a PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: CONCEPTS, APPROACHES AND CONTEXT INTRODUCTION The field of study—putatively a science or discipline—of Public Administration focuses upon public administration as a process. Historically and conventionally, Public Administration has been primarily concerned with problems of how to apply or effect law faithfully, honestly, ‘economically, and efficiently. More recently, Public Administration has become concerned with the processes by which public administration participates in creating and interpreting law—with how such creating and interpreting can be done “correctly,” “wisely,” ot in the “public interest”. ‘The process of public administration consists of the actions involved in effecting the intent or desire of a government. It is thus the continuously active, DID YOU KNOW? “pusiness” part of government, concerned with |} Woodrow Wilson was the 28th carrying out the law, as made by legislative bodies (or |} Presiden ofthe United States other authoritative agents) and interpreted by courts, through the processes of organization and management. The credit for initiating as an academic study of Public Administration goes to Woodrow Wilson. He is regarded as the father of the discipline of Public Administration. In his article entitled “The Study of Administration”, published in 1887, he emphasized the need for studying Public Administration as a discipline apart from politics. This is known as Principle of politics administration dichotomy, i.e. a separation of Politics and Administration. Wilson argued that, “Administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics. The administrative questions are not political questions.” According to Frank J. Goodnow, politics “has to do with the expression of the state will” while administration “has to do with the execution of these policies.” In short, Goodnow posited the politics-administration dichotomy and he developed the Wilsonian theme further and greater courage and conviction. The evolution of public administration started from politico-administrative dichotomy and today has reached to New Public Service \ DEFINITION “Detailed and systematic execution of public law. Every particular application of general law is an act of administration.” , —Woodrow Wilson22 slic administration is the composite of all the Jaws, regulation, Sree (pata antral Sent tha prevails at any time in Y jurisdtog, practices, relationships ai for the fulfilment or execution of public policy. sie OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Public administration isa system of public organization Public administration is a system of organization and action oriented with performance these activities. It can best be looked at as ar instrument that is used for the realization of the Boals of government. As societies possess different system ranges from political to economy, the Public administrative system has its significance, "i. Public administration is a management of public policy Public administration js a specific management which dwell and exists in Political realms. It is a mean through which DID YoU KNow? Policy decisions are carried out, Public Public administration has ancient origins. In administration is a decision making, ! antiquity the Egyptians and Greeks organized planning, formulating goals, working with ! public affairs by aifice, and the principal legislature and public organizations sen acchollers were regarded as being principally Public support and funds for goverseat Tesponsible for administering justice Programmes, establishing and conserving institutions, directing, supervising Employees, providing leadership, and rinaing communication channels, determining work methods and procedures, appraising performance and exercising control and other functions Performed by government executives ava supervisors, li, Public administration is a collective administrative effort to promote public welfare Public administration is “a Socially embedded process of Collective relationships, dialogue and action to Promote human flourishing for all Implicit in the definition was the recognition of an emerging globalized and multicultural order, within which Public administration was23 i istration i; i ir iy. Public administration is a continuous business of government Public administration is an instrument of translating political decision into reality; it is the sion part of government, the means by which the p x urposes and goals of the government are realized poté OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION THE ROLE OF PuBLic ADMINISTRATION To analyze public Policies and implement the policy that will benefit the people ~ at large. public administration serves as base of governmental activities Public administration serves as the basis of government. No government can exist without administrative machinery. All nations, irrespective of their system of government, require some Zort of administralive machinery for implementing public policies jj, Public administration is important for implementing laws and policies Public administration is responsible for implementing the laws and policies of government. In doing this, public administration plays a trucial role. By carrying out laws, it feyulates the behavioural norms in the society. ji, Public administration participates in policy formulation In the modern world, bureaucracy is the chief policy maker in government. Iti a source of facts and txperience as well as of ideas and solution of public problems. In