‘O’-Level Physics Notes

2018

Abstract

These notes may or may note be accurate.

Use at your own risk.
The tcolorboxes are taken from 4yn’s Github Repository.

Contents 10 Temperature 11

11 Thermal Properties of Matter 11

I Measurement 2

1 Physical Quantities, Units and Measure- IV Waves 12

ment 2
12 General Wave Properties 12

13 Light 13
II Newtonian Mechanics 3
14 Electromagnetic Spectrum 15
2 Kinematics 3
15 Sound 16
3 Dynamics 5

4 Mass, Weight, and Density 7 V Electricity and Magnetism 16

5 Turning Effect of Forces 7 16 Static Electricity 16

6 Pressure 8 17 Current of Electricity 18

18 DC Circuits 19
7 Energy, Work, and Power 8
19 Practical Electricity 21
III Thermal Physics 9 20 Magnetism 22

8 Kinetic Model of Matter 9 21 Electromagnetism 23

9 Transfer of Thermal Energy 10 22 Electromagnetic Induction 24

This document consists of 26 pages including the cover page.

1
Part I A number is expressed in standard form as

N
Measurement A × 10
|{z}
base
|{z}
factor

where 1 É A < 10 and N ∈ Z.

1 Physical Quantities, Units and
Measurement A unit can be rewritten with any of these prefixes pre-
ceding its symbol:
Preamble
Measurement is a tool that we use in physics a lot. Prefix Symbol Factor Order of Magnitude
It is difficult to get fully accurate measurements due tera T 1012 12
to how well we can create instruments, control ran- giga G 109 9
dom errors, and other factors. Nonetheless we try to mega M 106 6
minimise these errors by practising proper measure- kilo k 103 3
ment techniques. We use measurements to determine deci d 10−1 −1
physical quantities, and these quantities are commu- centi c 10−2 −2
nicated with units. milli m 10−3 −3
micro µ 10−6 −6
nano n 10−9 −9
1.1 Physical Quantities pico p 10−12 −12

Definition 1.1.1: Physical Quantity

A physical quantity is a quantity consisting of a nu- 1.3 Scalars and Vectors
merical and a unit.
Definition 1.3.1: Scalar Quantity
The numerical magnitude tells us the size of the quan-
tity, and the unit tells us what the quantity is expressed A scalar quantity has a magnitude but no direction.
in.

Physical quantities can be either a basic quantity): Definition 1.3.2: Vector Quantity
A vector quantity has a magnitude and direction.
Physical Quantity SI Unit
mass m kilogram kg
time t second s
temperature T kelvin K 1.4 Vector Analysis
length l metre m
Vectors can be added by using the trigonometric method
current I ampere A
or the graphical method.
amount n mole mol

or a derived quantity, which are derived from basic Equation 1.4.1: Components
quantities. A two-dimensional vector v can be broken down into
components v x and v y , with magnitudes of
1.1.1 Dimensional Analysis
v x = |v| cos θ , v y = |v| sin θ
This is not explicitly taught in syllabus, but it is a very
important tool to help you if you are stuck in a problem.
Equation 1.4.2: Magnitude of Vectors
The main idea is to treat units like algebraic terms,
The magnitude of a vector v with components v x and
and manipulate them accordingly to get the right de-
v y is given by
rived unit for the quantity. Usually, a single unit is writ- q
ten in square brackets [ ] to avoid confusion with units |v| = v2x + v2y
with multiple letters (e.g. [mol] and [m]).

1.2 Prefixes, Standard Form, and Order v

vy
of Magnitude
If a number is too large or too small, it will get very an- θ
noying to write a lot of digits. That is what prefixes and vx
standard form aim to solve. The former will be written
with the unit, while the latter will be written with the Observer that when you add the two components to-
numerical magnitude. gether, they form the vector itself.

2
 2. Place the object in between the anvil and the spin-
u dle.
translated v 3. Close the jaws on the micrometer screw gauge un-
til the object is in contact. Turn the ratchet until a
‘click’ sound is heard.
u+v
4. On the datum line (with 0.5 mm subdivisions),
take the reading that is on the left of the circular
v scale, xdatum .
translated u
5. On the circular scale (with 0.01 mm subdivisions),
take the reading that coincides with the datum
line, xcircular .
Bring a protractor with you to the examination.
6. The measurement is the sum of the reading on the
datum line and circular scale, and then subtract-
ing the zero error, x − ∆ x.
1.5 Measurement
1.5.1 Precision and Accuracy
1.5.3 Simple Pendulum
Definition 1.5.1: Precision A simple pendulum is one on the premises that the
Precision is how well a set of readings of the same string is massless, and the bob is a point mass.
physical quantity agree with each other.
Equation 1.5.1: Period of Simple Pendulum
Definition 1.5.2: Accuracy 2
Using the approximation cos θ ≈ 1 − θ2 , for a reason-
Accuracy is how close the set of readings are to the ably small θ (angle of release),
true value. s
L
T = 2π
1.5.2 Measurement of Lengths g

Parallax error should be avoided when measuring

lengths. In the case of a measuring tape or a metre rule,
the object needs to be in contact with the measuring
instrument. θ

Vernier Callipers
Accuracy: ±0.01 cm
1. Check for zero error. This error is ∆ x.
2. Place the object to be measured at the appropriate
measurement site (internal jaws, external jaws, or
tail).
3. Slide the vernier scale so that the jaws or tail mea- A
sure the entirety of the object.
4. On the main scale (with 0.1 cm subdivisions), take
the reading that is on or left of the ‘0’ mark of the
vernier scale, xmain . Part II
5. On the vernier scale (with 0.01 cm subdivisions),
read the mark that coincides with a mark on the Newtonian Mechanics
main scale, xvernier .
6. The measurement is the sum of the reading on the
main scale and vernier scale, and then subtracting 2 Kinematics
the zero error, x − ∆ x.
Preamble
Kinematics is the study of the motion of objects. It can
Micrometer Screw Gauge
describe the way a thing moves in space over time. We
Accuracy: ±0.001 cm will only cover one-dimensional motion in this chap-
ter.
1. Check for zero error. This error is ∆ x.

3
2.1 Distance and Displacement Equation 2.3.1: Acceleration

Definition 2.1.1: Distance The acceleration of an object is computed as

The distance traversed by an object in some time is ∆v
the entire distance regardless of the direction of mo- a=
∆t
tion. The SI unit of distance is the metre [m].
Acceleration is a vector quantity. When reporting the
Distances are a scalar quantity.
acceleration of an object, the direction from the origin
Definition 2.1.2: Displacement point must be stated.

The displacement of an object is the net change in

position of an object. The SI unit of displacement is 2.4 Kinematic Graphs
the meter [m].
A kinematic graph is a visual representation of the state
Displacements are a vector quantity. When reporting the of motion of the object over a period of time. A kinematic
displacement of an object, it is important to also state graph is useful in many situations, and should be drawn
the direction from the origin point. when you are stuck in a kinematics problem.

