BATHING IN THE ROMAN WORLD Fikret YegiilDigitized by the Internet Archive in 2023 with funding from Kahle/Austin Foundation [Link] BATHING IN THE ROMAN WORLD In Bathing in the Roman World, Fikret Yegiil examines the social and cultural aspects of one of the key Roman institutions. Guiding the reader through the customs, rituals, and activities associated with public bathing, Yegiil traces the origins and development of baths and bathing customs and analyzes the sophisticated technology and archi- tecture of bath complexes, which were among the most imposing of all Roman building types. He also examines the reception of bathing throughout the classical world and the transformation of bathing cul- ture across three continents im Byzantine and Christian societies. The volume concludes with an epilogue on bathing and cleanliness in post- classical Europe, revealing the changes and continuities in culture that have made public bathing a viable phenomenon even in the modern era. Richly illustrated and written in an accessible manner, this book is geared to undergraduates and graduate students for use in courses on Roman architecture, archaeology, civilization, and social and cultural history. * Fikrer Yegill is professor of history of art and architecture at the Uni- versity of California, Santa Barbara. A scholar of Roman architecture, he has been a member of the Harvard Sardis Excavations in Turkey and the Ohio State University Isthmia Excavations in Greece. Yeguil is the author of articles and books on Roman architecture, notably Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity, which received the Alice D. Hitch: cock Award from the Society of Architectural Historians in 1994. He is working on a book on Roman architecture and urbanism.BATHING IN THE ROMAN WORLD FIKRET YEGUL University of California, Santa Barbara we CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESSCONTENTS . Meltourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Dect, Drala, Toalkyer 32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, sv 9001 )-47), 088 sete Cambie a Informanon on this ule: [Link] ceply7Bogznsqueas © Cambradar Univeroty Press 20re This pubbhcancm ison copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provasone of felevant callective lcemaang Agreements, mo reprodkacteon of any part may take place wahout the srien petiiewuna of Cambradge Caccersity Press Preface page xi First published soro ‘ 1 Introduction 1 Protea! the United States of Ameena A atta vec for this pbsbcstiot ts sda frome the Beitoal Library 2 Populetiey of Roman Bathing Colvere 5 Library oof Comprens Cataloging it Prebbicateon datas 3 Bathing Rituals and Activities i Yew Fret K., 1941 Time of Bathing " Racheng in the Roman worl / Pikrer Yewail Routine of Bathing m en i Bathing, Exercise, and Games 14 Insts Iesboge aphaal referees ama ene ; sab 978--sih seein (pbk) Bathing Order 17 1, Bathing contoues ~ Rome. 2. Water-ose ~ Social aspects = Rome. 5. Hygiene = Entertainment in Baths 18 Home. 4, Public baths - Rome. 5, Rome - Social lie and cistorms, 6. Baths, Eating and Drinking in Baths 19 ine ae ee Seneca’s Description of Public Bachs 20 Wetalgouasers dees 200901710 4 Critics of Roman Bathing: Ethical and Moral isan grfho-sa0-Ayoys-s Hardback Concerns aa Ian gions Paperback ee Yearning for Republican Simplicity and Criticism of Cambodpe Unreeraty Pree haere repomubiliy for the perustence ot Luxury a3 accuracy of Uits for extemal or [Link] Intemet Web sites referred to in Did Roman Baths Encourage Uncouth Behavior? 25 Hove pads vtneoes aml chews emt ganar ares any come on wach Wels sit . idm ackuce pas eee Excesses of Eating and Drinking 26 Sex, Nudity, Men, Women 27 The Roman Bath as a Democraric Institution MCONTENTS 5 Origins and Development of Roman Baths and Literary Evidence The Greek Bath and the Greek Gymnasium Farm Traditions of Rural Italy Baleae and Thermae Thi nal Baths and Spas Archacological and Physical Evidence Farly Examples from Pompeii, Campania, and Fregellae The Pompeian/Campanian Bath Type and Its Dissemination Baths in Rome, Ostia, and Tivoli Rome Ostia Tivoli Baths of Hippias: A Neighborhood Bath 6 er Supply Systems of Roma Baths The Heating of Roman Baths Floor Hearing Systems and the Hypocaust Sergius rata and the Origins « Wall Hi Tiles with Nipples (Tegulae Mammarae) anc Box-Tiles (Tubuli he Hypacaust ing of Water and B ines Alvec Laconica and Steam Bathing Water Supply Systems 7 Architecture of Roman Baths The Thermae of Rome The aths of Agrippa, First the Imperial Thermac What Is ay Bad as Nero, What Is as Good as His «of Trajan ~ The Maturation of a Type rate of Caracalla: The Flagship of the Inyperial Thermae The Great Costs of Building an Imperial Thermac 4c 40 41 45 49 CONTENTS Lite in the Great Then Gymnastic Uses of the Therma Roman Attitudes toward Gymnastics and the Gymnasium Athletic Clubs in Thern Libraries and Classrooms in Therniac The Immersive Sensory Experience of Ther 8 Provincial Baths of North Africa Imperial Thermae in North Africa Hadrianic Baths in Lepeis Ma Antonine Thermae in Carthage Large East Baths at Mactar The Large Baths at Djemila and the Baths of Licinius at Dougga The Baths of Julia Memmia at Bulla Regia — An Example of the Half-Axial Type Small Baths with Creative Plans The Small Baths at Cherchel and the South Baths at Karanis The Small Central & The Hunting Baths Functional Forr The Small Baths at Thenae The Baths of Pompeianus at Oued Athr 1a ths | pad is M Purely nla and Bathing in Asia Minor: The Gymna a 9 Baths Tradi The Bath-Gymnasium Complex: A New Architectural Type The Baths of V ergilius Capito at Miletus: An Barly Bath-Gy sium The Harbor Bath-Gyranasium at Ephesus: A Grand Establishment The Vedius Bath-Gyn Bath-Gyrnt perial Halls and the “Marble Cow Sardis An Unusual Bath-Gym BatheGym The Baths of F Arrange at Ephesus and the sium at Sarclis asi nd Awkward Plan: The Bast Ephesus and the Alexandria Troas 120 16 136 140 tat 4 45 146 147 147 150 1st 158 168viii CONTENTS The Barh-Gymnasium during Late Antiquity Baths of the Southern Hilly Regions: Lycia, hylia, and Pisidia The Baths of Rough Cilicia “Hall Type” Baths and Their Social Significance Bathing and Baths in the East during the Late Antique and Byza radigms af Social Use Thi Periods: New aths of Constantineple The Thermae of Zeuxippos The Neighborhood Trik ‘Church, and the Bath Roman Baths of Antioch “Somewhat to Qur Dismay, It (Is) Another Bath”: ath € Bath | NM Baths in Syria as Ay aradigm The Mansion, the yents of a New Social Some Thoughts on the Sources of the New Social Meaning in Bath Design and Use Some Large Baths in Syria Transformations of Roman Baths Christian and Is! mic Societies Christianity and the Changing Bathing Culture: “He Who Has Bathed in Christ Has No Need of a Second Bath Whar Christianity Really Objected to in Bathing Alowséa or the State of Being Unwashed Early Islamic Baths in Syria; A Seamless Tradition An Islamic Palace Bath: Khirbat aleM The Bath as a Measurable Gatheriny Islamic Sock fiat Baths, Baching, and Cleanliness in Postelassical E Baths in the Middle Ages: Agents of Hyys * Aesthetic Promiscuity* Bath Houses, Flee from Them or You Shall D Water asa Har Matter of Appearance Western Christianity and Latter-Day Alousta ‘opean Societies Cleanliness as a 1! Element ar 8 18s wey 186 188 189 ty 194 199 CONTENTS Rediscovery of Public Bathing, Oriental Baths and Orientalism Selected Bibliography Glossary IndexPREFACE Within the shick seally of the bathhouse, we were cut off completely from the outside world... Naked and peacefil together, able to be ourselves, (Lindsey Davis, A Body in the Bathhouse, 2001) ‘When Beatrice Reh! offered me the opportunity to write a broadly conceived book on bathing in the Roman world, the fascination with the subject was too great to refuse. 