modern democracies, public dministrators participate in policy making by giving advice to ministers and providing them with the necessary information pertaining to facts and figures, which are relevant for policy formulation. DID YOU KNOW? Woodraw believed that administration should run like a business. jv. Public administration as a cohesive force in the society Public administration acts as a stabilizing and cohesive force in the society. It settles social tensions and conflicts and thus creates social unity and harmony. Public administration stabilizes social structure, social organization and social relationship. v. Public administration performs protective functions First, public administration protects the life and property of the people by maintaining law and order. The survival and progress of human beings in society depend on the proper enforcement of laws against lawbreakers.26 acts ofthe government officals from py viow a this ministration: ‘The successful accompli 1m all the employees, = ty ization. ASP ih peso ! ra ‘res contribution {70 to ok in an organiza req) y ee i are orters of this view woodrow Wien 0 y0U KNOW? i E, Dimock, , ee mere This ] jn 1946 and 194. prin "| Pi se nay se 'n as Robert Dahl, Dwight Wald tive |} scholars swe! at view is 2 wile eee sch I Sinan released ales and el of the een in. the |] criticising SDCORB and the principles notion, it aa wl f folliment of its objectives: Me, pater Bee von ofall those operations having for their purpose gy ic policy.” ATE ADMINISTRATION are two species of the same more in public administration “public administra! fulfilment or enforcement EEN PUBLIC & PRIV. DifFERENCES BETW! = a tministration rises great power, % public administration jministration exer i te administration with a view to finding gy, namely administration. But a ss gre tration is often compared with priv! i view Public administra" Nartes between the two. Both the ‘elassical organization theory’ ang te administration. The management of affairs by similarities and dissimil t first originated in privat : vate administration while management of afais of pub and private adi ‘human relation theory’ private individuals or body of individuals is private ad Fy cental, slate or local goverment i public ‘jaministration. The following are the important ‘en the two types of administration: there is political direction. The public differences betwe (©. Political direction: In public administration managers under public administration have i from the politcal executive with no option of their own. ‘on is conducted with the motive of service while the © Profit motive: Public administrat vrotve of private administration is profit making. If private administration is useful by-product of profit making. Private administration to the publi, its service to it isa ‘will never undertake a work if it does not bring profit. Nature of functions: Public administration is more comprehensive. It deals with the sae ofthe eds of te pol In sds State the scope of State is sill Private administration does not cover so many aspects of human if. concerned with the economics needs of life 2 ee Etec 1c by many tn ple amination len less. Basse of eraapine ape and compton which may dominate in pb ination i ay nob ina pasion to fanction in an efent manne Bu piv ainsaton he ve af efcency superior to public admins. Te os eceta ace li bas iede hn saa work abl responsbiliy: Pubic administration has responsiblity tothe publi facet lcm of he pb, pes, and political partes. The private administration ponsiblity towards the public. It is only responsible to the 0 carry out the orders which they get27 People indirectly and th; it peopl ly 100 for securing its own ends and not for the welfare of the Q Public relatio: 3 of pitt relations Peon Private administration also differs onthe principles ions ‘ than inprivate administration, *"3*FWeF Content in public administration © Monopolistic: In the field of public administration, there is generally a monopoly of the government and it does not allow © Parties to compete with it. For example, allow private parti vith it : Ke Pi ipete with it. le, tel il administration, several individuals or orgenc rn NaY® ete. But in private ; organizations compete with each supply the same commodity or meet the pa needs. Thus the acre there is no monopoly in © Social prestige: Public administration carries a eater social prestige than private m1 eater social great ig vs ISSUES IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. DEMOCRACY VERSUS BUREAUCRACY One of the major ironies in new governance isthe relationship between bureaucracy and democracy. This relationship can be viewed as an abstraction or diversion where both spheres are independent but still closely related in a unique way. Traditionally, bureaucracy perceived as rational organization with formalism, unresponsiveness, complex hierarchy, with specialization of skills and tasks. But democracy is concerned with majoritarianism, individualiom, trecdon and equality. Studies on the relationship between bureaucracy and democracy in modem societies suggest that many of the elements of one, conflict with those of the other, Principles of democracy O Citizen participation: This means that citizens ate part and parcel of what happens in their society or country. The citizens’ are part of the decision-making. process on matters that affect them. Communication is a two-way consultative process, ie bottom-up as well as top-bottom before any decision is reached. Equality: This means equality before