to the engine's lower volumetric efficiency may result in fuel
0.60
0.65 at 90° for crosswind speeds of 80
120 km/h respectively enrichment introduced to compensate the power deficit and [241]
(9
18% increase compared to 0°). notes that such enrichments would increase fuel consumption in the
TagedPThe effect of crosswind under different yaw conditions on car case of naturally aspirated engines. A study [239] on naturally aspi-
aerodynamics was investigated by Landstro € m et al. [237] taking into rated engines investigated the effect of altitude on fuel consumption
consideration the effects of the rotating wheels and air inlets. and exhaust emissions over a cruising driving cycle and the NEDC.
Fig. 4.3 presents the difference in the drag coefficient for various The authors found an increase in fuel consumption that accounts for
yaw angle values for four car configurations. There is a significant 0.2 l/100 km per 1000 m of altitude increase for both cycles.
increase in drag in yaw angles between 8° and 18°.
TagedPAdditionally, wind velocity is important as for example a velocity 4.3. Road
of 3 m/s can influence air drag, either positively or negatively, by up
to 10% [116] that in turn translates in a 2% average CO2 emissions TagedPWith the term “road” we refer to the road characteristics such as
increase [89,101]. Wind conditions can therefore have a measurable morphology, road surface and road shape. All of them can impact
impact on in-use fuel consumption and CO2 emissions, increasing real-world CO2 emissions but none of them is currently reflected in
the gap between reported values and the consumption experienced vehicle certification tests. Road morphology refers to the geomor-
by the drivers. phological characteristics of the road. The characteristics that have
an effect on fuel consumption are altitude, road shape, road surface
and grade. The structural condition of the road surface is described
by the roughness and the texture while construction materials used
for the road surface include asphalt and cement.

TagedP4.3.1. Road grade

TagedPA car that is driven uphill requires more power to overcome grav-
ity than one that is on a flat road while a car that is going downhill
requires less. Road grade has an important effect on vehicle CO2
emissions. Researchers [242] performed measurements and simula-
tions on a passenger car, investigating the effect of grade on CO2 and
testing the CO2 emissions sensitivity over a fixed route. They identi-
fied increases in CO2 emissions of up to 2% for grades of 0.25% and
5% for grades of the order of 1%. In the case of negative slope the
reductions in fuel consumption reported were approximately ¡1%
and ¡3.5% for grades of ¡0.25% and ¡1% respectively. The study
notes that in order to estimate vehicle CO2 exhaust emissions at a
micro-scale in real-world conditions, a representative road grade
profile for each second of the test data is needed and concludes that
transport management and urban planning projects should be incor-
porating road grade into their analysis where prediction of real-
world vehicle CO2 emissions and fuel consumption is required. As
reported by Park and Rakha [243] a 1.5% increase in roadway grade
increases fuel consumption by 9%. Measurements [244] of passenger
Fig. 4.3. Difference in aerodynamic coefficient for various yaw angle values (adapted car fuel consumption over two different routes leading to the same
from [237]). destination, with one route being flat while the other one containing
 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131 115

TagedPuphill and downhill sections, showed increases of 15
20% for sTagedP peed of 50 km/h. This difference increases to 3.3% at a speed of
the hilly route. The fact that the additional fuel consumed when 70 km/h. In the Netherlands a speed of 90 km/h increases fuel con-
travelling uphill is not fully compensated by the fuel savings when sumption by 2.7% on concrete roads. In the US urban driving speeds
travelling downhill contributes to the fuel consumption gap. This of less than 50 km/h fuel consumption is 4% higher by on asphalt
hysteresis in fuel consumption due to road grade should be taken than on concrete roads [253].
into consideration when comparing real-world fuel consumption
with official data. 4.4. Traffic conditions and congestion

TagedP4.3.2. Road roughness and texture TagedPTraffic refers to the number of vehicles that are moving on a road
TagedPThe roughness of the road is the vertical deviation of the intended at a given time. Increased traffic will affect the speed profile of the
longitudinal profile of the surface [245] and is measured by means of vehicles during a trip but may also influence the behaviour of
the International Roughness Index (IRI). The IRI is based on the aver- the drivers. Increased traffic in most occasions leads to increases
age rectified slope (ARS), a filtered ratio of a standard vehicle's in the vehicles’ fuel consumption [254] that may be severe under
accumulated suspension motion (in mm, inches, etc.) divided by the low speed urban driving conditions and in heavy traffic [255]. The
distance travelled by the vehicle during the measurement (km, mi, urban part of NEDC represents relatively intense traffic conditions
etc.) [246]. Roughness depends on the construction and the condi- [136,256,257] exhibiting an average speed of 18 km/h.
tion of the road and is used as an indicator for maintenance. A typical TagedPIncreased traffic affects fuel consumption in several ways. It
range of IRI values is 2
16 mm/m, with 2 being high quality surface reduces the average and maximum speed of the trip, it increases
similar to that of airport runways and superhighways while values transient operation (accelerations-decelerations) and can result in
of 12 mm/m and above correspond to eroded surfaces with deep congested conditions that are characterized by low vehicle speeds,
depressions. An IRI value between 3 and 7 mm/m can be considered vehicle standstills and increased engine idling [254,258,259,261].
as typical for most European roads. Rough roads limit maximum The impact of traffic on vehicle fuel consumption is not uniform
speed, while causing discomfort to the passengers [247,248]. Fuel and depends on the characteristics of the vehicle fleet and the geo-
consumption increases by up to 3% for an average light commercial graphical area where the vehicle is driven [200
202].
vehicle and by 4% for a medium sized passenger car for an IRI value TagedPIn the case of Europe, a typical example of the effect of average
of 5 mm/m compared to a reference IRI D 2 mm/m surface [248]. speed/traffic conditions on CO2 emissions and fuel consumption
The roughness of roads deteriorates with time leading to increases [262] can be found in Fig. 4.4. The continuous lines demonstrate the
in fuel consumption of vehicles. predictions of two widely used European emission inventory tools
TagedPTexture is the deviation from a planar surface and plays a part in (COPERT and HBEFA) [263,264] while the dots and the correspond-
road surface friction resistance and assists in the braking of vehicles ing error bars demonstrate the average experimental results and
[249]. While vehicle suspension deflection and dynamic tire loads their standard deviation respectively. The experimental results
are affected by longer wavelength (roughness), road texture affects which were obtained from tests on various Euro 5 vehicles over dif-
the interaction between the road surface and the tyre footprint. ferent driving cycles (NEDC, Artemis, and WMTC) confirm the capac-
Road texture is defined based on its wavelength and its effect varies ity of such tools to capture the effect of different traffic conditions
accordingly with its size. As a means of quantification in a single on CO2 emissions. Trips with low average speed (<30 km/h) exhibit
value the root mean square (RMS) of texture depth is used [250]. the highest CO2 emissions and the highest divergence from the
The smaller the wavelength the more beneficial its effects such NEDC result which, at 18 km/h, reaches on average 40% for the diesel
as better friction, lower rolling resistance and noise reduction. The and 60% for the petrol cars. The optimal trip speed in terms of CO2
texture RMS is linearly linked to the rolling resistance coefficient are in the range of 60 to 80 km/h where emissions tend to be 15%
with pavements of higher RMS exhibiting higher rolling resistance and 23% lower compared to the NEDC ones for diesel and petrol
coefficients and fuel consumption [251]. High RMS values can vehicles respectively. The trend is reversed above 80
90 km/h and
increase rolling resistance by 5 to 10% [252], while changes in tex- the gap is widened as speed increases. The situation is different
ture could result in a 5
10% increase in fuel consumption [188]. for hybrid vehicles where the contribution of the electrical system,
TagedPRoad construction materials define road texture and roughness. during urban driving conditions, offers significant fuel consumption
Cement pavements tend to exhibit high roughness and texture com- reductions [265].
pared to asphalt pavements [188]. In Sweden fuel consumption TagedPIt is reported that in high speed driving increased traffic may
increases by 0.8% on cement roads compared to asphalt roads at a lead to reduced fuel consumption as drivers are forced to maintain