2.2 Average Speed, Average Velocity, 2.4.1 Displacement-time Graph

and Instantaneous Velocity
The displacement-time graph records the displacement
Equation 2.2.1: Average Speed of an object over a time period. The displacement is
The average speed of an object is given as recorded on the vertical axis, the time is recorded on the
horizontal axis.
total distance
average speed = s
total time

Speed is a scalar quantity.

Definition 2.2.1: Average Velocity

The average velocity of an object is the change in dis-
placement of the object from the origin point. The SI
unit of velocity is metre per second [m s−1 ].

Equation 2.2.2: Average Velocity

t
The average velocity of an object can be computed as
The gradient of the tangent to the
Σs
〈 v〉 = displacement-time graph is the velocity at that
Σt
time only.
Definition 2.2.2: Instantaneous Velocity
The instantaneous velocity of an object is the rate of The gradient of a displacement-time graph tells us its
change of displacement of the object at some specific velocity.
time. Mathematically, it is the derivative of the dis-
placement function.
2.4.2 Velocity-time Graph

Equation 2.2.3: Instantaneous Velocity The velocity-time graph records the velocity of an object
over a time period. The velocity is recorded on the verti-
The instantaneous velocity at a time t is computed as
cal axis, the time is recorded on the horizontal axis.
∆s
v( t) = lim v
∆ t →0 ∆t

Velocity is a vector quantity. When reporting the velocity

of an object, it is important to also state the direction
from the origin point.

2.3 Acceleration
Definition 2.3.1: Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. t

4
 v
Usually the graph would be made out of straight vterminal
lines and calculating area shouldn’t be a problem.
If the graph is curved, count squares.

The gradient of a velocity-time graph tells us its accel-

eration; the area under a velocity-time graph tells us
the displacement.

2.5 Freefall t

Definition 2.5.1: Freefall

An object is in freefall when the only force acting on 3 Dynamics
it is due to gravity.
Preamble
This means that the acceleration due to freefall is al-
In physics, forces change the state of motion of an ob-
ways equal to the local acceleration g, and all other
ject. Studying forces allow us to talk about the effects
forces like air drag do not exist.
on the object and predict the motions of the object. In
this chapter, we will look at two-dimensional dynam-
ics.
mg g

3.1 Forces
v Definition 3.1.1: Force
A force is a push or pull on a body. The SI unit of force
is the newton [N].

3.2 Newton’s Laws of Motion

The three laws of motion are:

gradient = 10 ms−2 Definition 3.2.1: First Law

t
Newton’s first law states that every object will con-
tinue in its state of rest or uniform motion in a
2.6 Air drag straight line unless a resultant force acts on it.

In real situations, air drag, or air resistance, is a re- Definition 3.2.2: Second Law
sistive force that works against the weight of an object
when falling. Air drag is proportional to the square Newton’s second law states that when a resultant
of the velocity of an object. force acts on an object of a constant mass, the object
will accelerate in the direct ion of the resultant force.
As an object falls, its velocity increases. Air drag then The product of the mass m and acceleration a net of
also increases. The acceleration of the object slowly de- the object gives the resultant force.
creases as the net force acting on the object is decreas-
ing. Fnet = ma net

This continues until a point where the air drag is equal

Definition 3.2.3: Third Law
and opposite to the weight of the object. The object then
experiences zero net force, and has zero acceleration, Newton’s third law states that if body A exerts a force
maintaining a constant velocity. F AB on body B, body B will exert an equal and oppo-
site force FBA on body A.
This constant velocity is terminal velocity.

Fdrag
3.3 Effects of Forces
From the first law, we know that a force can accelerate
mg g a body (i.e. change velocity). This can be done by either
changing the magnitude or direction of the velocity vec-
tor of the body.

5
3.3.1 Static System T

Definition 3.3.1: Equilibrium

A body is said to be in equilibrium if the net force on
the body is zero. This is sometimes called a static sys-
tem, where no net acceleration takes place.

When resolving statics problems, it is important to en-

sure all force vectors add up to zero. Graphically, all
these vectors when placed tip to tail should end where
T
they started.

3.4.3 Friction
3.3.2 Unbalanced System
Definition 3.4.3: Friction
If the net force on a body is not zero, the object is not in is the contact force that opposes or tends to oppose
translational equilibrium, and that means its velocity is motion between surfaces in contact.
changing.
Friction is a resistive force, that works against a force
applied. There are two types of friction: kinetic and
static friction.
3.4 Types of Forces
Kinetic friction deals with two objects moving on each
It is not sufficient to just describe forces as “push” and other, and exists when an object is moving, while static
“pull” forces. Different names for forces are designated friction deals with two objects that are stationary. The
for different contexts. In this syllabus, only friction is maximum static friction is the minimum force to be ap-
required, but I will add common forces as well. Refer to plied to allow an object to start moving on a surface.
chapter 4 for weight.
N

3.4.1 Normal Force

Fa
Definition 3.4.1: Normal Force
The normal force is the force perpendicular to a sur- f = µN surface
face that the surface applies to a body due to its com-
pression.
mg
N
3.4.4 Centripetal Force

Definition 3.4.4: Centripetal Force

(It’s not really in syllabus but you need to know this
surface is a thing.) A centripetal force accelerates a body by
changing the direction of the body’s velocity without
changing the body’s speed.
mg
This force arises in uniform circular motion. Centripetal
force “pulls” the object back to the centre, allowing it
to constantly change direction. Centripetal force is a net
force, that is to say it is the vector sum of different forces
3.4.2 Tension
acting on the body.

Definition 3.4.2: Tension For example, in a swinging mass, the vector sum of its
Tension is the force exerted in a body when it is pulled weight mg and the tension of the string T is the cen-
on. tripetal force FC .

Furthermore, centripetal force is proportional to its tan-

On a massless string, the tension on the two ends are gential velocity squared v2 and inversely proportional to
equal. the radius r of the circle of motion.

6
 Weight is a force, therefore it is a vector quantity. It can
v be measured with a spring balance.

FC Definition 4.2.2: Gravitational Field

A gravitational field is a region in which a mass ex-
periences a force due to gravitational attraction. The
gravitational field strength is the gravitational force
acting per unit mass. On Earth, is equal to

g = 10 m s−2 = 10 N kg−1

4.3 Density
Definition 4.3.1: Density
The density of an object is its mass per unit volume.
mv 2 The density of an object ρ with mass m and volume V
FC = is equal to
r m
ρ=
The magnitude of v stays constant, but the direction is V
constantly changing. That means the object is accelerat- The SI unit of density is kilogram per cubic metre
ing. This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration, [kg m−3 ].
2
equal to vr .
When an object is placed in a liquid,

ρ object < ρ liquid


4 Mass, Weight, and Density float

the object will suspend ρ object = ρ liquid

sink ρ object > ρ liquid

Preamble
Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass.
The three quantities we are exploring today will allow 5 Turning Effect of Forces
us to describe matter in different ways.
Preamble
Objects do not only move in a straight line, they can
4.1 Mass
also move in curves and circles and all kinds of funny
Definition 4.1.1: Mass shapes. In this chapter we will explore how we can
make an object turn by applying a force.
Mass is the amount of matter in a body. The SI unit
of mass is the kilogram [kg].
5.1 Moment
The magnitude of mass depends on the number of atoms
in the body. Definition 5.1.1: Moment

Mass is a scalar quantity. It can be measured with an The moment of a force is the product of the force F
electronic mass balance. and the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the
line of action of the force r
Definition 4.1.2: Inertia
moment = r × F
The inertia of an object refers to the reluctance of the
object to change its state of rest or motion, due to its The SI unit of moment is newton metre [N m].
mass.