the law, equality of opportunity in the realization of individual capacities without regard to one's race, gender, ethnic background, religion or whatsoever. Political tolerance: This means the ruling masses are mindful and respectful of the interests of the minority. While there may be differences between the people by way a28 ace, re lescer bove such dith tan culture they ise a ee Pe aeiectel medation of different viewpoint gi, for discussion, debate and accom Tee c ii lected leaders or public officiate, —_ eee hae actions, decisions or ftcisons dus? ang oS MSI Public offices: Those found ene ey rue standards are ewan by et sare 88y in og etn ‘hy ton Snare in one way or another are po aa ® arent mens tat leaders low fr py i © Horan cae The citizens are allowed to attend Pub tg en information on what happens in public nj es mtg | on and why. Transparency is a step towards accountabj ity. Makes fale elections: Regular elections ensure A = ak oi Bal leadership but that they have. the opp incompetent leaders through fee and far clections. Free and fai elections ™ oy | cams» chanel elect a leader of hee choice a ape ing eee {lum often unwanted leaders to power. Elections are the main avenue fora gg wrt power by choosing ther leaders and gin’ their vote ig pe ig whom they think will represent them best, © Esenomis fem: Economically handicapped ctzeg are th of abuses as they lack the economic base to meet the basic nec cee the nes often bribed withthe sea silts a i citizens become vibrant and thus able te call their leaders to account jg, wens oF inaction, In democracies, econome Pluralism needs to hand in hag jth politcal and socal pluralism, ie: the freedom to choose/seiee ones poi leaders and the feedom to belong to one'e Social /cultural associationg respect, Irdepennett the legislature, executive ant the Judicia by ens independence of the three, Another way is by Creation Of institutions suc eect ombudsman (Inspector of Government in the case of Uganda), whi watches over the performance of governme, nt offi in relation to te se standards and ethics, | euthcaey fo} Formalistic Impersonality: Authority Is restricted to official dy function without any affection we hatred O Hierarchy: Each lower officer is under the sty one. uring ch as Candidates are selected on the basis of technical qualifications, © Fixed remuneration of officials: They are Femunerated by fixed salaries ——_29 O Discipline and control: The offical is subject to strict and systematic discipline and control in the conduct of his office. Discipline can be maintained by way of rules and regulations. O Allocation of activities: Division of work is practiced to fulfill organizational objectives. Each official's duties are clearly marked off from those of other officials, Q Career System: There is system of ‘promotion’. Promotion can be on the basis of seniority or achievement or both. O Rigid adherence to rules: Activities are re _Ahe rules and regulations strictly. POLITICS VERSUS PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Politics and administration exists as a key issue in public administration. OQ Woodrow Wilson's view According to Woodrow Wilson, the proponent of politico-administration dichotomy stressed that administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics and that administrative questions are not political questions. In his opinion, “Administration cannot be divorced {rom its connections with the other branches of Public Law without being distorted and robbed of ite true significance. Its foundations are those deep and permanent principles of politics.” O Goodnow’s view Goodnow elaborated on the distinction between politics and administration, which are then in all governmental system. Goodnow identified two primaries or ultimate functions of government: ‘gulated by rules. Officials are to adhere to Q The expression of the will of the state DID YOU KNOW? Taylor had written his efficiency The execution of the will ‘. techniques in his 1911 book The © Taylor's view Principles of Scientific Management The idea of a dichotomy between polities and administration and the treatment of public administration as afield of business, were strengthened by the Scientific Management Movement stated by Taylor emphasized efficiency in organization which could be achieved through fic method to assist division of labour and assignation of proper task. Thus, efficiency and productivity increased by application of this approach. O Luther Gulick’s view Luther rejected the common contention of that time that politics and administration are separate and distinct! Gulick argues that such a separation is impractical, impossible, and undesirable. He maintains that administration is necessarily involved in both politics and the policy process. Efforts to eliminate polities from administration by setting up independent public agencies only frustrate efforts to establish an integrated government capable of planning, Q Pfiffner’s view According to Pfiffner, “Let no apostle of political realism think that advocates of such a separation of powers be unaware of its doctrinal pitfalls. They do not advocate that it beProvider Organizations ~* Roles «: Resources Old Public New Public N Administration Management =~ Mechanisms for | Administering Creating mechanisms achieving policy | programs through | and incentive objectives existing government | structures to achieve agencies policy objectives through private and Ronproft agencies Approach to Hierarchical — Market-driven — the Multifaceted —Pabig