Fig. 4.4. Impact of average driving speed on CO2 emissions of Euro 5 vehicles [262].
116 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131

TagedPlower speeds and to adapt their driving to the trajectory of the 5. Driver and user related factors
leader vehicle [266].
TagedPHeavy traffic can result in congestion and alter operating con- 5.1. Driving
ditions on a given road. Congestion is the deterioration of smooth,
free-flowing traffic conditions due to increased travel demand TagedPThe way the vehicle is driven has a substantial impact in fuel con-
and/or reduced traffic movement capacity [267]. Congestion is in sumption. The term more frequently used to characterize the way a
general considered to be the traffic condition leading to the high- vehicle is being driven is driving behaviour. Driving behaviour refers
est fuel consumption and can result in a 40% higher fuel consump- to the personal driving style of a driver and is characterized by
tion compared to driving the same trip in uncongested conditions instantaneous and average speed, acceleration and choice of gears
[268]. A US study [269] estimated that the fraction of fuel wasted [280]. Driving behaviour may depend on the personal character, age
due to traffic congestion will reach 2.6% of the overall fuel con- and gender of the driver [126,280], as well as on external factors
sumption by 2020. Another study [266] compared CO2 emissions such as roads, journey type, weather and traffic conditions [281].
from cars operating at steady state conditions to the emissions Aggressive driving is known to increase fuel consumption and CO2
during real-world driving conditions and found an increase of 40% emissions [126,137,281], while driver training leads to decreased
at 45 km/h due to congestion. The average increase in fuel con- fuel consumption [16,282,283].
sumption for congested roads calculated from all the examined
cases is about 26%. Fig. 4.5 shows the effect of congestion on fuel
consumption for various route types. TagedP5.1.1. Aggressive driving
TagedPVehicle standstill in congested roads leads to prolonged idling TagedPAggressive driving, in some cases referred to also as “dynamic
times, which in turn has a fuel consumption penalty. Vehicle driving”, is characterized by high accelerations and decelerations,
idling applies if the vehicle does not feature any engine start and high maximum vehicle speeds and high engine operating RPMs that
stop system [270,18] as start stop systems are designed to switch lead to increased fuel consumption [281,126,86]. It is difficult to
off the engine at vehicle standstill. In the EU an estimated 43% of define an average driving behaviour to be used as a European refer-
new gasoline vehicles and 55% of new diesel vehicles (2013) [271] ence. The maximum speed is the factor with the highest influence
are equipped with start stop systems. The suppression of idling on fuel consumption [284]. In a dataset of over 500,000 vehicles,
during the vehicle certification test and in real-world driving can where users register online their fuel consumption between fuelling
reduce fuel consumption [272] by up to 8% for a small size and events and provide also information about their driving style, users
9.5% for an average sized vehicle [273]. The latter values are con- who declared a “speedy” style have on average 7% higher fuel con-
sidered relatively high for modern European passenger cars, not sumption compared to those declaring a balanced driving [19]. How-
equipped with start stop systems, tested over NEDC where the ever, it should be noted that when testing vehicles in real-world
contribution of idling in the total CO2 emissions is about 2
3% for driving conditions, it is difficult to distinguish the effect of traffic
manual transmission vehicles and 4
5% for automatic transmis- conditions from that of aggressive driving [285]. Fig. 5.1 summarizes
sion vehicles. the values collected regarding the effect of aggressive driving on
TagedPFinally, congestion can lead to fuel consumption increases by fuel consumption.
affecting how the drivers actually drive as it can cause delays and TagedPConsidering the average value of the results presented in Fig. 5.1,
increases drivers’ stress [274]. In an effort to compensate for such it has been estimated that fuel consumption for aggressive driving
delays, drivers may adopt a more aggressive driving style compared can increase by 25%. Increases are substantially more pronounced in
to how they would normally drive for the rest of their trip. However, urban driving conditions. This observation is attributed to the
optimizing driving behaviour is considered important to improve
the overall energy consumption [275] with the eco-driving concept
being discussed as early as 1986 [276].

Fig. 5.1. Increase in fuel consumption for aggressive driving compared to normal
Fig. 4.5. Effect of congestion on fuel consumption compared to free flow traffic by driving. Error bars correspond to minimum
maximum observed values. The referen-
route type. The references cited in this figure are [254,266,268]. ces cited in this figure are [19,268,284,322
326].
 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131 117