4.2 Weight
Definition 4.2.1: Weight turning motion F

The weight of an object is defined as the gravita- r

tional force acting on it due to gravity. The weight
of an object w with mass m is equal to Definition 5.1.2: Principle of Moments

w = mg The principle of moments states that when a body is

in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about
where g is the local gravitational field strength. The a pivot is equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments
SI unit of weight is the newton [N]. about the same pivot..

7
5.2 Centre of Gravity Equation 6.2.2: Transfer of Pressure

Definition 5.2.1: Centre of Gravity Pressure is constant in an incompressible liquid,

The centre of gravity, or centre of mass, is a point F1 F2

=
where the weight of an object seems to be acting on. A1 A2
The centre of gravity can lie outside an object.
Equation 6.2.3: Work Done
5.3 Stability Energy is conserved by the first law of thermodynam-
ics (which is useful to keep in mind when solving hy-
Definition 5.3.1: Stability draulic press problems):
The stability of an object is a measure of its ability
F1 d 1 = F2 d 2
to return to its original position after it is s lightly
displaced.

An object can be in stable, unstable, or neutral equilib- 6.3 Atmospheric Pressure

rium.
Equation 6.3.1: Atmospheric Pressure
Type of Stable Unstable Neutral
Atmospheric pressure at sea level is said to be 1 atm.
equilib-
It is equal to 101 325 Pa.
rium
Centre Low High p 0 = 101 325 Pa = 760 mmHg
of grav-
ity
Base Large Narrow A line of Equation 6.3.2: Pressure Difference
area contact A manometer can be used to measure pressure differ-
points ences. It measures a ∆ h which corresponds to a pres-
with sure difference of
surface
Slight Return Topple Stay ∆ p = ρ g∆ h
displace- to equi- over in new
ment librium position

An object’s stability can be increased by lowering the

height of the centre of gravity, or increasing the base
area of the object.
p1

6 Pressure ∆h

Preamble
p2
These preambles are feeling more dreadful to write
because pressure is building up.

6.1 Pressure
Definition 6.1.1: Pressure
Pressure is defined as the amount of force per unit
area. It is given as
F
p= ∆ p = | p 2 − p 1 | = ρ g∆ h
A
The SI unit of pressure is the pascal [Pa].

7 Energy, Work, and Power

6.2 Pressure of Fluids
Preamble
Equation 6.2.1: Pressure due to a Fluid Column
The study of energy and matter form the basis of
Fluids of a density ρ can exert pressure p at a height physics. In this chapter we will look at the concept
h equal to of energy, work done, power, and other relevant quan-
p = ρ gh tities.

8
7.1 Energy 7.3 Power
Definition 7.3.1: Power
Definition 7.1.1: Energy
Power is defined as the rate of work done or rate of
Energy is the capacity to do work. energy conversion. It is calculated as

W
P=
Definition 7.1.2: Principle of Conservation of Energy t
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but can be The SI unit of power is the watt [W].
converted from one form to another. The total energy
in an isolated system is constant. i.e.

∆E T = 0 Part III

Definition 7.1.3: Kinetic Energy Thermal Physics

Kinetic energy is the energy an object possesses when
it is moving. It is given as
8 Kinetic Model of Matter
1
EK = mv2 Preamble
2
Matter is made up of small particles that behave in
The SI unit of kinetic energy is the joule [J]. certain ways under different conditions. In this chap-
ter we will accurately describe the particulate nature
of matter and how it behaves under different temper-
Definition 7.1.4: Gravitational Potential Energy
ature and pressure conditions.
Gravitational potential energy is defined as how
much work can be done by the gravitational force
from a height h away. It is given as 8.1 Three States of Matter
Property Solid Liquid Gas
E P = mgh
Shape fixed not fixed not fixed
The SI unit of gravitational potential energy is the Volume fixed fixed not fixed
joule [J]. Compressible? no no yes
When prompted to describe a state, you might want to
talk about its:
Definition 7.1.5: Mechanical Energy
• arrangement of particles
The mechanical energy of an object is the sum of its
kinetic energy and its gravitational potential energy: • forces between particles

ET = EK + EP • kinetic energy of particles

• motion of particles
as written like in the next few subsections.

7.2 Work
8.1.1 Solids

Definition 7.2.1: Work Done Solids are

The work done by a constant force on an object is the • closely packed in an orderly manner
product of the force F and the distance moved by the • held together by strong forces of attraction
object in the direction of the force (actually displace-
ment s). • have enough energy to only vibrate and rotate
W = Fs about their fixed positions

The SI unit of work done is the joule [J]. • cannot move around freely

8.1.2 Liquids
Equation 7.2.1: Efficiency
Liquids are
Efficiency is calculated by
• arranged in a disorderly manner
output
η= × 100% • have weaker forces of attraction than the particles
input
of a solid

9
 • have more kinetic energy than particles of the sub- Equation 8.2.2: Boyle’s Law
stance in the solid state, and are not held in fixed
Boyle’s law states that the pressure of a gas is in-
positions
versely proportional to the volume of the gas if the
temperature stays constant (isothermic). Mathemati-
• can move freely throughout the liquid
cally,
1
p∝
V
8.1.3 Gases
p
Gases are

• spread far apart from one another

• have weaker forces of attraction than the particles

of a liquid

• have a lot of kinetic energy and are not held in

fixed positions
V
• can move about rapidly in any direction
Equation 8.2.3: Gay-Lussac’s Law
Definition 8.1.1: Brownian Motion Gay-Lussac’s Law states that the volume of a gas is
Particles are in constant random motion. Brownian directly proportional to its temperature if the pressure
motion arises due to these random motions of parti- stays constant (isobaric). Mathematically,
cles in a fluid.
V ∝T

V
8.2 Gas Laws
There are three gas laws.

Definition 8.2.1: Ideal Gas Law

As a result of the three gas laws to be presented below,
the relationship for an ideal gas between its temper-
ature, pressure, and volume can be expressed as

pV = nRT T

where nR is some constant. Equation 8.2.4: Avogadro’s Law

(This is not in this syllabus but it is in O-Level Chem-
Equation 8.2.1: Charles Law istry so I’ll put it here.) Avogadro’s law states that the
Charles Law states that the pressure of a gas is di- amount of gas is directly proportional to the volume
rectly proportional to its temperature if the volume of the gas. Mathematically,
stays constant (isochoric). Mathematically,
n∝V
p∝T

p 9 Transfer of Thermal Energy

Preamble
Heat can be transferred in multiple ways. In this
chapter we will look at three different methods for
heat transfer.