accountability | Administrators are accumulation of self responsible to democratically elected Political leaders Servants must attend i law, community valu, Political norms, Professional standards and citizen interests interests will result in outcomes desired by broad groups of citizens (or customers Administrative | Limited discretion Wide latitude to meet | Discretion needed bat discretion allowed entrepreneurial goats | constrained and administrative officials accountable Assumed Bureaucratic Decentralized public | Collaborative | organizational | organizations marked organizations with | structures with structure by top-down authority | primary control leadership shared within agencies and | remaining within the internally and control or regulation | agency externally of clients Assumed Pay and benefits, civil a ie Entrepreneurial spirit, | Public service, desire motivation basis _| service protections ideological desire to | contribute to society of public servants reduce size of and government [administrators55 The new thrust towards neo-liberalist The new thrust towards neovlberalis restraint on the ‘slate’, along with the positing of smarket’ a8 a competing social authority, and bringing in ‘civ eting s il society’ as a provider vel social services has its origin in governance discourses 2 Seen ee ji. _ Role of international institutions The international funding authorities’ (particularly, the World Bank) concem for Se sccomalatliy Uamspaten Geek and i DID You kNow? participative system of governance is augers a des Branly the 2 century in this era. resurgence of 19th century ideas associated with pronounced i laissez faire economie liberalism iii. Globalization The newly emergent ‘globalization’ trend—a propelled by economic, technological, and political eo The New Right ideology seeks to redefine of the free market and calls for a significant society. Socioeconomic integration of the world nsiderations. Public administration by championing the cause eduction in the size and role of government in CAMIC CONCEPT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ‘Public Administration’ is the hierarchically organized body of government officials who work through fixed rules and procedure to realize govemmental objectives as expressed in policies and programmes. It is a sub-system of the greater political system of a nation. In a welfare state, itis considered as a mechanism to deliver goods and services tothe citizenry. The traditional concern of public administration is to policy implementation. In an Islamic society, the framework of life. If development means change—change towards desired direction, then the goal of development in Islam, is the movement away from non-lslam toward Islam. In the political realm as well as in the socio-economic sphere, the goal of Islam is to attain Islamic ideals, Likewise, in Islamic administration, the goal is to maximize Islamic values of humanism of which Adi and Ihsan are important considerations. Since ancient time, administration has attracted the attention of scholars—Aristotle’s Politics, Kautilya's Arthasastra, Confucius philosophy, 5 Machiavelli's Prince, Hazrat Ali's (R.A.) Classical Administrative Policy Letter, Nizam-ul. & Mulk’s Siasatnama, Al-Ghazali’s Council for Kings, Abul Fazal’s Ain-i-Akbati etc, are rich with valuable views regarding government and administration. _ PRINCIPLES OF ISLAMIC PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION i. Selection of employees ensure ‘efficiency’ and ‘economy’ in goal of every sub-system is to evolve an Islamic The Allah-fearing attribute is valued because it will ensure that the public servant out his duty with amanah, devotion and perfection. It is also said that “Selecting staff with completely denies a man leadership should he requests it or contest for it (Ieadership),” It is also narrated that a group of people came to the Prophet (S.A.W) and requested leadership. The Prophet ([Link]) said: “We, by Allah, would not charge anybody who requests it, or is greedy for it (leadership).”56 Ti Conguais ptt dun of tara 22 concuntsunder he et four Cap 24e4 IB congue uncer be Unayyid Clot, 61.250 Beery ot capa «759 There are two prerequisite in selecting employees set, ic. Strength and Trustworthiness. The first pre-requisite, ie. strength and power depend according to the kind of the duty to be entrusted to the employee and this strength includes the capability in knowledge, field of specialization, experience, personal abilities, potentials and character. Specialization and division of labour In the context of specialization and clear demarcation of duties, one can see the application of several islamic principles of administration such as knowledge (ilm), justice (adalah) and brotherhood (ukiuwzah). It is a fact that job allocation should be done properly in ensuring effective performance amongst the employee for the task entrusted to them and in ensuring the target set by the management can be achieved accordingly towards the success of the organization. Arising from this, it is pertinent that in allocating the task amongst the employee, the employer should take into consideration the knowledge (iim) that the employee possess in relation to the {ask to be entrusted to him. This indirectly gives some advantage to those having the necessary knowledge (needed for the performance of the task) over those without such knowledge. Employ!.went in managerial practices DID YOU KNow? The practive of empowerment upheld by || Hazrat Ali's Classical Administrative Policy the