TagedPinfluence of idle consumption, the frequent start and stops and the iTagedP n velocity and maintaining constant speed. The study found an
frequent accelerations in urban conditions. The tests on the highway 11.7% decrease in fuel consumption compared to average driving.
resulted in lower increases because of the minimal idling and accel- It was also found that the installation of certain accessories on
erations and high average speed. The identified difference between the vehicle, such as the gear shift indicator or fuel consumption
EU and US could be traced back to the fact that cars in the US exhibit indicators, which directly or indirectly instruct the driver how to
higher fuel consumption compared to their European counterparts. drive in a more efficient manner, have a quantifiable effect in
This means that the baseline fuel consumption is already higher in decreasing fuel consumption [265,18]. Of course this does not guar-
the US (see also Table 2.2) so the relative fuel penalty introduced by antee that all drivers follow the suggested gear shifting in real-world
aggressive driving is lower [218]. driving conditions. The use of gear shifting indicators was tested
during the NEDC and it was found that the most prominent improve-
TagedP5.1.2. Driving mode ment was in the urban phase, while the gains in the extra-urban
TagedPSome cars offer built-in driving modes for achieving more phase were negligible [296]. However, higher CO2 savings were
dynamic performance or reduced fuel consumption. These modes achieved in the cold start accounting for a 4.3% reduction compared
can adjust engine tuning, gear shifting in the case of automatic gear- to the baseline, while in the warm start the reductions were
boxes, perform suspension adjustment and engage four-wheel drive estimated to be 3.6%.
when necessary. TagedPFig. 5.2 summaries the effectiveness of eco-driving strategies. The
TagedPAn internet search of manufacturers’ websites for information simplest strategy presented here is optimal gear shifting, while fur-
about these technologies revealed three general types of modes: ther training consists of more elements such as smooth accelerations
(a) Eco, for reducing fuel consumption; (b) Normal, which is the and decelerations, braking and traffic anticipation. A study [297]
baseline operation of the car; and (c) Sport, for better performance suggests that improved navigation systems and intelligent use of
in terms of vehicle responsiveness and power output, which is navigation data is expected to improve the efficiency of eco-driving
expected to be the most fuel consuming mode. strategies. The authors of [19] have conducted a statistical analysis
TagedPCertain modes [286] claim to offer a 20% improvement in fuel on data provided by individual drivers who declared their fuel
consumption by using pedal and gear recognition, brake energy consumption and driving style voluntarily. Although eco-driving
recuperation, optimizing shifting and A/C temperature control, technique was not specified in the data collection form, drivers
while providing additional information for more efficient driving to who characterized their style as economical resulted in 9% lower
the driver. The same manufacturer offers a “Sport” mode option, fuel consumption compared to the ones who declared normal
where the car is adjusted to a more dynamic style, while the engine driving style.
is more responsive and the suspension is stiffer, but no figure for the
fuel consumption penalty associated with this mode was found TagedP5.1.4. Four-wheel drive
[287]. Similarly, Toyota [288] claims that the “Sport” mode option TagedPMany cars are sold with a switchable two-wheel (2WD) and four-
leads to faster acceleration by increasing throttle response, higher wheel (4WD) drive mode. It is not obligatory to test such vehicles
gear shifting, more performance
oriented RPM and adjusted elec- during certification in 4WD mode and the common practice is to
tric power steering assist for a sportier feeling. However, the CO2 or perform the vehicle certification test in two-wheel mode [158]. Lab-
fuel consumption penalty was not reported. According to VW [289], oratory measurements [298] on a chassis dyno over a low speed
the “Eco” mode leads to more environmental friendly driving with driving cycle in 2WD and 4WD modes revealed 1.5% savings in fuel
less emissions and lower fuel consumption by optimizing engine, economy for the 2WD mode. Engaging four-wheel traction in real-
gearbox and A/C performance. The decrease is not specified by the world driving conditions increases the power losses in a vehicle's
manufacturer and the expected CO2 penalties for the sport mode, driveline leading to an increase in fuel consumption. A four wheel
which results in faster accelerations and better steering response, drive vehicle in real-world operation can have an increased fuel con-
are not provided. Certain non-OEM affiliated sources [290] claim to sumption of 0.5 l/100 km [141]. No scientific references were found
have observed a 11% increase in fuel consumption for the “sport” with regard to the extent to which drivers use the 4WD mode in
mode without providing detailed information on how such numbers real-world driving conditions.
are produced. Finally, some hybrid electric cars offer the option to
use the vehicle in an all-electric mode (EV). Manufacturers encour- TagedP5.1.5. ADAS
age the use of this mode for a short distance at low speeds, in traffic, TagedPSeveral new vehicles are equipped with Advanced Driver Aid Sys-
in closed spaces such as garages and to decrease noise late at night tems (ADAS) that deploy a series of sophisticated sensors such as
[291,292]. It was not possible to find an extensive scientific study rear view cameras and radars to provide additional information to
regarding driving modes, as there is no common definition for the the driver and the vehicle [299]. These systems are marketed as fuel
terms and every manufacturer uses its own settings. saving technologies [300], offering advice to the driver on optimal
practices or in some cases by acting independently of the driver on
TagedP5.1.3. Eco
driving the vehicle's operation and controls [301]. The deployment of such
TagedPDrivers can be trained in practices that reduce fuel consumption, systems does not aim only to reduce fuel consumption, but also to
pollutant emissions [293] and result in safer driving. Fuel efficient increase road safety by providing warnings such as possible colli-
driving consists of earlier gear shifting for achieving lower engine sions with other vehicles and by detecting pedestrians and traffic
RPMs, maintaining steady vehicle speeds, anticipation of traffic signs [302,303]. In addition, integrated communication systems uti-
movement, smooth deceleration and stopping [16,219]. The web- lize data collected by ADAS that is shared with other vehicles and
site of the Natural Resources of the Government of Canada [294] infrastructure and inform other drivers on the traffic conditions
shows five fuel efficient driving techniques compared to an average [303]. The EC funded ICT-emissions project investigated vehicle and
driving style, without quantifying their benefit. These techniques infrastructure information exchange in order to optimize traffic flow
include gentle accelerations, coast down decelerations, maintaining [304]. The study showed that information exchange can lead to
a steady speed and avoidance of high speeds, which in essence sum- reductions in CO2 emissions exceeding 15% in urban driving for a
marize the main principles of Eco-driving. combination of ADAS, stop-start systems and eco-driving patterns
TagedPA study investigated the effect of four speed patterns on fuel con- [305]. An ACEA backed study investigated the effect of ADAS on fuel
sumption in three vehicles for a fixed distance on a chassis dyna- consumption by deploying dynamic navigation tools to reduce trip
mometer [295]. Eco-driving conditions comprised smooth changes fuel consumption and driving recognition patterns that provide
118 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131

Fig. 5.2. Decrease in fuel consumption for Eco
driving compared to normal driving. The references cited in this figure are [16,18,19,282,283,295,296,327].

TagedPfeedback to the driver. The study found a 5
20% improvement in TagedP hich of the two is the best in terms of fuel saving and up to what
w
fuel consumption compared to average driving [306]. speed. OEAMTC [144] claims that for speeds up to 90 km/h the
impact of open windows on fuel consumption is lower than the use
TagedP5.1.5.1. Eco-innovations related to ADAS systems. T TagedP wo groups of tech- of A/C. Auto Alliance [309] in their Eco-driver's manual suggests that
nology, which can be considered as ADAS systems, have been windows should be left open up to the speed of 65 km/h.
granted eco-innovation status: predictive energy management and
coasting. Predictive energy management is a technology that focuses 5.3. Occupancy rates
on hybrid vehicles [307]. The technology receives geospatial data
from the navigation system of the vehicle and adapts energy usage TagedPOccupancy rate is defined as the number of passengers per vehi-
strategy and recuperation by predicting upcoming changes to the cle, including the driver, and it directly affects the weight of the cars
slope of the route. The expected CO2 reduction benefits of this tech- under real-world driving conditions operation and its fuel consump-
nology are approximately 1
3 gCO2/km. tion. The EEA [310] reported a decreasing trend in occupancy rates
TagedPCoasting technology [308] utilizes an automatic gearbox that dis- from 1.75 in 1980 to 1.6 in 2003 for Denmark, the Netherlands and
engages the engine from the wheels to permit the vehicle to coast the United Kingdom. The International Energy Agency (IEA) [180]
when engine idling leads to fuel savings compared to engine braking reported even lower figures, 1.37 for urban vehicle occupancy and
mode. The engine is idling and continues to provide power to the 1.15 for commute vehicle occupancy in Europe. The EEA [311] states
auxiliary equipment. The expected CO2 reduction benefits are about that according to the last available data (pre 2008), the average num-
1
5 gCO2/km. ber of passengers per car (including the driver) was approximately
1.45 passengers per vehicle for the selected countries (in the UK