Heat always flows from a region of higher temperature

to a region of lower temperature. Net flow of thermal
energy occurs only when there is a difference in temper-
T ature.

10
 colder region Definition 10.1.2: Heat
Heat is the amount of thermal energy that is being
hotter region transferred from a hotter to a colder region.

flow of heat Equation 10.1.1: Temperature Conversion

To convert from degrees Celsius [°C] to kelvin [K],
9.1 Methods of Heat Transfer
[K] = [°C] + 273.15
Definition 9.1.1: Conduction
Conduction is the process whereby particles within a
medium transfer heat without the movement of the 10.2 Thermometer Calibration
medium itself.
Definition 10.2.1: Ice Point
Particles collide with neighbouring particles and that
The ice point is the temperature of pure melting ice
energy gets transferred down the entire object, causing
at one atmosphere, and is assigned a value of 0 °C.
the object to increase in temperature.
Metals can conduct heat better due to electron diffu- Definition 10.2.2: Steam Point
sion.
The steam point is the temperature of pure boiling
Definition 9.1.2: Convection water at one atmosphere, and is assigned a value of
100 °C.
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy by
means of convection currents in a fluid due to a dif-
ference in density. Definition 10.2.3: Thermometric Property
A thermometric property is a property of matter that
Definition 9.1.3: Radiation varies continuously and linearly with temperature.
Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy in the
form of electromagnetic waves such as infrared radi- Some examples of this include the volume of an ob-
ation without the aid of a medium. ject, the electromotive force of a thermocouple, and the
height of a liquid column.
Factors that affect the rate of radiation include:
• Colour: darker objects radiate heat better than Equation 10.2.1: Thermometry Formula
lighter objects (see emissivity) To make a thermometer, you need some thermomet-
• Surface: rougher surfaces radiate heat better ric property X at temperatures 0 °C, 100 °C, and some
than smoother surfaces (due to higher surface temperature θ °C. Then you plug them into this for-
area) mula
Xθ − X0
θ °C = × 100 °C
• Surface Temperature: higher surface tempera- X 100 − X 0
tures allow for faster radiation.
Further reading: Radiation is modelled by the Stefan-
Boltzmann Law: 11 Thermal Properties of Matter
P = A εσT 4

where ε is the emissivity and σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann Preamble

constant, 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4 . Matter has some properties when it comes to heat.
These preambles are also getting difficult to write be-
cause I’m running out of ideas.
10 Temperature
Preamble
11.1 Heat Energy
In this chapter we will learn how to make a ther-
mometer because you can’t buy one in practical exam.
Definition 11.1.1: Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
(This isn’t in syllabus.) The zeroth law of thermody-
10.1 Temperature and Heat namics states that if object A, B, and C are in ther-
mal contact with each other, and if the temperature
Definition 10.1.1: Temperature
of object A is equal to that of B, and the temperature
Temperature (or thermodynamic temperature) refers of object B is equal to that of C, then the temperature
to how hot or cold an object is. of object A must equal to that of C.

11
 Part IV
A B C
Waves
if T A = TB and TB = TC then
12 General Wave Properties
T A = TB = TC
Preamble
Waves are a fundamental method of describing the
Definition 11.1.2: Heat Capacity nature of matter and how it interacts with energy. In
Heat capacity C is the amount of heat energy re- this chapter we will be covering general wave proper-
quired to raise the temperature of an object by 1 K. ties that would be helpful.
Its relationship can be expressed as

Q = C ∆T 12.1 Definitions

The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin [J K−1 ]. Definition 12.1.1: Wave
A wave is made up of periodic motion. A wave is a
Definition 11.1.3: Specific Heat Capacity disturbance that transfers energy from one place to
Specific heat capacity c is the amount of heat energy another without transfer of matter.
required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of an
object by 1 K. Its relationship can be expressed as Definition 12.1.2: Transverse Wave
A transverse wave is when the particles oscillate per-
Q = mc∆T pendicular to the direction of propagation.

The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin per An example of a transverse wave is electromagnetic
kilogram [J K−1 kg−1 ]. waves.

Definition 11.1.4: Latent Heat

Latent heat is the energy released or absorbed by a
substance during a change of state, without a change Definition 12.1.3: Longitudinal Wave
in its temperature. In general,
A longitudinal wave is when the particles oscillate
Q f /v = ml f /v parallel to the direction of propagation.

where l f /v is the specific latent heat of fu- An example of a longitudinal wave is sound waves.
sion/vaporisation, the heat energy required to melt or
freeze/vaporise or condense a unit mass. The SI unit compression
of specific latent heat is joule per kilogram [J kg−1 ].
rarefraction

11.2 Vaporisation
12.2 Parts of a Wave
Definition 11.2.1: Evaporation
12.2.1 Common Quantities
Evaporation is the process whereby a liquid vaporises
at the surface because it has the energy equal or more Definition 12.2.1: Amplitude
than that of the latent heat of vaporisation, allowing
it to escape into the atmosphere. The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displace-
ment of a particle in a wave. It is usually represented
Evaporation can happen at any temperature. The tem- by the letter A . The most common unit for amplitude
perature can vary during evaporation. It is also slower is the metre [m]; though keep in mind other physical
than boiling. quantities like voltage can exhibit periodic wave-like
behaviour.
Definition 11.2.2: Boiling
Boiling is the process where a liquid reaches boiling Definition 12.2.2: Wavelength
point and the particles have enough energy to vapor- The wavelength of a wave is the displacement be-
ise. tween two successive in-phase points. It is usually
represented by the Greek letter λ. The SI unit for
Boiling only happens at boiling point (i.e. temperature wavelength is the metre [m].
stays constant during boiling). It happens quite quickly.

12
 Definition 12.2.3: Wavefront 12.3.2 Displacement-time Graph
A wavefront is an imaginary line on a wave that joins
This is also known as a history graph. The history graph
all adjacent points that are in phase.
shows one particle of a wave over a certain time. The
horizontal axis shows time; the vertical axis shows the
12.2.2 Time-based Quantities particle’s displacement from its equilibrium position at
that time.
Definition 12.2.4: Period
The period of a wave is the time taken for a particle s
crest
to complete one oscillation. It is usually represented
by the letter T . The SI unit for period is the second
[s].
A
Definition 12.2.5: Frequency
The frequency of a wave is the number of times a par- t
ticle completes one oscillation in one second. It is usu-
ally represented by the letter f . The SI unit for fre-
quency is the hertz [Hz].