Islamic principles of administration and |} Letter is one ofthe source to understand the which is well-enshrined in the managerial |} Co"cep! of administration of Islam. practices can le seen in the statement on empowerment by the prominent Islamic scholars as follows: “Appointment of an individual by the Imam, to whom the administration of matters is comples ly entrusted, allowing him to make decision according to his own judgment.” “Deli yation of authority is rational and necessary because no individual is capable of cexcouting all matters alone.” Ibn Khaldun in AL-Mukaddimah Die ee37 sms understand that ruler (government) is weak, vet he is carrying a huge burden, Ore i elp of his citizen. If the government seeks the help ofthe citizens in trivial fe mes, 11 therefore important for ita sek tht help in goverming the state Motivation in managerial practices rinciples of Islamic administration still view that the prime motivation for any ei yee is “to get Allah S.W.T’s pleasure, His forgiveness and entering His paradise. Mabey Allah SW.T and follow His law can be seen from two angles, ie. in the rewative a happy and honourable life while in the hereafter: to enter the paradise promised world UNy-T. A Muslim with steong faith is stimulated by the great reward (ajran) of Allah aes than any worldly or materialistic goal. Similarly, a leader with strong faith is alated by the great reward of Allah $.W.T more than any worldly or materialistic goal rt y ‘Autonomy in managerial practices In Islam, autonomy is defined as liberalization from any decisive influence or excessive ‘ction on his thoughls, ceatvity oF movement DID YOU KNOW? Mae British inherited the system of public -Qardhawi 1993:65). It is also the condition or Gere cing auforomeus and selfgoveming and | sémintrain fom Mh Entre Aeving freedom and independence as an individual. However, it does not mean engaging in we termissiveness or immorality neither implies disorder or chaos in society. Islam itself isa religion Prmutonomy in the sense that the concept of tawvhid (Oneness of God) is indirectly signifies ion from the subservience to other creatures and from evil influences. Mus! ve of mar liberalizati vi, Consultant body-Shura ‘The other important variable is Shura, which means decision through consultation. Shura is rot a deinocratic process in the sense of majority vote. It seeks consensus building in decision making based on Islamic ideals. In Islam, it is obligatory on the part of the individuals to be ‘obedient to their leaders and follow their rightful decisions. On the other hand, leaders have been asked to conduct their affairs by mutual consultations with the followers. (Sura Shura: 38; and Sura Al-Imran: 159) There are lots of evidences that to have the best and avoid mistakes, Prophet (G.A.W.W) and the rightly-guided Khalifs have always consulted with their companions in all important policy matters in the administration of Madina state. Even the non-Muslims were consulted in matters that pertain to politics, economics and military affairs. ‘ E Mace ROOTS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN PAKISTAN Public administration in the subcontinent Today's administrative systems and procedures in Pakistan have its roots in particular to the British period. Two hundred years of British rule still have its vestiges and remnants on the structure, rules, procedures and organizational behaviours. But the British changed the structure to the extent of what their goals were in the subcontinent. They retained the structure at the district level which they inherited from Moguls. Subcontinent to a bedrock of many civilizations as it stood at the cross roads of Central Asia, Middle East and South East of sea, as such is influenced by Greeks, Arabs and Central Asians. Administrative process in Pakistan is the resulty . tural and administrative practice. of years of assimilation of the cul Practices of Ing cluding Aryans, Greeks, Persian, Maurya, Moghul and British, “S Valley Cry | TRADITIONAL FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT These functions are as follow:~ Maintain law and order (peace and security). For any goven tanta internal peace and security. Without peace and secusin "8 ug, be able to perform its other functions. Y B0VvERMen, oe 2 Tax callection: Governments taxes are collected to provide fr g “ threat. Also governments have to provide for welfare and publy: any ie Gal O Defence; The government has to protect country from extemey et | maintain army. threat ang © Maintenance of mint: Governments have to supply curren ; government's responsibility to maintain mints and printing of mje Oi. Thy INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION In the subcontinent two civilizations of ancient time, i.e. Mohenjodaro and Harrapa were very developed cities between 3250- 2750 BC. The ruins of these cities tell us that the rules maintained a good sewage and water supply system. The city had granary and bricks were use! in the construction of houses. Gordon Childe writes: The remains of many well planned streets and municipal system of drains, regula cleaned, reflect the vigilance of some regular municipal government. Its authority was stong enough to secure observance of own planning bye-lawe’59 vs at Harrapa were constructed in planned and coordinated manner. Grain was ‘Maurya Empire in early 4th century BC had government official who looked alter ae improvement, measured land and inspected irrigation system. ae this period government employees were divided into three