5.2. Open windows 1.58; Germany
1.42 and Netherlands
1.38). The possible reasons
for this decrease is the greater individualization of society, the
TagedPOpen windows affect the normal flow of the air around the vehi- decline in household sizes and the increase in car ownership, but
cle influencing its aerodynamic resistance. The range and magnitude they comment that the rate of decline has slowed in recent years.
of this influence depends on the vehicle's shape, the average speed EEA considers the trend to be representative of the whole EU.
and how much and which windows are open. The data collected on TagedPBased on the information collected, an occupancy rate of 1.5 pas-
the issue were scarce and insufficient for drawing a solid conclusion. senger/vehicle can be considered representative of the EU average
The main source found was a study [122] for US vehicles quantifying conditions. However, this value varies between countries and
the effect of open windows on CO2 emissions. The study presents depends on the driving conditions with long distance trips having
the results of measurements on two vehicles over 64 to 129 km/h higher rates than short urban trips. Given the rate of decrease one
with an 8 km/h interval. A sedan and an SUV vehicle were tested would expect even lower occupancy rates today. Nevertheless, since
with all windows closed and open. In the case of the sedan in a speed 2008 the promotion of car-pooling, the appearance of new car-shar-
range between 65 and 130 km/h, open windows resulted in an ing services and the economic crisis may have further slowed down
increase in CO2 emissions of 5.6 to 8.3%. The influence of open win- this trend because commuters have more opportunities for sharing a
dows was less prominent in the case of the SUV, leading to increases trip and have fewer resources to spend in order to drive their
between 0.3 to 2.3%. The increased in aerodynamic resistance caused vehicles individually. It was not possible verify this assumption nor
by the opening of windows is low in the case of the SUV compared to to retrieve more updated information regarding occupancy rates at
the resistance of the aerodynamically optimized sedan vehicle. the European level. The EEA has decided to discontinue the reporting
TagedPOpening the windows could be viewed as a more fuel efficient of the occupancy rate indicator and archived the content as of 2015.
practice for reducing the temperature in the car's cabin compared to This lack of data is an issue that needs be addressed in future
the use of air-conditioning. Limited information is available as to research.
 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131 119

TagedPAn occupancy rate of 1.5 passengers/vehicle corresponds to an lTagedP aboratory test as they make reproduction of the results difficult for
additional mass of about 40 kg, not accounted for during the vehicle individual researchers. In addition, it is important that any test pro-
certification test. The average payload, excluding passengers, is esti- cedure retains a stable offset, or gap, compared to reality, at least on
mated to be 55 kg [65], adding up to a total 95 kg of average extra a statistical basis. Divergences appear to increase over time as dis-
load, that is not taken into consideration. This additional weight cussed previously and can be linked mainly to two factors:
could lead to a 5
7% increase of in fuel consumption according to
the values (see Fig. 3.1). The reduction in vehicle occupancy limits
the gap between official and real-world fuel consumption because iTagedP . Vehicle technologies or vehicle use do not display same CO2
the vehicle mass is closer to the one used in the official test [260]. effect in the laboratory and in real-world driving conditions,
However, a high occupancy rate is desirable in all transport modes therefore requiring test procedures to be revised and updated;
as it leads to lower emissions and consumption per passenger. Con- TagedPii. Vehicle manufacturers have learnt to exploit the margins of flex-
sidering the inelastic nature of passenger transport demand, ibility allowed by any test procedure.
increased occupancy rates can lead to CO2 savings. Assuming an
occupancy rate of 1.5 passengers per vehicle, the 2015 average CO2 TagedPThe second element is important as it can be used by vehicle
emissions of 120.7 g/km would translate into approximately manufacturers at zero cost and can disrupt market competition.
80 gCO2/(passenger*km). In comparison, the equivalent values Manufacturers who exploit the test margins obtain an unfair com-
for city buses are estimated to be in the range of 15
30 gCO2/ petitive advantage compared to those who achieve the same fuel
(passenger*km) [312,313] depending on the operating conditions consumption by implementing costly technologies. As a conse-
and bus type. quence, when the vehicle certification test is undertaken by an inde-
pendent body, significant deviations (beyond the natural test-to-test
5.4. Fuel choice variability) between the test result and the official certification value
arise.
TagedPAutomotive fuels are blends of various types of hydrocarbons and TagedPA series of laboratory tests [328] conducted on petrol and diesel
other organic compounds, whose characteristics are regulated by vehicles under the European type approval test procedure (NEDC
the relevant standards [49,314]. In the certification test, vehicles use test) showed a discrepancy of 15 § 10% between laboratory meas-
standardized fuels and their physical properties vary within a lim- urements and type approval values. This difference is attributed to
ited range. On the other hand, commercial fuel composition and the preparation of the vehicle in terms of, for example, tyre pressure
characteristics may vary within a wider range due to climatic condi- and state of battery charge and to the chassis dynamometer settings.
tions, regional policy and market availability of blend-stocks. Within the same project, the vehicles were driven on PEMS test
The latter becomes more evident considering variations of bio- routes and a deviation of 18 § 10% for petrol vehicles and 24 § 7%
components in commercial fuel. For example the ethanol and biodie- for diesel was reported. (see Fig. 6.1). Recent tests [29] carried out
sel contents in conventional petrol and diesel fuels respectively are on behalf of the French ministry of transport have shown in some
not uniform across EU [315]. In several countries different biofuel cases even higher deviations. Vehicles tested in an ex-post reproduc-
blends are available in the market in addition to standard fuel e.g. tion of the certification test were found to emit on average 15% more
10% or 85% Ethanol
Gasoline blends (E10, E85). CO2 than the certification value (with some vehicles emitting up to
TagedPChoosing a fuel with high biofuel concentration is beneficial con- 50% more CO2). The deviation represents a clear indication that the
sidering the overall GHG emissions over its lifecycle but can have a current European type-approval system, at least for what concerns
noticeable effect on fuel consumption and to a lesser extent on tail- the certification of fuel consumption and CO2 emissions, has signifi-
pipe CO2 emissions. Using straight biodiesel is reported to increase cant flaws that are being exploited in a way that the improvements
fuel consumption by 9% [316] due to biodiesel's lower energy den- in fuel consumption appear only during the vehicle certification pro-
sity. Biodiesel's effect on tailpipe emissions is limited leading to cedure and have very little or no relevance in real driving conditions.
lower increases of about 2 § 1% [317] as a result of the lower carbon In the following section, an overview of the main test flexibilities in
content of the biofuel. Using E10 fuel increases the fuel consumption the NEDC test procedure is reported.
by 3.5
4% and marginally reduces tailpipe CO2 [230,318,319] while
E85 may increase fuel consumption by 30
35% while reducing tail-
pipe CO2 by 5
7% [230].
TagedPFinally, climatic conditions require variations in fuel properties,
in particular for diesel fuels, related to volatility, viscosity, formation
of wax crystals and freezing point. The creation of crystals can lead
to irregular fuel flow, filter clogging, loss of power, engine stall
after start, or engine failure [320]. In order to prevent these effects,
permissible diesel characteristics are adjusted each season [321],
depending on country and climate. No data were found on the effect
of seasonal fuel variation on fuel consumption, which will essentially
depend on the fuel's energy content variation.