Equation 12.2.1: Period and Frequency trough

T
Period and frequency are reciprocals of each other,

1 1
f= ⇔T=
T f 12.4 Wave Speed

12.2.3 Some Things Specific to Longitudinal

Waves
Equation 12.4.1: Wave Speed
Definition 12.2.6: Compression For a wave with frequency f and wavelength λ, the
A compression in a longitudinal wave is where there velocity v it is travelling at is equal to
are more particles around that region than in equilib-
rium. v= fλ

Definition 12.2.7: Rarefaction

A rarefaction in a longitudinal wave is where there
are less particles around that region than in equilib- 13 Light
rium.
Preamble
12.3 Graphs Light can be studied as a wave. In this chapter we
will look at how light interacts with matter.
12.3.1 Displacement-distance Graph
This is also known as a snapshot graph. The snapshot
graph shows a wave’s particles at a certain time. The
horizontal axis shows distance; the vertical axis shows 13.1 Reflection
the particle at that distance’s displacement from its
equilibrium position. Definition 13.1.1: Normal
s The normal is an imaginary line draw perpendicular
crest
to the surface that reflection is taking place at.

A Definition 13.1.2: Angle of Incidence

The angle of incidence is the angle between the inci-
d dent ray and the normal.

Definition 13.1.3: Angle of Reflection

The angle of reflection is the angle between the re-
trough flected ray and the normal.
λ

13
 normal 13.2.1 Essentials

Definition 13.2.2: Angle of Refraction

The angle of refraction is the angle between the re-
θ1 θ2
fracted ray and the normal.

surface normal

Definition 13.1.4: First Law of Reflection

θ1
The incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal lie on n1
the same plane.
n2
θ2
Definition 13.1.5: Second Law of Reflection
In reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the an-
gle of reflection.
θ1 = θ2
Definition 13.2.3: First Law of Refraction
I have chosen to name the angles θ1 and θ2 due to the The incident ray, refracted ray, and the normal lie on
reversible nature of light. It does not matter which way the same plane.
the light goes; the angles will be preserved.
Definition 13.2.4: Second Law of Refraction
Definition 13.1.6: Virtual Image
For two given media, the ratio of the sine of the angle
A virtual image is an image that cannot be cast on a of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
screen. constant.
The properties of an reflected image are:
Equation 13.2.1: Refractive Index
• same shape and size
The refractive index of a medium is the ratio of the
• same distance from the mirror speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in the
medium
• laterally inverted c
n=
v
• upright
Sometimes it might also be
• virtual
real depth
n=
apparent depth
.

Equation 13.2.2: Snell’s Law

object image Snell’s Law is the same thing as the second law of
refraction, mathematically expressed as

n 1 sin θ1 = n 2 sin θ2

Definition 13.2.5: Critical Angle

observer The critical angle is defined as the angle of incidence

in an optically denser medium for which the angle of
mirror
refraction in the optically less dense medium is 90°.

Virtual images or construction lines are drawn Derivation for critical angle formula for any refractive
with dotted lines. indices considering n 1 > n 2 , from equation 13.2,

n 1 sin θ c = n 2 sin 90°

13.2 Refraction n 2 (1)
sin θ c =
n1
Definition 13.2.1: Refraction n2
sin θ c =
Refraction is the bending of light as light passes from n1
one optical medium to another, due to light changing n2
µ ¶
−1
speed. θ c = sin
n1

14
 Definition 13.2.6: Total Internal Reflection s Image is s0 Uses
0
Total internal reflection is the complete reflection of s=∞ real s =f telescope
a light ray inside an optically denser medium at its s > 2f real f < s0 < 2 f camera
boundary with an optically less dense medium. s = 2f real s0 = 2 f photocopier
f < s < 2f real s0 > 2 f projector
s= f virtual s0 = −∞ eyepiece
s< f virtual s0 < 0 microscope

Real images are inverted; virtual images are upright.

θr = 90°
Equation 13.2.3: Thin Lens Equation
(This is not in syllabus.) For a thin lens, the focal
θc
length and the distances between the object and its
image is
1 1 1
+ =
s s0 f

13.2.2 Lenses Equation 13.2.4: Magnification

(This is not in syllabus.) The magnification of a lens
For the most part of this section, we will consider a thin
is given by
lens. s0
M=
s

s
14 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Preamble
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of electromag-
3f 2f f O f 2f 3f netic waves of different frequencies. In this chapter
we will explore these different frequencies and study
s0 some of their uses.

14.1 Electromagnetic Waves

Definition 14.1.1: Speed of Light

Real images are drawn with solid lines. All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light
c in a vacuum.

c = 3.0 × 108 m s−1

Definition 13.2.7: Principal Axis
The horizontal line passing through the optical centre Some properties of electromagnetic waves:
of the lens is called the principal axis. The principal • They do not require a medium to travel.
axis is perpendicular to the vertical plane of the lens.
• They transfer energy from one place to another.
Definition 13.2.8: Optical Centre • They obey the laws of reflection and refraction.
The optical centre is the midpoint between the • They do not change its frequency.
lens’ surface on the principal axis. Rays that travel
through the optical centre are not deviated. • They carry no electric charge.

Definition 13.2.9: Focal Length 14.2 Parts of the Electromagnetic Spec-

trum
The focal length is the distance between the optical
centre and the focal point. In increasing frequency (i.e. decreasing wavelength),
and their uses:
Definition 13.2.10: Focal Plane • Radio waves (e.g. radio and television communica-
The focal plane is the plane that passes through the tion)
focal point f and is perpendicular to the principal
• Microwaves (e.g. microwave oven and satellite
axis.
television)

15
 • Infra-red (e.g. infra-red remote controllers and in- 15.2 Properties of Sound
truder alarms)
Equation 15.2.1: Loudness
• Visible light (e.g. optical fibres for medical uses The loudness of a sound wave is directly proportional
and telecommunications) to the square of its amplitude
(
• Ultra-violet (e.g. sunbeds and sterilisation) louder higher A
loudness
softer softer A
• X-rays (e.g. radiological and engineering applica-
tions)
Equation 15.2.2: Pitch
• Gamma rays (e.g. medical treatment) The pitch of a sound is directly proportional to its fre-
quency (
higher higher f
pitch
14.3 Effects of the Electromagnetic lower lower f
Spectrum
The human ear can hear sounds from between 20 Hz to
When absorbing electromagnetic waves of various fre- 20 kHz.
quencies, different effects can be observed.
15.3 Applications of Sound
• Absorbing infrared rays can cause heating
Definition 15.3.1: Echo
• Higher frequencies such as x-rays can cause ioni-
An echo is the repetition of a sound due to the reflec-
sation
tion of sound.
• Overexposure to ultra-violet and higher frequency Echo is used in distance measurement systems such as
rays can lead to damage to living cells and tissue SONAR in ships.

Definition 15.3.2: Ultrasound

Ultrasound is sound with frequencies above the upper
15 Sound limit of the human range of audibility (i.e. 20 kHz).

Preamble Ultrasound is used in product quality control and pre-

Sound is transferred in a form of a wave. In this chap- natal scanning.
ter we will explore the different properties of sound
and some of its applications.
Part V

15.1 Fundamentals Electricity and

Some fundamental properties of sound:
Magnetism
• Sound is produced by a vibrating source.