1 wanted to ahandon baths but baths did not want to abandon me, I think | was also fascinated because contrary to my previous studies this work was not about the archaeological complexities and technical details of baths but intended to be a general and generous approach to the subject. Foremost, it offered me a chance to cast my net wide and present my knowledge in the form of a narrative for the enjoyment of beginners and professionals alike. In this new work I look back to my previous work on baths and the culture of bathing in the ancient world and I look forward to new examples, ideas, and departures. | am content to re-tread familiar ground (as covered in my Baths and Bathing in the Clas: sical World and more than a dozen articles beyond it) but pleased to venture into new horizons. For example, as my core convictions abour the origins, nature and development of baths and bathing xiPREFACE remain the same, my views of “women and baths” have been gath- ered, reconsidered and focused in this study; my conceptions on the democratic nature of Roman baths and their importance as. “social levelers” remain unchanged, but the nature and meaning of democracy cast in the context of a public bath have been enlarged and explicated. The Stabian Baths of Pompeii and the Thermae of Caracalla of Rome and a host of others are too important to omit, but the early second century Republican Baths at Fregellae, a Latin colony in Latium, recently excavated under the direstion cof Filippo Coarelli, promises to open a new chapter in the Ital- ian origins of the hot bath, An equally exciting new discovery is the near-perfectly preserved extensive spa-city at Alliono! in the heart of Anarolia (near Pergamon) that challenges the supremacy ‘of Baiae as the incomparable thermal establishment of the Roman world. These two establishments, in my opinion, are the two most important additions to the archaeology and scholarship on baths in the second half of the twentieth century, Then there are the superb paintings of monumental nude bathing women from an Antonine hath in the Esquiline region in Rome only very recently rescued from deep archacological storage - a joy to behold handsomely exhibited ar Palazzo Massimo, The title of this book appears to be restricted to bathing in the “Roman™ world, but the narrative heeds its own momentum to reach out to the post-classical world in the last two chapters and includes the continuities and transformations of bathing cul- ture of carly Christian and Islamic communities and concepts of baths, bathing and cleanliness in European communities from the Medieval-Renaissance era to now. | was as much intrigued to fol- low the bathing delights and antics of Martial’s characters as 1 was of Lady Montagu’s fascinating accounts of Turkish baths and women in eighteenth century Constantinople Istanbul. It is hard to ignore the East versus West controversy in customs of bathing of to hide pure delight at the splendid world of baths created by the Ori- entalist painters even when their shimmering, settings populated bby exotic Muslim bathers tell more about the painter's fiction than the reahey of his subjects. Although the focus of this study is the social habit of bathing, the connection berween the act and its architectural setting is insep- arable. Bathing implies baths, Hence the considerable attention accorded to the architecture of individual examples, Itts with pity 1 PREFACE realize that some of the close architectural descriptions could not be accompanied with plans and drawings — some of my readers would be familiar with the unfortunate economic restrictions imposed on academic publications. In order to maintain a sense of flowing nar- rative we decided not to give specific notes except when quotations are inchuded. There is, however, a complete and up-to-date bibliog- faphy, | also refrained from giving the customary list of thanks and acknowledgements. Those whom 1 owe my knowledge and thanks know it: to all of you who encouraged me to proceed with this study and made me perceive what is important and enjoyable from the original conception to the last efforts of editing and improving my words, | owe gratitude. And I send thanks to colleagues and institutions who generously shared their visual material as a matter ‘of friendship and courtesy. Bathing in public as a cultural expression and personal plea- sure becomes meaningful through the opposing tendencies of pri- vacy and intimacy engendered by architecture, and by exten- sion, through the co-existence af contradictory but interdependent worlds of reality and escape, work and play. As Falco and his friend knew, “naked and peaceful... within the thick walls of the bathhouse,” inhaling the steamy air and listening to the murmur- ing water and whispering vaults, one might seize the chance to be oneself in the baths and perhaps glimpse hat is important. This story of baths and bathing was enjoyable to write; | hope it will be enjoyable to read. As the bards of old Anatolia, where I come from, used to conclude their tales, three apples fell from the sky, one for the teller of this story, the other for his listeners (readers), and the third, shall we say, for all those in the future who will take it a step further. Fikret Yegul Santa Barbara, CA July 2009 xiii1 INTRODUCTION or most of us, bathing is abour being clean; it is a hygienic concern, We normally bathe at home, occasionally enjoy- ing soaking in the bathtub, but more commonly taking a daily shower, which is quicker and, we think, more effi- cient. Bathing is also a highly private affair; rarely de we share a shower or bath with another person. Ot course, there are places and cultures we know or hear about where bathing is more than just washing, such as the Finnish sauna, the Japanese sento, and the Turkish harman, where one spends a fairly long time in the bath, often in the company of others, following an elaborate and time-honored ritual - in those situations bathing is a social, cultural experience. In the Finnish sauna one first spends time sweating in a steam chamber, traditionally constructed of aromatic cedar wood, where temperatures can exceed 8o-90'C. Then one plunges into a pool ‘of literally ice-cold water. The Japanese bath, taken in a simple, small tub in the company of one’s family