2.

0 Definition of machining
Machining is an essential process of finishing by which work pieces are produced to
the desired dimensions and surface finish by gradually removing the excess material
from the preformed blank in the form of chips with the help of cutting tool(s) moved
past the work surface(s)

TURNING
In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material from a
rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape. There are two types of relative
motion. The first is speed motion provided by the rotating workpiece, and the second
is feed motion, achieved by moving the cutting tool slowly in a direction parallel to
the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
This figure shows you a typical turning operation.

DRILLING
Drilling is a machining process which is usually performed with a rotating cylindrical
tool that has two cutting edges on its working end. The tool is called a drill or drill
bit. The rotating drill feeds into the stationary workpiece to form a hole whose
diameter is equal to the drill diameter. Drilling is customarily performed on a drill
press. This figure shows you a drilling process.
MILLING
In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is moved slowly across the
material to generate a plane or straight surface. There are two forms of milling,
peripheral milling and face milling.

CUTTING TOOL SPECIFICATION

There are two basic classifications of cutting tools, single-point and multiple cutting
edge. A single-point tool has one cutting edge and is used for operations such as
turning. A multiple-cutting-edge tool has more than one cutting edge and usually
achieves its motion relative to the workpiece by rotating. These tools are used for
drilling and milling operations
Shop Formulas for Turning, Milling, Drilling, and Broaching (English Units)
 Factors Influencing Machining Operations
Parameter Influence and interrelationship

Cutting speed, Forces, power, temperature rise, tool life, type of chip, surface finish,
depth of cut, feed, and integrity
cutting fluids

Tool angles As above; influence on chip flow direction; resistance to tool wear
and chipping

Continuous chip Good surface finish; steady cutting forces; undesirable, especially in
modern machine tools

Built-up edge Poor surface finish and integrity; if thin and stable, edge can protect
chip tool surfaces

Discontinuous Desirable for ease of chip disposal; fluctuating cutting forces; can
chip affect surface finish and cause vibration and chatter

Temperature rise Influences tool life, particularly crater wear and dimensional
accuracy of workpiece; may cause thermal damage to workpiece
surface

Tool wear Influences surface finish and integrity, dimensional accuracy,

temperature rise, and forces and power

Machinability Related to tool life, surface finish, forces and power, and type of chip
produced
THEORY OF METAL CUTTING
• The process of metal removal, a process in which a wedge-shaped tool engages a
workpiece to remove a layer of material in the form of a chip, goes back many years.
Even with all of the sophisticated equipment and techniques used in today’s modern
industry, the basic mechanics of forming a chip remain the same.
• As the cutting tool engages the workpiece, the material directly ahead of the tool is
sheared and deformed under tremendous pressure. The deformed material then seeks
to relieve its stressed condition by fracturing and flowing into the space above the
tool in the form of a chip.

The relative motion between the tool and work piece is necessary for effecting the
cutting action.
The relative motion can be provided by both keeping the work piece stationary and
moving the tool or by keeping the tool stationary and moving the work or by moving
both in relation to one another.
The work piece provides the parent metal, from which unwanted metal is removed by
cutting action of tool to obtain shape and size of the component. Chemical
composition and physical properties of work piece material will have significant
effect in machining.
The type and geometry of chip formed are greatly affected by the metal of work
piece, geometry of cutting tool and method of cutting. Chemical composition and rate
of flow of cutting fluid have considerable influence over the machining operation.
Orthogonal And Oblique Cutting:
The process of metal cutting is divided in to two main classes: Orthogonal and
Oblique cutting.
In Orthogonal cutting, cutting edge of tool remains normal to the direction of tool
feed or work feed.
The direction of chip flow velocity is normal to the cutting edge of the tool.
The angle of inclination ‘i’ of the cutting edge of the tool with normal to the velocity
vc is zero.
The chip flow angle i.e the angle between the direction of chip flow and normal to
the cutting edge of the tool is zero. Cutting edge is longer than the width of the cut.

Oblique cutting:
The cutting edge of the tool always remains inclined at an acute angle to the direction
of tool feed or work feed.
The direction of chip flow velocity is at an angle with normal to the cutting edge of
the tool.
The angle is known as chip flow angle.
The cutting edge of the tool is inclined at an angle ‘i’ with the normal to the direction
of tool feed or work feed.
Three mutually perpendicular components of the cutting forces act at the cutting edge
of the tool.
The cutting edge may or may not be longer than the width of cut.
Most of the metal cutting is carried out through oblique method.