categories: puties of district officers pitrict Officials were responsible for irrigation, land measurement, hunting, agriculture, J aind distance stones. rood i, Duties of military officials + Pela who dealt sith military: Army was maintained to defend the borders and it was well jooked after. ji, Capital management ‘There were six boards, each managing Supervision of factories Care of foreigners Births and deaths Trade and commerce Inspection of manufactured articles 000000 Collection of sales tax “The book by Kautilya is one of the oldest books on Public Administration written during, Maurya period. This book was written for the officials who were responsible for running the overnment, so that they understand their duties and responsibilities. MOGHUL PERIOD Moghul administrative system has clear imprints on the present-day public management in Pakistan, Moghul period lasted over two centuries (16th ~ 18th), during which many rulers including Sher Shah Suri and Akber, reigned. i. Sher Shah Suri’s rule ‘Though Suri was not Moghul ruler but his administrative system was adopted by succeeding rulers. Suri, developed a centralized system of administration, divided the empire into 47 divisions, with several sub-divisions under each division. He organized survey of land lnder cultivation, effective tax system, criminal justice system, and roads. He constructed the present Grand Trunk (GT) road, which runs from Peshawar to Kolkata. He established gardens End hospitals and promoted public welfare. He was guided by the principle that ‘no one should be deprived of state benefaction and no one should have superfluity of the same.’ Many Moghul rulers followed Sher Shah Suri. ji, Akbar’s rule ‘Akber ruled the sub-continent for nearly 50 years. He developed the administrative system mainly borrowed from Sher Shah Suri. The empire was divided into provinces, divisions,3 60 districts and villages. These terms are used even now. Village was the lowest unit ang ; governed by heackman, accountant and watchman. The British did not change this sy! "ay existed up to the partition of sub-continent and later. During the time of Akbar human i ind management was done. Career civil service system with hierarchical structure existeq = "tee civil service was not restricted based on religion or geographic origin. Akber further jg the system: Prove O Revenue collection system: During Akber period revenue collection sys improved. It was based on survey and classification of soll. The land was clase agriculture and non-agriculture. Within the agriculture the land was graded gies was then fixed and charged according to the type of soi te as a tay Q Judicial system: Judicial Officers were appointed at the district, town and village levels. Law enforcement: Kotwnl (chief police officer), with only civil authority was appointed in important towns. In rural areas fuujdar (army chief) was appointed to control crime. After Akber, for over hundred years no real administrative system could develop, mainly because the disarray of the empire began with Jahangir, who first allowed the East India Company to set up a factory. in 1642 at Balasore for medical service provided by the Surgeon of the company on the ship. BRITISH PERIOD The beginning of British Rule in the subcontinent started and the East India Company gradually expanded its operations, In 1609, the authority to trade was further extended. In 1661, the Company was empowered to declare war on and have peace with any ruler. The Regulating Act, 1773 was passed by British parliament granting the British government powers to regulate the affairs of the Company in India. By this time the British government was not ruling ditect!y India. All matters and powers were given to the company to rule. In 1757, the victory at PlesseYal 61 : fick ritish rule. There were innumerable battles and conflict before the Britis! vay for the ted alter 1857 (war of independence). paved tere rect rule which really star ene PRE-PARTITION . MMAP OF INDIA " ‘Bofor 1947 CONCLUS! oe ‘As a proces, public administration is as old as government, That is, as soon as there is suffclznt institutional evolution and differentiation fo era) Speak of the government of a mn attempt, more or less tions by which law is made and actions by which ai seteesstul, is made to carry the law into effect: Ip simple societies the objectives of publi saeistration are simple, limited to such matters as preserving ‘order; and the institutions or rgans by which administration is carried on are simple, comparatively small, and often not completely differentiated from institutions or organs with other purposes. vas societies increase in size and complexity, as governments grow larger and take on more functions, and as their institutions become more differentiated and specialized, administrative processes become more specialized and the institutions that canty on administration activities— Frown by such names as councils, commissions, deparlments, bureaus, and agencies—become lange, complex, and highly differentiated. In the broadest. sense, the future of Public LniBe tration is engaged with the fulure of political science, on the one hand, and with ammstrative science, on the other. It has from its beginnings, represented a joining of certain interests of politcal science with the “management” movement; and i sil does, granted all (he ‘additional factors, the new developments, the broadened spectra. society, there are act Key TERMS O Execution of Law Public Organization © Public Policy 2 Business of Government