or close friends, is a part of the relaxing social routine of the evening, although the practice has deep religious roots. A similar social setting is sought in the modern Ameri rly Californian, ritual of the hot tub or the Jacuzzi. Taking place cither outdoors or indoors, and in anything from a simple rustic wooden tub to a high-techBATHING IN THE ROMAN WORLD ical whirlpools and mood lights, the Jacuzzi experience is about xation and socializing more than hygiene, Lately, spas have becon ty fashionable, Admission to 4 spa is often offered as a part of a complete package in jon resort. The spa experience involves a prescribed routine of immersion in mineral waters (normally created by adding mineral salts to artificially hi = the sulfurous odor of many nat- tural thermal sources is repulsive to the modern nose), massage, cosmetics, and aromatherapy. It is expensive, A more traditional, and perhaps more authentic, version of the resort-spa is the natural thermal bath, found in sites such as the famous Bath (ancient Aquae fiberglass pool with mech: vaca- Sulis), England, the elegant setting of many a Victorian novel, Both the historical and the modern spa, however, combine a culture of relaxation and recreation with hygienic and alleged therapeutic benefits, OF all past peoples and civilizations, the Romans had the most extraordinary devotion t baths and bathing ~ and their devotion was the most thoroughly rooted in their life and culture, Asa rule, Romans bathed daily, and spent a considerable part of the day 1 their pleasantly ~ uptuously ~ appointed public baths. Roman baths went far beyond meeting the normal hygienic fune- tions of washing, They provided facilities for sports and recreatic massage, body culture, and relaxation = and for social fram idle gossip to business discussion ch like a club oF o included educational rereourse m center, Sor such as libras ras for the exhibition of works of art, like a Bathing in public was a central event in the daily lives ‘of the Romans. It would not be an exaggeration co say that at the height of their empire, public baths embodied the ideal Re cof urban living. The popularity of public baths as social and cultural institu tions is reflected in the har iths known from weit: wwated) in Roman cities and settlements, One could claim that, with the pos sible exception of t ths than all other building types, By the end of the first century 1 just before the establishment of the Empire, Rome had nearly 260 small baths; by the fourth century C.e,, two urban censu s well as colonnades, » and exe nh way sources or actually preserved (and sometimes ex ples, there were mc INTRODUCTION (Notitia Urbis Regionum, ¢. 434-57. and Curiosun Urbis Romac Regionum, 457-403) record their numbers at a staggering 856 plus to of 11 thermae, which were exceptionally large and luxurious bathing complexes. Of course, there is some variance in the num- bers given in these sources; still, it is clear that Rome, a city of a million ar more, the empire's capital and its center of power, affered denizens an exceptionally wide variety of large and small baths to choose from, The record from other large Roman cities, patchy as it is, supports the news from Rome: Constantinople (modern Istanbul) in the early fifth century had 8 thermac and 15 small baths (Novitia Urbis Constantinopolitanae). We do not have an ficial record from Antioch-on-the-Orontes, a large center in the offi Eastern Mediterranean, but John Malalas, a mid-sixth-century his- an, randomly names a dozen or so, though none of them has been identified among the six baths uncovered in the city during the 1932-3 excavations. Even a modest veterans’ colony such as Timgad in North Africa, with a population of no more than five or six thousand, could support seven or eight baths, a few of which were quite large and elaborate. A community’s pride and delight in its baths was often reflected in the boasting of its citizens about the numbers and quality of its baths, Despite its rherorical tone, the declaration by the sophist Aclius Aristides (a second-century poet and political thinker) that his home town Smyma, one of the largest Roman ports of the Aegean, “had so many baths that you would be at a loss to know where to bathe,” is typical and probably quite true (Ael, Arist, 15.252), Conversely, the closing down of the public baths by high administrative officers, sometimes by the emperor himself, was con- sidered the severest of the punishments that could be meted our to a city, When the citizens of Antioch rioted in 487 Cr. in reaction to newly imposed taxes, the violence, especially the breaking of the imperial images, started at the baths. The revocation of the city’s official rank as the “metropolis of Syria” (obviously a much coveted honor) and the closing down of its baths were the most humiliar- ing penalties imposed (John Chrysostom, On the Statues, 14.2-6, 17.2; Libanius, Orations, 22.2-7). Perhaps the best testimony to the importance of public bathing in the lives of Romans is this sim- ple, artless passage describing a daily visit to the baths, taken from a schoolbay’s exercise book: “I must go and have my bath. Yes,BATHING IN THE ROMAN WORLD I leave. I get myself some towels and follow my servant. tch up with the others who are going to the baths Hlave a good bath! the it's time 1 Hand © {say to them one and all, ‘How are y« dermeneumata Ps, Do cipzig, 892, raf.) * Corpus Have a good supper!" Glossariorum Latinorum, ed, G, Goerz, POPULARITY OF ROMAN BATHING CULTURE oth beginners and specialists in ancient studies aften ask why bathing was so important to Roman society = why were there so many baths in town and country? What ans had in th accounts for the obvious delight Re baths and the intense popularity of public bathing? There a y and definite answers to these deceptively simple questions, Like certain sports that are intensely popular with groups and nor others (such as American football in the United States and soccer in virtually all the rest of the world), because of their deep roots in a culture, barhs were popular with Romans because bathing had become a daily habit = and the more they liked it the more likable it beeames the effect fortified the cause. Bathing had become a significant part of their lives, an institution rooted in the rhythm and structure of their day, ens the very concept of time, The Roman day normally reserved the afternoon for leisure Already, by the end of the Republic, spending the latter part of the afternoon, after a light lunch and siesta, in the public baths had bee life and national identity, Still, why did bathing beco Roman writers, such as Martial and S their admiration and detailed in their description of the baths, do eno need adition, a comforting part of urk eat ¢ a daily habit ca, tho the first place? ih profuse inBATHING IN THE D should we expect them to state not f ns us. Instead of seeking f what to them was ¢ specific reas for such complex cultural phenomena, it may be more profitabl to consider a multitude of factors all together The first