• Sound exists in the form of a longitudinal wave. 16 Static Electricity

• In different media, sound has different speeds. Preamble
Generally, the higher the density, the faster the Static electricity is the study of charges at rest. In this
speed of sound. chapter we will explore that very concept.

gases liquids solids Definition 16.0.1: Charge

increasing speed of sound Charge is measured in coulombs [C]. There are posi-
tive and negative charges.

Equation 15.1.1: Speed of Sound Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
For a sound source from d away from an observer and + +
capturing it after a time t, the speed of sound can be
calculated as − −
s
v=
t + −

16
16.1 Electric Fields 16.2.1 Rubbing

Definition 16.1.1: Electric Field Electrons (negative charges) can be transferred from one
object to another through rubbing. There are no move-
An electric field is a region of space whereby a charge
ment of positive charges.
experiences an electric force.

Electric field lines cannot cross. 16.2.2 Induction

− − − − − − − − −
Charging with induction can be achieved for two conduc-
tors. The most classic example is the metal sphere case.
~
E

+ + + + + + + + +

16.1.1 Isolated Charges Suppose this sphere is overall neutral to begin with, and
Field lines are the path a test charge would take within isolated from ground.
that electric field. The closer the field lines are, the
Now a positively charged rod is brought to the sphere.
stronger the electric field at that area, which means that
This causes the electrons in the sphere to move towards
the test charge would experience a stronger force.
the positively charged rod.
Field lines extend out from positive charges.

++ +
−−

++
−
+ −
−

Field lines go in to negative charges.

The sphere is then earthed. Electrons flow from earth
up to the sphere.
−

−− ++ +
−
− ++
If a charge is stronger, it gets more field lines (e.g. this −
one has twice the charge as the one above, so it should
get more)
e−

+ Keep in mind the location of where the earth connection

is made does not matter. These charged particles are
not moving due to position, but moving due to lower en-
ergy states available.
Drawing these in TikZ was too difficult so take these
from some online website. The rod is then removed, leaving behind a negatively
charged sphere.

−
− −
− −
−

1
16.3 Discharging
16.2 Charging 16.3.1 Insulators

The two methods of charging are rubbing and induc- Insulators can be discharged by heating or providing
tion. humid conditions.
1 physics.stackexchange.com

17
16.3.2 Conductors I

Conductors can be discharged through a process known

as earthing. Earthing allows electrons to flow into (in
the case of a positively charged object) and out of (in the
case of a negatively charged object) the object.
I

16.4 Applications and Hazards of Elec-

trostatic Charging Electron flow is the opposite of that.

16.4.1 Applications
e−
An application of electrostatics is in spray painting.

In spray painting, the object to be painted is charged.

The paint will then be charged with the opposite charge,
and allowing the paint to attract to the object’s surface,
allowing for a better coat and efficient painting. e−

16.4.2 Hazards In physics we mostly use conventional current. This doc-

ument will do likewise.
Lightning is a danger that is caused by electrostatic
charging.

Charges build up in clouds due to friction between air

and water molecules, which causes in ionised (charged)
air which allows a conductive path between the charges 17.2 Electromotive Force and Potential
built up in the clouds and ground, causing lightning. Difference

This can be resolved by installing conductive lightning

rods on high objects such as buildings to safely ground Definition 17.2.1: Electromotive Force
these large releases of electric energy.
Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is the work done by a
source in driving unit charge around a complete cir-
cuit.
W
17 Current of Electricity ε=
Q
Preamble The SI unit of electromotive force is volt [V].
Current is the rate of flow of charge. When charges
move there is current and hence we name this current
electricity. In this chapter we will explore the funda- Equation 17.2.1: Electromotive Forces in Series
mentals that govern current electricity. If multiple electromotive force sources are arranged
in series
ε1 ε2 εn

17.1 Current

Definition 17.1.1: Current then the net electromotive force is

Current is the rate of flow of charge.
εnet = ε1 + ε2 + · · · + εn
Q
I=
t
Definition 17.2.2: Potential Difference
The SI unit of current is ampere [A].
The potential difference (p.d.) (or voltage) across a
Current is measured with an ammeter. component in a circuit as the work done to drive unit
charge through the component.

W
17.1.1 Current Flow V=
Q
Conventional current is where current flows from a The SI unit of potential difference is volt [V].
higher voltage to a lower voltage.

18
17.3 Resistance 17.4 Resistivity
Definition 17.4.1: Resistivity
Definition 17.3.1: Resistance
Resistivity is the property of a material that deter-
The resistance of a component is the ratio of the mines its resistance when made into a wire or electri-
potential difference across it to the current flowing cal component. The SI unit of resistivity is ohm metre
through it. [Ω m].
V
R=
I Equation 17.4.1: Resistance of a Wire
The SI unit of resistance is ohm [Ω].
The resistance of the wire with length l , cross-
sectional area A , and resistivity ρ is equal to
Definition 17.3.2: Ohm’s Law ρl
R=
Ohm’s Law states that the current passing through A
a metallic conductor is directly proportional lo the
potential difference across it, provided that physical Rewriting this equation making ρ the subject gives us
conditions (such as temperature) remain constant. AR
ρ=
l
V = IR
Temperature affects resistance. The higher the temper-
ature of a conductor, the higher its resistance.
Definition 17.3.3: Ohmic Conductors (
Ohmic conductors are conductors that obey Ohm’s high higher T
R
law. low lower T

This is not to be confused with the behaviour of a ther-

An ohmic conductor might exhibit an I − V graph as mistor (chapter 18).
such:

18 DC Circuits
I /A
Preamble
Most things at our homes run on direct current (DC).
In this chapter we will explore how DC circuits be-
have and how it is used to make the many circuits
and electronic devices around us.

Equation 18.0.1: Kirchhoff’s Current Law

(This isn’t in syllabus.) The current flowing in a junc-
V /V tion must equal to the current flowing out of a junc-
tion.
Σ I node = 0
Notice that the graph is linear and starts at the origin.
Equation 18.0.2: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
On the other hand, non-ohmic conductors may exhibit (This isn’t in syllabus.) The algebraic sum of voltages
such a characteristic curve: in a loop/mesh is equal to zero.

ΣVmesh = 0
I /A

18.1 Series Circuits

We will look at this series circuit for this subsection.
V1
I1

V /V
V2 V3

I2 I3
Notice that the graph is not linear.