MECHANICS OF ORTHOGONAL METAL CUTTING

2.1. Introduction
Two types of cutting are used in analysis of metal cutting mechanics as earlier seen:
Orthogonal and oblique cutting. In orthogonal cutting, unwanted material is removed
from the work piece by a cutting edge that is perpendicular to the direction of relative
motion between tool and the work piece as shown in Figure 2.1.
In orthogonal cutting, the material removal process is assumed to be uniform
along the cutting edge; therefore it is a two dimensional plane strain problem. In
oblique cutting, the major cutting edge is inclined to direction of the cutting velocity
with an inclination angle as shown in Figure 2.1.
Although most of the metal cutting operations are oblique, orthogonal cutting has
been extensively studied because of its simplicity and giving good approximations.
Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
All Chips are;
▪ Chip has two surfaces:
▪ Surface in contact with rake face
o Shiny and polished
o Caused by rubbing of the chip on the tool surface
▪ Outer surface from the original surface of the workpiece
o Jagged, rough appearance
o Caused by shearing mechanism
 o Note, this surface remains exposed to the environment, and does not
come into contact with any other surface
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
The chip formation of oblique and orthogonal cutting is approximately identical.
In machining operations, there are three types of chips occur: Discontinuous chips,
continuous chips and continuous chip with built-up edge (BUE).
Discontinuous chip occurs when brittle metals are cut such as cast iron or when
some ductile metals are machined under low cutting speeds. Machine vibration or
tool chatter may cause this type of chips form.
Continuous chip is produced when ductile metals are cut or cutting with high speeds.
This type of chip is considered ideal for cutting operation because it results in better
surface finish.
Continuous chip with builtup edge forms when low carbon machining steels are cut
with high speed steel cutting tools under low cutting speeds. BUE results poor
surface finish and it shortens tool life.
High cutting speeds can be used to eliminate BUE.
Continuous Chips
▪ Formed with ductile materials machined at high cutting speeds and/or high
rake angles
▪ Deformation takes place along a narrow shear zone called the (primary shear
zone)
▪ Continuous chips may develop a secondary shear zone due to high friction at
the tool–chip interface
o This zone becomes thicker as friction increases
▪ Continuous chips may also occur with wide primary shear zone with curved
boundaries
▪ Note, lower boundary of deformation zone drops below machined surface ⇒
distortion in workpiece, poor finish.
o Occurs: machining soft metals at low speeds, low rake angles
Built-up Edge (BUE) Chips
▪ Consists of layers of material from the workpiece that are deposited on the tool
tip
▪ As it grows larger, the BUE becomes unstable and eventually breaks apart
▪ BUE: partly removed by tool, partly deposited on workpiece
▪ BUE can be reduced by:
1) Increase the cutting speeds
2) Decrease the depth of cut
3) Increase the rake angle
4) Use a sharp tool
5) Use an effective cutting fluid
6) Use cutting tool with lower chemical affinity for workpiece material
Serrated Chips
▪ Also called segmented or nonhomogeneous chips
▪ They are semicontinuous chips with
o large zones of low shear strain and
o small zones of high shear strain (shear localization)
▪ Example: metals with low thermal conductivity and strength that decreases
sharply with temperature, i.e. thermal softening (e.g. titanium)
▪ Chips have a sawtooth-like appearance
o Note, do not confuse this with dimension d

Discontinuous Chips
▪ Consist of segments that are attached firmly or loosely to each other
▪ Form under the following conditions:
1. Brittle workpiece materials
2. Materials with hard inclusions and impurities
3. Very low or very high cutting speeds
4. Large depths of cut
5. Low rake angles
6. Lack of an effective cutting fluid
Low stiffness of the machine tool (⇒ vibration, chatter)
Chip Curl
▪ Chips will develop a curvature (chip curl) as they leave the workpiece surface
▪ Factors affecting the chip curl conditions are:
1. Distribution of stresses in the primary and secondary shear zones.
2. Thermal effects.
3. Work-hardening characteristics of the workpiece material
4. Geometry of the cutting tool
5. Cutting fluids
Note, as cutting depth ↓, chip radius ↓ (i.e. curlier)
Chip Breakers
▪ Long, continuous chips are undesirable since:
o become entangled and greatly interfere with machining
o potential safety hazard
▪ chip-breaker: breaks chips intermittently with cutting tools
▪ Traditionally are clamped to rake face: bend and break the chip
▪ Modern tools: built-in chip breakers
Ideal chip: “C” or “9” shape
Chip Breakers
Chips can also be broken by changing the tool geometry to control chip flow
ELEMENTS OF CUTTING PROCESS
WORK PIECE: The associated fields of interest related to the work piece are,
1. The shape and size of the work piece for continuous and intermittent cutting.
2. The chemical composition of the work piece material.
3. Mechanical and metallurgical properties.
The size and shape of the work piece, chemical composition of the work piece
material and mechanical and metallurgical properties and working condition of the
machine tool will determine the optimum input parameters like depth of cut, speed
and feed to achieve best performance of the cutting process.
TOOL: The associated fields of interest related to the tool are,
1. Tool material
2. Tool geometry
Various materials have been developed with the technological development to use for
various purposes. Different tool materials and tool geometry according to the job
material will determine the optimum input parameters like dept of cut, speed and feed
to achieve best performance of the cutting process.
CHIP: The associated fields of interest related to the chip are type of chip and its
geometry. The formation of types of chips depends upon the work piece material,
cutting tool geometry, process parameters (like depth of cut, speed, feed etc) and
method of cutting. The type of chips and geometry of chips affect the performance of
the cutting process.
CUTTING FLUID: Its chemical composition, rate of flow and mode of application
will determine performance of the cutting process.
Orthogonal cutting and tool geometry variables are shown in Figure 2.3. t is the
undeformed chip thickness and it is sometimes called depth of cut. tc is the chip
thickness. Rake face is the face where chip and tool in contact. Rake angle (α) is an
angle between the rake face and newly machined surface normal. Clearance face is a
surface which the machined surface passes over. Clearance angle (c) is an angle
between newly machined surface and clearance face. These variables are important
because they determine the characteristics of the process.

There are three deformation zones in the cutting process as shown in Figure 2.4.;
• Primary shear zone (A-B): The chip formation takes place firstly and mainly in this
zone as the edge of the tool penetrates into the work-piece. Material on this zone has
been deformed by a concentrated shearing process.
• Secondary shear zone (A-C): The chip and the rake face of the tool are in contact
from A to C. When the frictional stress on the rake face reaches a value equal to
the shear yield stress of the work-piece material, material flow also occur on this
zone.
• Tertiary shear zone (A-D): When the clearance face of the tool rubs the newly
machined surface deformation can occur on this zone.