and most important is the pleasure factor. At its m basic, bathing is a physically and psychologically satisfying, plea: surable activity. W air and water relax the body and the ience itself n wate here, the arom oked the awak wment Romans called solv f perfumed unguents, the in of the senses, a state of © Nowhere do we sense the sheer enjoyment and material delight ¢ bathing more than in the historical re-creations of the world of RK n baths of Sir Lawrens Alma-Tadema (18 ions here depicting, for example, playful young women in the gleaming mar ble pool of an imaginary women’s bath (sce Figure 1). The sense of warmth alone must have been an extremely power to the creation of a feeling of relaxation, cc and well-being, A treshly century CE. w athed person felt light and optimistic. Suctonius, a first the best time to ask Vespasia ately after his bath (Suet., Ve A dedica m a late fifth century ¢.t. bath im Syria is typical ir g that the bath could bring “pleasure and happiness tire oo y Indeed, there are a group of inscriptions and epigrams, cspecially from the late Roman period, that allude to the strange and won drous ability of baths to deliver the bather from pain and w« and cre a sense of delight. with the natural spn, the baths are considered as the dwelling places of Ny in Greek, t Wt bath: could confer os On a Ww munity, it was naturally expers ec. The cozy warmth of the apparent world of classless mudity encouraged frendshir y. For several h nok the indiv least, mat of his shelll ar him a place rs. Sh hers, especially in a situation im which men being and below, "ULARITY OF ROMAN BATHING CULTURE Enhancing this sense of delight and pleasure was, of course, s material world created by p baths. Roman the sumptu baths, espe luxury of th lly the imperial thermae, were well known for the Glow mms of there 1 ‘bles, intricate mosaics, stucco oF ind decorative statu nstitute almost an independentBATHING IN THE ROMAN WORLD genre in ture. Martial, a first-century ©. poet and of social satire, referred a friend to the Baths of Erruseus, a II luxury establishment in Rome, in glowing terms: “If you de ¢ bathe in the therwndlac (small baths) of Etruseus, you will die hed, Oppianus!” (Martial, 6.42), He admired the mildness of its waters and the serenity of its interiors, but most of all the jored marbles originating from distant lands, ary poet, was more florid in his praise of the same baths: “Toil and care, depart! I sing of the baths that sparkle with bright marbles! ... Come, then, ye nymphs of the waters, turn your clean faces and bind up your glass-green hair with tender wine ots, your naked hodies as you emerge from the deep springs, and torture your satyr-lovers with the sight!" (Statius, Siluae, 1.4 nymphs Statius was admiring were not the usual sex Roman society; they were mythic creatures of natural sprin dwelt on the Seven Hills of Rome and mingled in the waters of its famous aqueducts, especially the ewo that sceved the Baths of Etruscus - the pure Aqua Virgo, excellent for swimming in, and the chilly Ag Naturally, there is some exaggeration in these poetic architec- Among the baths of Rome, ally those located in poorer neighborhood, some no doubt nd ill-kept and offered few luxuries of the kind mple archaeological evidence bears our that es, in gene ‘After all, the taste for private and public lixury and extravagant display of the critical concern with it) was a growing character: Repubhean ane Impernal Roman culture, This was the J when rich Romans were intent on decorating th anid he ess of its mult %, a COMtEMpK shy al sire reia, born in the snowy hills north of the city. tural ence ndreds of small ith espe were ill-cesigned suing by poets, Still, praises of bath usu ule |. were well fe istic in lat ir theaters, rble columns, id on. nes with rare, imported n acquiring, % ctimes pil ndering if they cou art and sculpture from Greece to displ 1, priceless objects of ay in their dwellings as syrm bols of social exclusivity and power, Public baths, dubbed “people's palaces” b reflection of this modern criti¢s, were only a partic ral trend. we Hut there was alse life wi jificant difference. The wealth of private vs public baths brought this bounty to ble world of baths a 5 for the eves of a the masses. The hixuirious and pleas forded the gre han popu ions a weleame appa their overcrowded and cramped living conditions and the dusty POPULARITY OF ROMAN BATHING CULTURE streets fe a few hours a day many, it was their only opportun houses and villas of the very wealth ns had surprisingly sparse bathing facilities - often a small wimber next to the kitchen, sharing the kitchen stove ~ of ne all. This was especially true for the multistory t nents (intsulae) that housed the greater portions of urban populations in the larger cities, Thus, we should ren her that along with their variety of social niceties, an important fi in baths" popularity was that they served the functional and hygienic needs of washing for many and made available for them privately afford Another factor thar helps account for the popularity of baths is the well-entrenched belief in the ancient world that baths were good for health. Bathing, fro serious therapeutic measur nd bathe in style; moreover, for ¥ to bathe at all, BE: n urban luxury most could not 1 its earliest history, was considered a nid received full support and author- fairly detailed regimen of bathing in ewarm waters for the treatment of a variety of if been worked out by Greek and Roman doctors and health specialists. Taking a cure at natural hot springs or thermo- mineral baths was considered particularly efficacious, Some of the most popular resorts in the Roman world centered on such thermal sources, Ina world where effective ways of combating disease were still limited and primitive and the average life expectancy was rarely more than yo=35 years, the remedial and preventive potential of baths was highly regarded. Furthermore, light forms of physical exercise, rooted in ancient Greck gymnastics bur almost always accompanying bathing, were a simple and effective daily method of keeping fit and healthy for all age groups. Finally, there is also a hard economic explanation, Baths were builtin such large numbers because running a public bath was asen- sible and lucrative business proposition. Advances in by nology (as well as water supply systems), especially the widespread use of Roman concrete, the primary material for the typically vaulted construction of baths, made building even large and com- plex bath structures relatively easy and cheap. These adi economic and technical, encouraged the popular establishm small, neighborhood baths (balzeae) across the dense fabric of neexts (see the following ch I this ity from ancient medicine, hot, cold, and Iu ailments by cities, or even in far away rura for a discussion of balneae versus thermac), And pier ace i10 BATHING IN THE ROMAN WORLD extremely convenient for bathers to che th (unless it was se there were so many to choose from, as Aristides a). Like a convenient corer grocery