19
18.1.1 Current 18.2.3 Resistance

Current in a series circuit is always the same. In the Equation 18.2.1: Resistance in Parallel
case of the circuit above,
If multiple resistors are arranged in parallel
R1
I1 = I2 = I3

R2
18.1.2 Voltage

The sum of voltages across components in a series cir- Rn

cuit is equal to the voltage across the entire circuit. In
the case of the circuit above, then the net resistance is
1 −1
R net = R 1−1 + R 2−1 + · · · + R −
¡ ¢
V1 = V2 + V3 n

18.1.3 Resistance 18.3 Voltage Divider

ε
Equation 18.1.1: Resistance in Series
If multiple resistors are arranged in series
R1 R2 Rn

Vout V2
then the net resistance is

R net = R 1 + R 2 + · · · R n R1 R2

Vout
18.2 Parallel Circuits
R1
We will look at this series circuit for this subsection. Vout = ×ε
R1 + R2
V1
I1
Equation 18.3.1: Voltage Divider
For a resistor R x in a series circuit with total resis-
tance R T , the voltage across the resistor R x is
V2
Rx
Vx = ×ε
I2 RT

V3 18.4 Input and Output Transducers

I3 Definition 18.4.1: Input Transducer
An input transducer is an electronic device that con-
verts non-electrical energy into electrical energy.
18.2.1 Current

The sum of individual currents in each parallel branch is We will look at two input transducers: (NTC-) thermis-
equal to the main current flowing into or out of parallel tors and light dependent resistors (LDR).
branches. In the case of this circuit,
Thermistors are devices which vary its resistance ac-
cording to temperature. As the temperature increases,
I1 = I2 + I3 the resistance decreases.

(
18.2.2 Voltage ↑ T↓
R TH
The voltages across parallel branches are the same. In ↓ T↑
the case of this circuit,
Light-dependent resistors (LDR) varies its resistance
V1 = V2 = V3 according to the light intensity shining on it. As the

20
light intensity shining on it increases, the resistance de- • Overheating of Cables
creases. (
↑ light intensity ↓ – Overloading of sockets can cause too high of
R LDR current draw.
↓ light intensity ↑
– Due to the heating effect of current, if the
current exceeds the power rating of a wire
19 Practical Electricity or electrical component, it may damage the
component or start an electrical fire.
Preamble
In this chapter we will explore electricity in everyday
19.3 Safety Features in Home Circuitries
life and electrical safety.
19.3.1 Circuit Breakers

19.1 Electrical Energy and Power Definition 19.3.1: Circuit Breaker

Equation 19.1.1: Electrical Power A circuit breaker is a safety device that can switch off
the electrical supply in a circuit when large currents
Electrical power can be calculated with the equations
flow through it.
V2
P = IV = I 2 R = Circuit breakers can be reset by the user.
R

Equation 19.1.2: Electrical Energy

19.3.2 Fuses
Because E = P t, we multiply all the above equations
by t Definition 19.3.2: Fuse
V2
E = IV t = I 2 Rt = t A fuse is a safety device added to an electrical circuit
R
to prevent excessive current flow.
Equation 19.1.3: Cost of Electricity Consumption
Fuses have a certain current rating which we will call
The cost of using some amount of electrical energy I 0 . The following shows what happens to the fuse if some
can be calculated in the equation current I is passed through it.

cost = E × rate (
not blown I É I0
fuse
Sometimes the preferred unit of electrical energy con- blown I > I0
sumed is kilowatt hours [kW h] to make calculating cost
easier.
19.3.3 Switches
19.2 Hazards of Electricity
Definition 19.3.3: Switches
Electricity can be powerful but dangerous. The follow-
Switches are designed to break or complete an elec-
ing are notable examples where electricity can cause a
trical circuit. They should be fitted to the live wire of
hazard.
the appliance.
• Damaged Insulation
– Damaged insulation can occur when the in- fuse switch
sulating material of a cable experiences wear 240 V
and tear over time, leaving in exposed con-
ducting wires. load
– These exposed conducting wires can cause
electric shocks if touched. 0V
• Damp Environments
– Water is conductive, even if it is pure. 19.3.4 Earthing
)
* H2 O(l) − *
−− +
− H (aq) + OH (aq)
−
| {z } Definition 19.3.4: Earthing
mobile charges
Earthing is the method of connecting a wire from the
– Water coming into contact with uninsulated appliance to earth so that unsafe currents can safely
electrical wires provides a conducting path flow to earth without hurting the user.
for current.

21
19.3.5 Three-pin Plugs Using the property that magnets can repel, we can do
the repulsion test to see if an object is a magnet or just
Definition 19.3.5: Three-pin Plugs a magnetic material.
Three pin plugs contain three wires: earth, ground,
and neutral. They also have a fuse. 20.2 Magnetic Induction

The earth wire is green and yellow; the live wire is Definition 20.2.1: Magnetic Induction
brown; the neutral wire is blue. Magnetic induction is the process whereby an object
made of a magnetic material becomes a magnet when
Viewing the three pin plug with its casing removed, the
it is near or in contact with a magnet.
live (bRown) wire goes to the Right (→); the neutral
(bLue) wire goes to the Left (←).
That means magnetic materials become magnets when
in contact or near a magnet.
19.3.6 Double Insulation

Double insulation is used if the appliance uses a two pin 20.3 Magnetisation and Demagnetisa-
plug. It provides two levels of insulation: tion
1. The electric cables are insulated from the internal Definition 20.3.1: Theory of Magnetism
components of the appliance.
(This is not in syllabus.) A magnet is made up of many
2. The internal components are insulated from the magnetic domains which are made up of atoms that
external casing. have a ferromagnetic property.

If double insulation is available, but a three-pin plug is

present, the earth connector is most likely a dummy one 20.3.1 Magnetisation
just to allow the appliance to plug in. You can make a magnet either by stroking it with an-
other magnet, or using electricity to make an electro-
magnet.
20 Magnetism

S
Preamble
Magnets were discovered by who knows who at who
knows when. All I know is we have to study them now
thanks to lodestone sailor people.
N

20.1 Magnets
N S
Definition 20.1.1: Magnetic Materials
The pole that touches the magnetic object first will be
Magnetic materials are materials that can be at- the pole of that magnetic object at that point.
tracted to a magnet.
For the electromagnet, refer to chapter 21.
The four materials you probably remember from pri-
mary school are: iron, nickel, cobalt, and steel. 20.3.2 Demagnetisation
To demagnetise a magnet you first have to orient it in
Definition 20.1.2: Non-magnetic Materials
the east-west direction. Then there are three ways to
Non-magnetic materials are materials that cannot be do this.
attracted to a magnet.
1. Hammering: Hammering a magnet placed in the
east-west direction alters the alignment of the
Definition 20.1.3: Law of Magnetic Poles magnetic domains, causing the magnet to lose its
The law of magnetic poles states that like poles repel magnetism.
and unlike poles attract.
2. Heating: Strongly heating a magnet and letting
it cool in an east-west orientation will cause the
Some properties magnets exhibit are
magnet to lose its magnetism. The temperature to
• Magnets have two poles: north and south. heat the magnet up to such that the atoms lose the
magnetism is called the Curie temperature.
• Magnets point in the north-south direction when
suspended. 3. Electrical Method: Place a magnet in a solenoid
in the east-west direction and connect an alternat-
• Like poles repel, unlike poles attract. ing current supply. Withdraw the magnet while

22
 the alternating current is flowing in the solenoid – Hard magnetic materials are used to make
until it is some distance away. permanent magnets.
– Soft magnetic materials are used to make
20.4 Magnetic Fields temporary magnets.
Definition 20.4.1: Magnetic Field • Interaction with Field Lines
A magnetic field is the region surrounding a magnet, – Hard magnetic materials do not allow mag-
in which a body of magnetic material experiences a netic fields to pass through it as easily as soft
magnetic force. magnetic materials.