6. Vehicle certification test

TagedPA divergence between certification and in-use values can be

expected due to the vehicle certification test's boundary conditions
and other related factors related to the inherent inability to capture
all possible operating conditions in a laboratory based test, particu-
larly if this is a single driving cycle test. It is impossible for any kind
of standard and lab-based test to cover all possible conditions Fig. 6.1. Average CO2 emissions found in PEMS road test and in
house NEDC labora-
of real-world driving. Nonetheless, it is important to point out tory test for petrol and diesel vehicles. Emissions target refers to 130 gCO2/km in
the significance of various elasticities associated with any official 2015 [328].
120 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131

Table 6.1
Test elasticities of the European type approval test and their effect in reported CO2 emissions as quantified by different literature sources.

Factor Effect Source

Use of inertia classes CO2 values off by 4
6 g/km compared to real values [201]
CO2 emissions different from 2% to 11% compared to actual vehicle reference mass [18]
Non-realistic acceleration and driving patterns Discrepancy between NEDC and real-world consumption [136,256,257]
High idle time For vehicles equipped with Engine Start
Stop technology leads to unrealistic [18,136,329]
decreases in CO2 emissions (Overrated Start
Stop effect)
Short test cycle High cold start share leads to increased fuel consumption between 3% and 14% [330]
Underestimates hot emissions compared to real-world driving cycles [331]
Different wheel and tyre specifications in the NEDC than in real-world Leads to lower fuel consumption by 2% [136]
Flat surface, no simulation of altitude changes Lower CO2 and fuel consumption over NEDC compared to real-world operation [84,257]
Fully charged battery, not charging during the test Lower CO2 and fuel consumption over NEDC compared to real-world operation [136,332]
Test temperature between 20 and 30 °C Driving NEDC at 29 °C compared to 20 °C could lead to lower CO2 and fuel con- [18,332]
sumption by 2%
Average temperature in Europe is about 14 °C. Driving NEDC at 14 °C would [136]
increase CO2 by up to 6 g/km
Auxiliary systems are not taken into consideration Lower NEDC CO2 compared to real world [126]
Use of A/C increased NEDC consumption by 5% [136]
Increased consumption between 2.8 and 10% when considering auxiliaries [140, 159]
Special gear lubricant may be used in transmission Decreased NEDC consumption by 1% [178]
Declared result is allowed to be lower than what would be measured The same CO2 value can be applied to vehicle variants exhibiting up to 4% higher [18,332D]3X X
NEDC CO2 emissions compared to a measured parent vehicle. Certification mea-
surement is likely to take place for the least polluting vehicle. As a result official
CO2 value can be lower up to 4%.
Wheel and tyre optimization Permitted increase in rolling radius by 5% decreases NEDC CO2 emissions by 2.5% [332]
Road loads Real
world road loads are 30% higher at high speeds compared to type approval; [81]
Coast down tests performed with different wheels compared to the one actually
sold with the vehicle (lower rolling resistance, higher moment of inertia result
in artificially lower road loads and consequently CO2)
Non-realistic vehicle preconditioning Setting the chassis-dynamometer to reproduce the vehicle road-loads requires [333]
the vehicle to be warmed up to reproduce the conditions of the coast-down
tests. An NEDC cycle is foreseen for vehicle warm up, resulting in lower temper-
atures in the vehicle's driveline and hence higher internal losses compared to
those occurring during the actual coast down test. As a result, lower forces are
applied to the vehicle by the dyno to match the same road loads which in turn
lead to lower CO2 emissions by 1
3 gCO2/km.

6.1. Test margins TagedP r variations of the vehicle mass caused by extra components and
o
accessories and different levels of equipment. The NEDC reference
TagedPThe terms “margin”, "flexibility" or “elasticity” refer to a specific mass is linked to specific tiers (inertia classes). Inertia classes define
provision or interpretation of the certification procedure or an the vehicle inertia that is simulated during the vehicle certification
absence of such a provision or clear interpretation that, if applied, test. Each tier represents a range in the vehicle reference mass. The
results in the measurement of lower CO2 emission values. The com-
parative term “lower” assumes as a reference the values that would
occur if provisions, interpretations or practices more accurately
reflect real-world driving conditions within the boundaries and
technical limitations of the applicable measurement procedure.
Although such flexibilities might not be “illegal” their intentional
and systematic exploitation in order to achieve benefits should be
considered to be against the spirit of the law.
TagedPThe lack of binding prescriptions for certain elements of the test
procedure can be due to two main reasons: (i) to make the proce-
dure manageable in practical terms; and (ii) due to the lack of
knowledge on the effect of a particular flexibility. In both cases, the
problem arises for CO2 and fuel consumption certification if the mar-
gins can be legally exploited in order to deliver lower values. Many
European studies have been conducted on this issue. Table 6.1
presents a summary of the factors related to the test margins and
their effect. In addition, Fig. 6.2 presents the test elasticities (average
values per elasticity group) found in literature.
TagedPRegarding the longitudinal vehicle dynamics resulting from the
speed profile of a single test cycle, researchers [55] argue that a set
of driving cycles should be used instead. Different vehicles, differing
in performance levels and usage characteristics, should be tested
under different conditions.
TagedPThe reference mass, as introduced in the current type approval
process, equals the empty vehicle mass with an additional 100 kg to
account for the driver and fuel. The reference mass is considered by
definition lower than the operating mass as it does not take into Fig. 6.2. Discrepancy in fuel consumption between type approval and real world due
account the weight of additional passengers, equipment transported to the test margins (median values of sources included in Table 6.1).
 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131 121