ned to be in a city, there was a bath nearby, although some might have preferred to walk farther to patronize their favorite establishments, Furthermore, even though baths mainly operated for profit, entrance fees were so low that even the poorest were not deterred; and there were always some establishments subsidized by wealthy community leaders, such as goverment and imperial officials secking popularity, that were free of charge: Th ved setting of the Roman city was essentially one in which physical, social, and mental pleasures - the sensual aware- ness that forms the very core of our existence - were sought after, med, savored, and shared, Although conservative writers and philosophers, such as Seneea (who lived during the first century C.E.), disapproved of the soft and sensuous world of baths and the growing taste for luxury in all aspects of life, most Romans appre: ciated the privileges of their material culture; and the dream world created by public baths was pri ng these enjoyments and entitlements, In the sumptuous setting of the imperial thermae, even the poorest could share the Empire's wealth and, perhaps, ideology. Baths gave the Romans the world they wanted, a woeld in which it vexing be comments about his Smyrr store, wherever one happ: civ ry ar 3 BATHING RITUALS AND ACTIVITIES TIME OF BATHING hat were the pleasurable activities that constituted a distine- tive culture of bathing for the Romans? And what was the orderly bathing ritual that occupied such a significant part of the afternoon? To answer these questions, we should consider bathing in the larger context of the Reman day. The Roman workday started early and was confined mainly to the morning hours. By noon, or soon after, the business of the day was finished. After a Tight lunch, and pethaps a short siesta, men went to the baths and stayed there for several hours (mixed bathing is discussed in Chap- ter 4). Martial recommended the “cighth hour” as the best time to bathe, as “This hour tempers the warm by " (Martial, Because the Roman day was divided to sunset, the length of an hour varied from season to season, Still, the eighth hour corresponds roughly to tw or three o'clock in the afternoon, A very busy person might be forced to pe ne his bath till a very late hour, Ina letter to Tiberius, Augustus invoked his friend's sympathy for having to sacrifice his meal and delay his bath until the first hour of the night (¢, 6 P.M.) because of his pressing duties. "1BATHING IN THE ROMAN WORLD nces to artificial lighting of baths, many bath excavations, Night ially in public establishments, There are occasional refere ve been found + espe athing under copious daylight, and well and oil lamps b bathing was rare, howeve atrons liked to enjoy lighted baths with large windows were especially admire ie establish, |. Even he ritual in sor 1c been part o sunbathing appears to bi ments, Norr pal) order bets | (or munici- ly, public baths were closed by imperi daylight faded, Exceptions seem to reinforce th “donated oil for rule, Emperor Alexander Se us (ana=s5 C the lighting of the baths, which had been previously closed before ors (SHA, sunset,” according toa late Roman history of the empe ated by the he Alex. Sev. 24.6). This early closing hour was reit emperor Tacitus (late third century c.t.) t0 avoid possible n time disturbances (SHA, Tacitus, ROUTINE OF BATHING tials of the bathing routine as stated by Pliny the m oiled, | take my exercise, I were simple: “T have my bath” (Pliny, Letters, 9.46). In the previously ment schoolbooks, the bathing sequence is given with equal simplicity: erably with a se the schoolbey slave carrying his bathing gear and garments; he py stores his clothes, has his body oiled and ves at the baths, pre nt OF 8 the bath fee, d, and then undresses takes a sweat bath followed by full immersion in the hot tub he goes (outside?) to the cold pool and swims in it, has his body , dress, dried the hly with a towel by an attendant, dresses yourself elegantly and well!) and concludes his bath by wish ing, well to others and thanking, the bath master for a good bath Bathe well and may it all gs h master; » well with yout I give thanks to the he washes warmly, farewell master! A well-to-do Roman was ac ypanicd to the barhs by his slaves y his bathing paraphernalia: exercise and bathing garments, vilet kit = the last was a metal wed oils and perfumes in flasks, several strigils (curved metal blades like spy ndals, towels, and his eista or box, cylindrical, th mis to scrape the excess cd_a sponge (t gure 2). A poor person carried his own bundle; it was a declaration of ostentatious wealth and nded by an ar well-groomed slaves, carried on a sedan chair, Upon arrivin status to go to and return from the baths ate ny af BATHING RITUALS AND ACTIVITIES + —— se, one undressed, These rooms must have contained wooden cabinets, chests, and benches the baths and before taking some farm af exere ial room for this purpose usually in the apodyterium, a spe for storing personal effects and clothes. Some baths, such as the Stabian Baths in Pompeii, had niches, shelves, cubbyholes, and incl ler nce well preserved; in the sn benches all in masoney, and poorer establishments, wooden pegs on the wall might have sufficed (Figures 5 and 4). a. A strigil, lef oi ial porate flasks used in baths, night ples Archaeological4 BATHING IN THE ROMAN WORLD A perennial problem in public baths was the stealing of bathers’ clothes. Many inscriptions allude to this much-despised nuisance and ways to prevent it. Most interesting are the curse tablets thar place all manners of maledictions on thieves and call for super- natural assistance, Some were even willing co donate the stolen irems to a deity in return for divine retribution, One tablet from the thermal baths at Aquac Sulis (Bath, England) is typical: “Soli- nus to the goddess Minerva: | give your divinity my bathing tunic and cloak, Do not allow sleep of health to him who has done me wrong, whether man or woman, whether slave or free, unless he reveals himself and returns those goods to your remple” (Fagan 1999, 375 Tab, Sults, ¢2). Sometimes these injunctions might have helped, but to have one’s servant guard aver one’s belongings was far more effective and quite common, In the small, luxurious baths described by Lucian (second century C.t.), there was even a special room in which the slaves could wait while the master bathed, BATHING, EXERCISE, AND GAMES beet. some form of athletic activity prior to bathing was considered a healthy th modest amount of exercise and games, perhaps just enough to raise a sweat, was the proper preamble to bathing, Ordinarily, public baths had indoor and out- door amenities for exercise, Inspired by the Greck gymnasium, most of these spaces were designed as outdoor courtyards, often pnnaded, usually called palaestrae. The visitor, entering a bath plex, first changed his or her street clothes for some form of light exercise Unlike the Greeks in their gymnasia, the Romans did not think it proper to exercise in the nude, nor did they