Magnetic field lines cannot cross. – Soft magnetic materials allow magnetic
fields to pass through with ease.
Magnetic monopoles do not exist.
Extension: The hardness of a magnetic material is
Field lines point from north poles to south poles. Like characterised by the “wideness” of its hysteresis curve,
electric fields, the closer the field lines are, the stronger the wider it is, the softer the magnetic material and vice
the magnetic field at that point. versa.

B
N S

The magnetic field of a magnet can be plotted by sprin-

kling iron filings around it, or plotting it with a plotting H
compass.
To use a plotting compass, align a magnet in the north-
south direction first. Then using a plotting compass,
from the north pole of the magnet, draw a point at where
the compass points to. Then continue this and connect
the lines. Remember that plotting compasses point in
the direction of the field lines.
The material with the red hysteresis curve is a harder
For attraction and repulsion of two magnetic poles use magnetic material than the one with the blue hysteresis
this lovely diagram that I could not draw so I had to curve.
source it online.

21 Electromagnetism
Preamble
What happens when you combine electricity and mag-
netism? You get electromagnetism!

21.1 Induced Magnetic Fields

2 Definition 21.1.1: Induced Magnetic Field

A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic
field around it.
20.5 Temporary and Permanent Mag-
nets To identify the direction of the magnetic field or current,
use the right-hand corkscrew rule.
Magnetic materials can either be “soft” or “hard”. An ex-
ample of a soft magnetic material is iron. An example of
a hard magnetic material is steel.
• Magnetisation I
B
– Hard magnetic materials are difficult to mag-
netise and demagnetise.
– Soft magnetic materials are easier to magne-
tise and demagnetise.
It works for solenoids too. Just swap the current and
• Uses magnetic field. Use the same hand, though.
2 phys.libretexts.org

23
 B These results can be derived from Fleming’s left-hand
I I rule in the examination.

Equation 21.1.1: Ampere’s Law for Wires 21.2.2 Charges in Magnetic Fields
The magnetic field strength of a current-carrying First, some notation:
J
means current is coming out of
wire increases when the current is increased. the paper,
N
means current is going in to the paper.
B∝I You should use Fleming’s left-hand rule to determine
where the charges would go. In the case of a positive
Equation 21.1.2: Ampere’s Law for Solenoids charge, the current points towards where the positive
charge is going; in the case of a negative charge, the cur-
The magnetic field strength of a current-carrying
rent points opposite where the negative charge is go-
solenoid increases when the current or the number
ing.
of turns is increased.

B ∝ nI 21.3 DC Motors
Some important parts of the DC motor:
21.2 The Motor Effect • Split-ring commutator: to reverse the current
every half revolution so that the motor can con-
Definition 21.2.1: The Motor Effect
tinue spinning.
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, the conductor experiences a force. This • Carbon brushes: to ensure electrical contact be-
effect on the conductor is called the motor effect. tween the split-ring commutator and the circuit.
The turning effect on a current-carrying coil in a DC mo-
The direction of the force can be determined with Flem-
tor can be increased by
ing’s left-hand rule.
• inserting a soft iron core into the coil;
F
• increasing the number of turns in the coil;

B • increasing the current in the coil.

I 22 Electromagnetic Induction
Left-hand rule is for induced force. Preamble
In the previous chapter we saw how a current can in-
duce a magnetic field. In this chapter we will see the
21.2.1 Two Wires other side: how a magnetic field can induce a current.
If we have two current-carrying wires, they can either
attract or repel each other.
22.1 Fundamentals
In the case of currents in the opposite direction, the
Definition 22.1.1: Electromagnetic Induction
two wires repel each other.
Electromagnetic induction is the process through
which an induced electromotive force is produced in
I a conductor due to a changing magnetic field.
F F
The two laws of electromagnetic induction are:

I Definition 22.1.2: Faraday’s Law

Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction states
that the magnitude of the induced electromagnetic
In the case of currents in the same direction, the two force is directly proportional to the rate of change of
wires attract each other. magnetic flux in the circuit.

dφB
I I ε∝
dt
F F
Keep in mind it is the change in magnetic flux. If
you put a coil of wire in a magnetic field and there is
no change, then there is no induced electromotive
force.

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 Definition 22.1.3: Lenz’s Law
Lenz’s Law states that the direction of the induced
electromotive force, and hence the induced current in
a closed circuit, is always such that its magnetic effect VP NP NS VS
opposes the motion or the change producing it.

Equation 22.1.1: Faraday’s Law for Solenoids

(This is not in syllabus.) Faraday’s Law can be math-
Equation 22.3.1: Turns Ratio
ematically expressed as
The turns ratio of a transformer is calculated by
dφB
ε=−
dt NP VP
=
NS VS
22.2 AC Generators
The type of transformer can be determined from its
The current flowing in the coil can be found using Flem- turns ratio.
ing’s right-hand rule. (
step-up NS > NP
F type of transformer
step-down NS < NP
B

Equation 22.3.2: Conservation of Power

I
Power is conserved in an ideal transformer,
Right-hand rule is for induced current. VP I P = VS I S

Some important parts of the AC generator:

22.4 Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes
• Armature: the coil of wire mounted on the axle.
• Slip Rings: to ensure that the induced current in Definition 22.4.1: Oscilloscope
the coil is transferred to the external circuit. Oscilloscopes are instruments used to observe how a
The output voltage is a sinusoidal wave. voltage varies over time.

ε/V The graphic below shows an example of what a voltage

ε0 varying over time might look like.

ε0 2ε0 1 division
t/s
T T 3T T
4 2 4

Vp Vp p
−ε0
T

22.3 Transformers
Definition 22.3.1: Transformer
Y-gain

A transformer is a device that can change a high al-

ternating voltage (at low current) to a low alternative
voltage (at high current), or vice versa. time base

• Primary coil: connected to an alternating voltage

Keep in mind that Vp , peak voltage does not
VP ;
necessarily refer to VP , primary voltage. The p and
• Secondary coil: output of the induced voltage VS ; P are different.
• Laminated soft iron core: comprises of this
sheets of soft iron. Because it is easily magnetised When reading an oscilloscope, always first identify the
and demagnetised, this ensures better magnetic time base, in seconds/division [s/div], and the Y-gain, in
flux linkage between the two coils. volts/division [V/div].

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Equation 22.4.1: Complete Cycles
The number of complete cycles of a voltage with fre-
quency f y shown in the oscilloscope with frequency of
the time base f x = (time base)−1 is given by the ratio

fy
fx

End of Document

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