TagedPinertia used in each tier is the average mass of the tier. This led to a TagedP ased in the USA and Japan and with a low portion of the sales from
b
non-continuous distribution of vehicle mass contrary to what hap- South Korea [39]. The vehicle certification test in Japan and the
pens in reality where mass is a continuous quantity. This has been United States has been revised to provide realistic values. In Japan
further exploited by vehicle manufacturers who have designed the certification test was based on the 10
15 mode that was a cycle
their vehicles in order to have a reference mass always close to the comprised of three segments accounting for urban driving (10
higher limit of the tier, and thus resulting in a vehicle inertia which mode) and one segment for highway driving (15 mode) [334]. The
is systematically lower that the reference mass. 10
15 mode was replaced by the JC08, which is a more stringent
TagedPAnother important element affecting directly tyre rolling resis- procedure, that was phased in from 2008 to 2011 [335,336]. The
tance during the test is tyre pressure. In NEDC there is no prescrip- JC08 is considered to deliver realistic emission values [337] but it
tion concerning the tyre pressure, the common practice is therefore has a lower average speed than the NEDC (22.7 km/h compared to
to inflate the tyre up to the maximum permissible pressure (»3 bar), 44.1 km/h of the NEDC, excluding stops) in order to compensate for
obtaining an advantage on the RRC. Keeping the pressure to the the lower speed limits in Japan, which are set at 100 km/h at the
maximum permissible pressure results in a small but measurable express way [338], comparatively lower than the 120
130 km/h
benefit in CO2 emissions due to the reduction of the tyre's rolling [339] set in Europe.
resistance characteristics and its contact surface with the chassis TagedPThe US EPA utilizes a set of cycles that comprised of city
dyno. In addition to the pressure, another element affecting the and highway cycles, with an average speed of 34.1 km/h and
vehicle rolling resistance is the tyre tread. In particular, the higher 77.7 km/h, respectively. After 2008 three supplementary tests
the depth of the tyre tread, the higher the RRC [175]. During type- were included to address different driving conditions. The high-
approval tyre depth can be between 50 and 90%. Adopting the speed supplementary test includes the US06 test cycle that has
minimum depth [48], CO2 emissions can be thus underestimated, an average speed of 77.9 km/h, but has higher top speed than
capturing only a fraction of the tyre's tread lifetime contribution to the highway speed cycle (128.7 km/h and 96.5 km/h, respec-
emissions. tively) and stronger accelerations (13.6 km/s2 and 5.1 km/s2,
TagedPThe present vehicle certification test is undertaken with the bat- respectively). The effect of the use of air-conditioning is mea-
tery fully charged, as no indications on the state of charge of the sured over the SC03 test cycle at 35 °C with the A/C switched on.
battery are reported in the legislation, something that does not cor- Finally, the effect of low temperature on emissions is measured
respond to real-world driving conditions where battery status is with a city cycle at a laboratory temperature of ¡6.7 °C [72].
subject to a series of factors ranging from weather conditions to fre- Emission standard compliance is measured under the city and
quency of vehicle use, traffic conditions and battery health. As vehi- highway cycles that provide the unadjusted emission values,
cle controllers are set to maintain a constant state of charge at but they do not take into consideration the driving conditions
about 80
90% of the battery's capacity, it is likely that all electrical previously mentioned. For this reason the values are adjusted
demands during the test are met through the discharge of the bat- based on the supplementary tests and the adjusted fuel economy
tery and no loads burden the alternator and the engine. In practical is provided to the customers [340]. Fig. 6.3 presents the ratio
terms, electric loads are excluded from the officially reported CO2 between on-road and official CO2 emissions. A divergence of
values [65]. about 30% for the unadjusted values and close to zero for the
TagedPThe above constitute a summary of the main test flexibilities that adjusted can be seen. Additionally, the data shows that while
can be used to artificially reduce CO2 emissions during the certifica- there was a negative gap in the adjusted values there has been
tion tests. Going into the details of all possible flexibilities is beyond a converging trend to zero in recent years [136]. In addition
the scope of the present paper. to the certification procedure, the US EPA has a surveillance
programme and conducts tests on in-use vehicles to ensure
6.2. Vehicle certification testing in Japan and the United States that they comply with emission standards and they do not devi-
ate from the laboratory measurements by a factor of 1.3 [15,73].
TagedPThe majority of the vehicles sold in Europe (about 90%) are pro- Violations can lead to significant fines for the vehicle manufac-
duced by European manufacturers [39], followed by manufacturers turer [10].

Fig. 6.3. Ratio of on-road and official CO2 emissions values by year [136].
122 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131

6.3. The WLTP introduction TagedP pproximate 0.3% increase in CO2 emissions [341]. D16XThe
a X WLTP stan-
dard for the minimum tyre tread depth is more stringent
TagedPThe limitations in the NEDC procedure has resulted in the (80%
100%) than under NEDC (50D
90%). 17X X In category (ii) the new
demand for a new, more realistic and robust test procedure. As a speed profile and gears shifting calculation algorithm are the main
result, in 2009 the World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regu- changes whereas more strict definitions regarding the test tem-
lations initiated action to develop a new harmonized procedure. In perature boundaries and the vehicle preconditioning are intro-
2014 the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) duced. The world harmonized driving cycle (WLTC) is expected to
adopted the first global technical regulation including the main address the issue of a non-realistic speed profile or traffic condi-
aspects of the new procedure [59]. The Worldwide Harmonized tions. The WLTC cycle was produced from around 1 million km of
Light Duty Test Procedure, WLTP, is the name of the procedure. In real-world vehicle activities and is subdivided in four different
2016 a new package was adopted to cover all the aspects of the vehi- phases reflecting traffic conditions at different average speeds
cle tests for fuel consumption, CO2 emissions and pollutant emis- [59]. With regards to the processing of the final results, new con-
sions. The introduction of the new test procedure in the different cepts are foreseen such as the correction of the fuel consumption
type-approval systems will depend on the specific country. The EU for the difference D18between
XX the test temperature (23 °C) D19and
XX the
will be the first to introduce it (by the end 2017) followed by Japan. average European temperature value of 14 °C and the correction
China, India, South Korea are expected to introduce it immediately addressing the effect of battery depletion during the test (battery
after. US will first assess the possible benefits before deciding State Of Charge correction). Finally, the current type approval
whether to adopt it or not. D20X X
extension mechanism, resulting in up to 4% lower emissions com-
TagedPIn Europe the WLTP is expected to address many of the limita- pared to the tested one, is abolished and a new definition of vehi-
tions of the current type approval test and act as a valuable reference cle families and how the certification can be extended to vehicles
basis for vehicle CO2 certification and monitoring. Table 6.2 presents of similar characteristics is introduced. Errors and flexibilities in
the main improvements of the WLTP with respect to the NEDC. The the test execution and road load determination have been also
changes are divided in four categories, namely: (i) road-load deter- corrected. This will contribute to achieving a more realistic certifi-
mination; (ii) laboratory test; (iii) processing test results; and (iv) cation value. The impact of the introduction of WLTP on the aver-
Certificate of Conformity (CoC). age fleet-wide CO2 is estimated to be of the order of 15
25%
TagedPWith regards to (i) a series of changes take place. In WLTP for [26,277,342,343], increasing the average CO2 of new passenger
example the definition of the mass has changed (to be more real- cars between 18 and 30 g/km (although any calculation has a
istic by e.g. including the effect of optional equipment). In addi- wide margin of uncertainty due to the fact that the new defini-
tion, the mass is allowed to vary in a continuous way (inertia tions in the protocol regarding vehicle classification, road load
classes have been removed). A new more detailed protocol regard- determination and type approval extension cannot be easily quan-
ing the calculation of resistance forces is introduced; tyre charac- tified). WLTP in its first stage is lacking any correction for the use
teristics are strictly defined as are the boundary conditions for of air-conditioning and there is no ex-post correction of the proto-
tyre pressure and pressure during the test. For example, the WLTP col based on the real-world performance of vehicles. So although
prescribes that the type-approval test is carried out with the the real world
certification gap will be reduced to a certain
tyre pressure set at the minimum of its range, resulting in an extent a measurable difference is likely to remain. Due to the