e enter the palacstrac or hot rooms of their favorite bathing establish: ments in street clothes or shoes, In tion on the kind of tunics se is scanty. These probably varied a fo season, climate, and regional customs. Trilmalchio (the © hero in Petronius’ Satyricon) wore a light dress while playing ball, Martial mentions one Phialenis who took her exercises in a sl garment like a bikini, The Iso the endromts, a weap of rexture worn over lighter clothing, probably ro protect the sweaty body from cold after exercise (Martial, 7.67 and 4.19); this might popular in colder northern European provinces, Martial nsider it correct to they wore for exe ponding. mical w BATHING RITUALS AND ACTIVITH also mentions a small, tight-fitting cap called the galericilum worn by fashionable youth in the palaestra to protect their hair from oil (Martial, 14.50). Inthe Stra, engaging in some form of athletic activity prior to hot bathing was considered the healthy thing to do. It would be a mistake, however, to imagine thar the average Roman engaged in strenuous exercises, like the young athletes of the Greek gymna- sium. Roman gymnastics in this context was merely a prelude to bathing, a form of recreation, not serious training for comperition, Galen, a famed physician practicing in Rome in the mid-secand century, who recommended milder forms of exercise tion to bathing, is typical of current medical opinion. In his essay on “Exercise with a Small Ball” (De parvae pilae exercitu), he prefers light ball games to other, more strenuous sports in the palacstra. Ball games developed all parts of the body in a bal- anced way and appealed to all age groups. Martial mentions five kins of ball games played in the baths: handball (pilae), feather- ball (pila pagarica), bladder-ball (follies), seutfle-ball (harpastum), and triple-ball (pita trigowalis). The last mentioned, as the name n con 4. Cartoon view of from pet. Courtesy of A. Fremona,BATHING IN THE ROMAN WORLD implies, was a game for three: the opponents stoad roughly at the three points of a triangle and tried to mislead and confuse each other as they passed several balls back and forth, Unlike solo exer- cises, ball games had the advantage of being good spectator sports (Figure 5). rong other palaestral sports, running, boxing, wrestling, and fencing are mentioned, although their practice was not limited to the palaestra; many of the larger baths had special halls that could be used for indoor athletics, Women did participate in these sports and games, though they probably preferred (or it was expected of them to prefer) the lighter variety. Juvenal, writing in the mid= second century ¢.t., mocked society women who worked out with weights and dumbbells for infringing upon a heavier branch of sports that was obviously considered more appropriate for men. Swimming or rolling a metal hoop with a hooked stick (trochus) might have been thought more suitable. Swimming was a popu: lar sport wz the Romans, but it is unlikely thar any serious swimming was done at the baths (although the “schoolboy” lists swimming among his bath activities in Hermenewmata Ps Dositheana, see Chapter 1), Baths often had pools large enough to swim in, but even the largest of these, the natatio of imperial thermae, barely reached a depth of 1-1.2m, Few are known to have inchided a deep end for diving, Although one could swim (or float) in amazingly shallow warers, swimming in these pools must have been limited to a few easy strokes, with most of the bathers pmpetition swimming mnasia serving exelu- rly imperial palaestra or gymna- sium at Hercula boasts a well-preserved, simple, serious lap pool deep enough for diving, Following the Greck athletic procedure, bathers ordinarily cov- ered their bodies with oils and dusted with cosmetic powders dur> ing exercise or sunbathing. The sweaty mixture of oil and dust (and plain muck, given that the exercise ground was unpaved) had to be washed off and scraped off with the strigil, also like Greek arhletes, ovided special rooms for massage with warm oil, led aleipterion, destrictornemt, of wnetortum, It way also customary to terminate hot bathing by anointing the body with specially prepared, and often expensive, cosmetics, oils, and perfumed unguents, BATHING RITUALS AND ACTIVITIES Time spent in the palaestra with its games was pleasant, bur the delights waiting inside the baths were pleasanter still, Few were so engrossed in their exercise as not to drop everything and hurry inside with the first sounding of the sinténeatweleet, the bell that announced the opening of the hor baths, BATHING ORDER nside the baths, the order of bathing required a movement from warm fo hot through a number of intercommunicating rooms at Varying, temperature; the primary stations in the sequence can be identified as the tepidarium (medium heat room) and ealdariam (hor room). Bathing terminated with a cold plunge in one of the very large unheated pools of the frigidarium (cold room). The last nwo, caldarium and frigidarium, were usually the most architecturally imposing and luxurious spaces in Roman baths, Most bathers perceived benefits fram spending some time in one of the special sweating rooms, called the laconicum, for dry heat, or sudatorium, for steamy, wet heat. 6. Cartoon view af ipimnes and spor Apalyestea (shown8 BATHING IN THE ROMAN WORLD veami- Some of the hs boasted special sunrooms (h res and benefits of sunbathing, In two n’s Villa in Tivoli ~ the Large Baths and the Baths-with-Helioca is ~ there are large, round rooms: with immense, unglazed windows oriented to the west and south. The floors of these spes ed, furnished with sand like the beach. The public by and large enjoyed the copious illumination of the newer, imperial-era baths made possible by con J large, arched windows filling up curving vault. There are even ref- aus) tor the sensi of the establishments in Hadi jal sunrooms were unp. J and sea while sunbathing or immersed in a pool = reminding of the so-called “infinity pools” of fancy modern estates, The order of bathing and body care outlined above was not al framework that received its a fixed routine, but only a g inspiration from the medical traditions of antiquity and The size, layout, and luxury of a bath - that is, its architecture - must have also affected the preferred order or routine of bathing. Anywhere along the recommended course, deviations, « petitions were possible, One bathe habit nissions, ENTERTAINMENT IN BATHS in the calda and cold bathing, to wash, to or even depilation, st of their tim ium and the frigi- in halls for he leisurely soak in larg and to converse pools, to i gossip with fellow bathers all along. But these ry of social well-lighted, spacious halls were also used for a w and recreational ud eve vities a Lanices Poetry reading, icited amateur is the wns music, and singing — profes kind = were e A mosaic panel at the entrance of a bath in ¢ jugglers and, perched on the left arm of one, a encumbered large spaces, enthusiastic auchence = seem to stages for traveling shows, performers, gym: palac have served masts, eo) be reign (a4 J musi < Jesters, m1 s, i ns, An inscription may artist named Ursus, who lived during Hadrian's a8 Cob), fan ing a game with glass balls crowds in four great thermae of Rome (CIL, 6,1 hour a pom us for pertor 797) ved his own epitaph and hoped to. preserve the BATHING RITUALS AND ACTIVITIES memory of his unusual skill for poste been granted in really reterred toa his wish seems to have odest and (because wh SCrypeion, Ursus is debated among scholars} peculiar her this EATING AND DRINKING IN BATHS E iting and drinking would | group and augmented the enjoyment of any recreational activ and the visitors of public baths wer drink were available in establishments just ourside the baths or acru- ally from vendors inside, A price list scribbled on the wall from a vin the Suburban Hachs in Herculaneum includes “nuts, ci at, and sausage, 10674). An inscription of Hadri the-Meander, in Asia Minar, mentions a rest ly annexed to the barhs selling cheese, ba ves, Wine, fish, and vegetables. Of particular interest was a haped” pretzel, probably quite similar to the ring-shaped, crusted bagel (sfmrit} very popular in Turkey today, Some bath excavations yielded cups, plates, and jugs, as well as be of animals, such as pigs, sheep, and chickens. For most patrons, eating at the haths meant light refreshment or a snack as a prelude toa proper dinner; others, h al of it. As Martial humorously informs us, Aemilius ate lettuce, eggs, and ecls and tried to excuse his appetite by saying thar he did not take dinner at me ~ hardly to be believed. And one Philoseratus, drunk on wine, fell down a long flight of steps to his death on his way from a party at the thermal baths in Sinuessa, famed for its curative waters: “He would not have incurred such great danger, ye Nymphs, if he had drunk your waters instead,” Martial sagely comments (Martial, 12.19, 11.82), A good bath called for a good dinner, “It is little consolation tw bathe in luxury and perish in ion,” observed Martial with satirical exaggeration and proceeded to sharpen his lively wit on the subject of dinner, the cena, as the culmination of the bath and the Roman day, in no less than cight short poems or epig his preferred method of social « ntary, Martial himself was a cordial host who strave to arrange a perfect time for his friends: “You will dine nicely, Julius Cerialius, at my house, You will be infused merriment into a Food and no except “ wever, made am 19BATHING IN THE ROMAN WORLD: bserve the eighth hour; we will barhe together: you know hanus’ baths are to me. First ehere will be... lettuce useful for relaxing the bowels, and shoots from tender leeks...” owed with a long list of delectables his friend could enjoy in r-bath dinner (Martial, 11.52). It seems that in Roman cul ture, to dine alone was something of a social failure for some, and an outright disaster for spony who hoped to feast sump- tuously at the expense of a rich acquaintance, Sometimes it was very hard to free oneself from the es of an obsequious far terer such as Menogenes, who would not leave until he obtained a reluctant inv ‘a escape Menogenes at the warm baths is not possible no matter how hard you try, He will grab the warm. hand-ball with right and left so that he can score a point for you, He will pick up the flacci¢l bladder-ball fram the dust for you even if he has already bathed. He'll say your towels are whiter than snow although they may be dirtier than a baby's bib. As you comb your thinning hair he'll say that you have arranged your locks like Achilles... He'll praise everything, he'll adn hing, uncil torally exasperated, you will succumb: Come to din * (Martial, 12.82}, On the other hand, there was Dento, who had found a wealthier dinner patron and started to spurn the poet's invitations (s.44.1) and Cotta required such serious courting that even Mar: tial (who obviously liked this Cotta!) had drawn a blank on him: “If you wish to feast ar Cocta’s table, the baths offer the best to ge witation, Enever yer dined with him though; my naked charms, | imagine, do not excite his free translati his a re ever nee niration™ (Martial, 1.23, 1). SENECA'S DESCRIPTION OF PUBLIC BATHS Bae: best description of the crowsdled, noisy, vibrant world of the public bath, a world thatis both delighttul sand distaste- ful = at any ever niely in hedonist alike =is Seneca’s cha nis activities andl noises sistible to both the stoic and the ily satiric account of the var- 1, wrtvan bath: my from as Thave loclgings right « the aysort ry powers is exercising himself hi bathing establishn Is, which a at, So, picture yourself enough tot us gentle aden weights; when he is working hard, or else pretends to be working hard, | can hear him grunts BATHING RITUALS AND ACTIVITIES whenever he releases his imprisoned breath, | wheezy and high-pitched tones, Or, perhaps, Inon conrent with a cheap rubslown, and hear the ‘of the pumunelin hand on his shoulder, varying in sou nel bs laid 0 flat or hollow. Then perhaps, a professional conte: shouting o the score [of a ball game]; that is the finishing touch. Add to this the arresting of an occasional rhief or pickpocke ket of the man the enthusiast who phinges into the swimming pool with unconscionable noise an splashing. Besides all those voices, if nothing ele are good, imagi the hairplucker with his penetrating, sh ¢ purposes of advertisement lly giving vene and except when he is plucking the armpits and making his instead. Then the cake-seller, with his varied cries, the sausagem the candy-seller, and the vendors of food hawking their goods, each distinctive intonation, (Letters, 6, traits, R. M. Gunnmere) hear him panting some lazy fellow,22 4 CRITICS OF ROMAN BATHING: ETHICAL AND MORAL CONCERNS ike all complex, multidimensional, and reasonably free societies, the Romans, through the weitings of their his- torians, poets, essayists, and satirists, could be critical af themselves and their cultural institutions. Although an intangible, nationalistic sense of identity and pride as “Romans” - distinctly different from and superior to foreigners (whom they often called *barbari and even the normally and grudgingly admired Greeks = was valued and cherished, the Roman educated wer idle in questioning those received values and pros viding opposition at both popular and intellectual levels, For a soci- ety that was primarily conservative, moralizing, anid obsessed with traditions handed down from their ancestors, skepticism against novelty and change is to be expect It is also to be expected that bathing, as.4. social institution that occupied such a paramount in Roman lite, should receive its share of valuation and riticism. It is this critical assessment of the bathing culture by the Romans that makes the subject, across three continents and over centuries, vibrant and relevant to our interests. However, there iy a downside to such repetitive assessments and reassessments over cof time and pla rying, contrasting, and often he subject of baths and bathing in the contest of other issues and