Table 6.2
Comparison of NEDC and WLTP [50].
 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131 123

TagedPexistence of specific CO2 targets associated with the NEDC, the old (TagedP 120 gCO2/km, 1380 kg, 1600 cc). Wherever it was necessary to
procedure will remain as a legal reference for all CO2 related tar- translate from fuel consumption to CO2 emissions a fuel mix of 46%
gets until year 2021. petrol and D24X X 54% diesel was considered and a weighted average value
was used. The main assumptions made for this “real-world” opera-
7. Summary discussion and conclusions tion scenario were the following:
TagedP
TagedPSeveral studies have focused on the issue of the gap between TagedP A flat 15% increase was considered due to the test protocol flexi-
real-world and vehicle certification fuel consumption and CO2 emis- bilities; 6% originated from optimal adjustments of the certifica-
sions. Passenger car emissions are reported to be higher in real- tion vehicle compared to the production vehicles, 5% originated
world driving conditions compared to the official laboratory test- from the protocol design and its foreseen boundaries and 4%
based values. The present (2014
2015) gap is estimated to be of the reflected the fixed homologation tolerance allowed.
order of 30D
40% 21X X while there are sources claiming that it reaches as TagedP An additional mass equal to 100 kg was assumed accounting for
much as 50%. For an average European passenger car, which is an occupancy rate of 1.5 person/vehicle, extra luggage and addi-
reported to emit in 2015 slightly more than 120 gCO2/km, this gap tional equipment compared to the certification vehicle
translates in an extra 36
48 gCO2/km or an increase of fuel con- TagedP An increase of 2% in CO2 emissions was assumed reflecting D25X X an
sumption of about 1.5 to 2 l/100 km (petrol equivalent). This corre- increased aerodynamic resistance due to factors such as side-
sponds to a significant increase in the operating costs of vehicles in winds, lower average air density, open windows, differences in
realD-world 2X X driving conditions. A conclusion common in almost all vehicle body/shape
studies is that the gap has been increasing with time. This trend can TagedP A 20% increase in rolling resistance was considered (2.4%
be traced back to a series of factors related to the actual use of increase in emissions), 15% of which is attributed to the use of
vehicles (e.g. frequent use of A/C systems, electric auxiliaries, traffic lower energy class replacement tyres and 5% to the combined
conditions) and test related shortcomings. Some researchers con- effect of winter tyres, deflated tyres and driving on wet roads
clude that the introduction of European mandatory CO2 targets in TagedP The weighted effect of annual temperature variation on vehicle
2009 pushed vehicle OEMs to optimize the fuel consumption over cold start emissions was estimated to be 2.9%; vehicle operation
the official cycle taking advantage in several cases of the margins was assumed to take place at four different ambient tempera-
allowed by an old and to some extent outdated test procedure. These tures 4, 12, 20 and 28 °C for 15, 35, 35 and 15% of the year
margins are also the topic of various studies with an approximate respectively resulting in a mean annual temperature of 14 °C.
influence estimated to be between 10 and 20%. This range has been TagedP Additional auxiliary electric loads were set equal to 250 W
also demonstrated by recent tests conducted in various countries. resulting in additional 6 gCO2/km
TagedPA series of factors affecting fuel consumption of passenger cars TagedP A constant increase of 2.5% was considered to account for the
over laboratory and real-world driving conditions were identified. hysteresis in fuel consumption when driving at mild road grades
Several factors had been thoroughly assessed in previous studies, of 0.5
1% (zero altitude change)
such as the influence of ambient temperature on cold start or the TagedP An additional fuel consumption of 0.5 l/100 km due to the use
influence of mass increase. For some other factors such as rain or of air-conditioning for 50% of the year (temperatures > 20 °C)
snow, scarce data were available despite their apparent influence on resulting in a weighted average increase of 5%
vehicle fuel consumption. The majority of the studies reviewed
investigate the impact of these factors on CO2 emissions and/or fuel TagedPFinally, the effect of the traffic conditions should be taken into
consumption over experimental tests undertaken on-road or in the account. Increases and decreases in fuel consumption and CO2 emis-
laboratory. In fewer cases simulation and other analytic approaches sions can occur, depending on the mix of traffic conditions, when
are used for quantifying the effect. One of the difficulties in pooling comparing against conditions similar to those experienced over a
together all this information and extracting quantifiable results is cycle/trip with characteristics similar to those of the NEDC. The
the absence of a common reference. Indeed the baseline in each NEDC has a relatively mild mix of 36% urban driving and 64% extra
study is different as are the test conditions and the vehicle under urban driving with a total average speed of 33 km/h. Based on the
investigation. In order to consolidate the information collected, the results presented in Section 4.4, in the majority of traffic conditions
reported effect of each factor on consumption or emissions was nor- fuel consumption lies between §15% of the fuel consumption expe-
malized and expressed as a percentile effect on CO2 emissions over rienced at 33 km/h. The same range was assumed as the lower
real-world driving conditions when compared to the respective lab- and upper boundary of the real-world emissions calculated in this
oratory reference test. The median of D23X X these normalized values can exercise.
be considered as an indicator of each factor's potential impact on TagedPFig. 7.1 presents the results of the gap calculation broken down
fuel consumption (Table 7.1). In addition to the median value, the to the main contributing factors. Starting from a baseline of
standard deviation of the findings is provided as a measure of the 120 gCO2/km, an additional 18 gCO2/km would account for the mar-
spread of the results and the accordance between different studies. gins of the present certification test and a more realistic baseline for
The standard deviation, together with the extreme values found, an average European car would be at 138 gCO2/km. With the main
provide a first estimate of the uncertainty associated with the quan- test margins addressed, an emissions level of 140 gCO2/km could be
tification of the effect of each factor. It is observed that for most fac- considered as the low starting point of the upcoming WTLP certifica-
tors the value of the standard deviation is comparable or even tion scheme (16% increase compared to baseline). Other vehicle
higher than the median value. Hence, there is a high uncertainty in related factors such as mass, aerodynamics and road loads contrib-
these estimations and also a high dispersion of the results from dif- ute another 10.4 gCO2/km to the gap, 4.4, 2.6 and 3.4 gCO2/km
ferent studies. The latter occurs due to a number of reasons such as respectively each. Part of their effect is also likely to be captured by
the use of different types of vehicles and the absence of common the WLTP as more strict definitions for vehicle mass and road loads
protocols and testing procedures. are foreseen, which take into account the least favourable conditions
TagedPThe information of Table 7.1 was used for formulating a scenario (e.g. lowest energy class tyres, vehicle with higher aerodynamic
on the passenger car real-world CO2 emissions and for calculating resistance). The effect of annual temperature variation on cold start
an indicative value for the CO2 gap in 2015. The characteristics was estimated to contribute another 4.1 gCO2/km. When including
of the vehicle considered in the calculation correspond to those of the temperature effect, vehicle emissions reach at 152.6 gCO2/km, a
the average European passenger car as presented in Table 2.1 value that could be viewed as the highest end point of the WLTP
124 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131

Table 7.1
The potential influence of different factors on CO2 emissions over real-world conditions compared to the official test value. Reported value (%) represents the median value
extracted from literature. Error bars indicate the minimum
maximum values.

TagedP(26.5% increase compared to baseline). Further to these contributors, TagedPlow as 142.8 gCO2/km for mild speed, free-flow driving. In such
additional electric consumption over realistic conditions, road grade extremes the difference from official emissions would be 61% and
and air conditioning would add an extra 5.9, 3.5 and 5.9 g/km 19% respectively.
respectively increasing the total real-world emissions to 168 gCO2/ TagedPThe above calculation should be viewed from a qualitative per-
km. The latter translates in a CO2 gap of 40%, a value that is in line spective rather than from a strictly quantitative one. The uncertainty
with the observations of several studies (see Fig. 2.2 and Table 1.1). behind the qualified assumptions made for the calculation remains
Of course this estimate does not take into account the possible traffic high and difficult to quantify. In addition there are other factors
conditions in which a vehicle may operate, but should be considered influencing the performance of vehicles in real world. In reality not
as an indicative average situation. Traffic conditions add substantial all factors are equally present. Calculations of higher accuracy would
uncertainty to the calculation. Real-world emissions of the same require the application of in-use weighing factors on each individual
vehicle could reach up to 193 gCO2/km in cases of intense traffic or factor in Table 7.1 to account for its share in real-world operation.
when driving at very high speeds. Similarly emissions could be as Highly influential factors, such as trailer towing, rarely occur hence
 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131 125

Fig. 7.1. Reality vs Certification gap estimation for an average 2015 passenger car; breakdown of factors contributing to the gap.

TagedPtheir contribution in the CO2 gap is minimal. On the other hand, tTagedP he in-use emissions estimates will be necessary for environmental,
some factors, which on a first view appear less influential (e.g. side policy or consumer information purposes. Even if part of the road
winds), might have a more significant contribution to the gap as transport sector becomes electrified, the need to reduce energy con-
vehicles are exposed to side winds when driven in highway condi- sumption of vehicles will remain as mobility needs will continue to
tions. Unfortunately, only scarce information can be found in exist- grow.
ing literature that would allow a robust calculation of a realistic in- TagedPAt this point it should be stressed that defining a single pan-Euro-
use share for each factor. Few studies are investigating how vehicles pean CO2 emission targets and gap correction factors may not be the
are actually used in real life, despite the fact that the real-world ver- most effective approach for reducing road transport CO2 emissions
sus type approval fuel consumption gap is being frequently studied. in real world. Each region has its own characteristics, particularities
In conclusion, the values presented here regarding the real-world and mobility needs. Proposing actions tailored at regional level
CO2 gap could be viewed as a realistic estimate of an average Euro- would maximize the CO2 benefits but is very difficult due to the lack
pean situation on which additional more focused and thorough of data and information sources. Even at regional level, environmen-
research can be based in order to support policy initiatives in the tal, traffic and vehicle operating conditions may vary significantly
future and technology development in the future. making any estimates difficult to validate and policy initiatives diffi-
TagedPThe upcoming WLTP is expected to address many of the limita- cult to assess. As discussed previously, there is a lack of consistent
tions of the current legislation, including several of the issues information generation and data collection practices that would
highlighted in this paper. The values provided by the WLTP are facilitate the definition of a more precise “reality” and enable more
expected to be closer to real-world driving conditions by about 26 § accurate estimates of the real-world fuel consumption. These are
6 gCO2/km. However, WLTP cannot fully bridge the gap. The lack of issues which should be raised for further discussion by researchers,
quantified understanding of the real-world driving conditions is a policy makers and other stakeholders, i.e. how additional informa-
problem that has to be addressed even after the new testing protocol tion on traffic, environmental conditions, and vehicle characteristics
is established in Europe. The main reason is that no single test, no can be generated and made available for more targeted research and
matter how sophisticated and well designed, will ever be represen- in-depth analysis.
tative of the real-world operation of all vehicles and conditions. TagedPAchieving sustainable mobility is a challenge that surpasses the
There are factors affecting fuel consumption in everyday operation borders of individual countries or regions. It is important for the
which are neither included in the test nor easily identified. In order global scientific community to revisit the issue of road transport CO2
to reduce the gap and ensure that the on-road emissions are within emissions in a more systematic manner if we are to achieve the tran-
a reasonable margin, there should be established some form of vehi- sition to a low-carbon transport sector.
cle in-use monitoring contributing to the strategic target of reducing
overall CO2 emissions from the transport in the future. Vehicle man- Acknowledgements
ufacturers will eventually learn how to optimize vehicle perfor-
mance over the new test procedure. Hence, attention should focus TagedPAuthors would like to thank the following people for their feed-
on the evolution of the gap over time, which shall not increase pro- back, help and advice: Stefanos Tsiakmakis, Jelica Pavlovic, Stefano
gressively, and on the underlying factors causing it. Furthermore, Malfettani, Konstantinos Anagnostopoulos, Alessandro Marotta,
technology progresses fast and any D26X X test procedure sooner or later Uwe Tietge, Zifei Yang, Cosmin Codrea, Vicente Franco and Ian Hogd-
becomes outdated. Given the pace of new technology development, son. Authors express their gratitude to Anwar D27X X Haq for providing
a more dynamic approach should be foreseen, including verification valuable scientific and editorial comments and for proof-reading the
activities, continuous research on the topic and real-world data col- paper. Finally the authors would like to thank the anonymous
lection. Some form of ex-post calculation of the gap or correction of reviewers for their constructive comments and reviews.
126 G. Fontaras et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 60 (2017) 97
131

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