arguments, tend to blur classes wer CRITICS OF ROMAN BATHING the truth about the real nature and intent of baths and bathers, ‘Often baths are merely used as a metaphor for other concerns, Therefore, we need to understand the lange literature on Roman baths and bathing, its lavish praises as well as its strong eritigism, against such s cultural backdrop; we need to develop our own analytical and screening processes, YEARNING FOR REPUBLICAN SIMPLICITY AND CRITICISM OF LUXURY hile resting in the country house that once belonged ta 5 pio Africanus (c. 200 8.c.0.), the hero of the Second Punic ar, Seneca, the conservative writer and philosopher, who lived in the first half of the first century ¢.e,, saw the small, dark baths the famous general had used. Drawing a contrast herween the venera- ble old and the suspect mew, he deplored the accustomed luxuries of baths of his own day: “[Today] we think ourselves poor and mean if our walls are not resplendent with large and costly mirrors; if our marbles [decorating our barhs] from faraway Alexandri: not set off by mosaics of rich, yellow stone from Numi Antico, a handsome and expensive marble} . ings are not buried in glass [mosaics |; if our swimming pools are nor lined with marble from Thasos, once a rare and wonderful sight in any temple...and finally, if water is noe poured from silver faucets,,..Whata number of statues, of colurms thar support nothing but are built for mere decoration, merely in order to spend more money! And what masses of water fall crashing from level to level! We have become so luxurious that we have nothing but precious stones to walk upon” (Letlers, 86), It is interesting that there is only faint exaggeration in Sencea's polemical outburst Archaeological evidence from Italy and all the provinces bears out that many baths of the imperial period were indeed lavishly decorated, Seneca proceeded with his lesson in morality and modesty by contrasting the overly lighted contemporary baths with the austere darkness of the old ones, such as the Stabian Barhs or the Foru Baths in Pompeii: *,.,for our ancestors did not think that o could have a hot bath except in darkness. .. nowadays, however, people regard baths as fit only for moths if they have not been arranged so that they receive the sun all day long through the [giallo if our vaulted ceil: 23BATHING IN THE ROMAN WORLD largest of windows, if men can not bathe and get a coat of tan at the same time, and if they can not look out from their bath-rubs over stretches of land and sea,” Regretting even the popular habit of bathing every day, instead of once a week as the old Romans, such as Scipio, used to do, he concluded, “Now thar spick-and-span bathing establishments have been devised, men are really fouler than of yore” (Letters, 86, trans, R. M. Gummere), Taken at its face value, Seneca’s criticism is unjust; light in archi- tecture is to he praised; well-lighted interiors are admirable, and so is the habit of daily bathing. Bur Seneca was giving voice to a well-known moralizing attitude that disapproved of the increas- ing luxuries of the Empire compared with the frugal manners and military virtues of the past. He was not alone: disapproval of exces- sive material luxury represented by public baths, objection to the worldly and wasteful lifestyle they encouraged, and condemnation of the sexual licentiousness and moral delinquency associated with them were among the issues raised widely by conservative crit- ies, and in time constituted the basis of Christian opposition to bathing. A contemporary of Seneca, the populist philosopher Demetrius the Cynic, reportedly entered the Thermac of Nero in Rome during, its dedication and opening ceremonics and delivered to the aristoc- racy gathered there a speech “against people who bathed, declar- ing that bathing enfcebled and polluted onc; and declared thar such institutions were a useless expense” (Philostratus, The Life of Apol- fonins, 4.92). It was the wrong place and the wrong time for outspo- kenness; he narrowly escaped with his life, The elder Pliny, another contemporary, commented on excessive anointing and bathing as grim indicators of a spreading social disease. He criticized in a satir- ical manner the “broiling baths by which they have persuaded us that food is cooked in our bodies so that everybody leaves them weaker for treatment and the most submi are carried out to be buried...” (Pliny, Nu, 24.26). Pliny’s loopy humor is echoed ina passage in his famous Exgbry-sinth Letter, where the moralist speaks about the “fashionable heat™ of the baths im his day as a proper conflagration and quips “that a slave condemned for some criminal offense now ought to be bathed alive” (Letters, 86.10). A century Later, the Roman historian Tacitus characterized this way cof life, “the lounge, the banquet, the bath,” as “a form of vice CRITICS OF ROMAN BATHING brought by the conquering Romans to Britain, which seduced the hardy native inhabitants of the island” (Tacitus, Agricola, 21). These refinements of Romanization affected every class and soci- ety in Rome and abroad. Some of the emperors reportedly lived amid baths and banquets in their imperial residences. According to a late source called Scriptora Historiae Augustae, or The Lives of the Emperors (and not always reliable}, Commodus, a late second century emperor, bathed seven or eight times a day (SHA, Com- modus, 1.9). DID ROMAN BATHS ENCOURAGE UNCOUTH BEHAVIOR? ioe the public baths, along with the popular pleasures. it offered, engendered coarse, irritating, and even violent behavior. The tramp, the vagabond, and the ordinary lout found excellent opportunities for their uncouth and boorish ways. The newly nich showed off their wealth and petty affectations; young Algernon displayed six rings on his fingers and young Maro displayed his nude physique and gathered applause, There were those who treated the crowds to unsolicited concerts or vulgar recitals of amateur poetry - as well illustrated in Seneca’s previously quoted s6th Letter on “bath noises” (discussed in Chapter 5). A generation or so earlier, Horace, a poet and satirist of the late Republic, made similar humorous observations about the irritating aural backdrop and unwanted display of erudition in public baths: “Many there are who recite their writings in the middle of the Forum, or in the baths. How pleasantly the vaulted space echoes the voice! That delights the fools who never ask themselves whether whar they do is in bad taste or out of season™ (Horace, Satires, 1.4.76-80). Martial’s suffering from the bad poetry of aspiring poets, such as Ligurinus, is too good to omit: “You read to me as I stand, you read to me as | sit. You read to me as | man, you read to me as I shit. | escape to the baths: you buzz my ear. I head for the pool: I am not allowed to swim. I haste for dinner, you stop me as I go. I reach for the table, you drive me away as I cat” (Martial, 3-44). The younger Pliny’s account of the lamentable story of Larcius Macedo, a practorian of slave ancestry, suggests that baths were a5