MICROPROCESSOR

BSc-CSIT
Second Semester
Course No. CSC162
Nature of the Course: Theory+Lab
Credit Hrs: 3 FM=60+20+20
PM=24+8+8
Unit -1 Introduction to Microprocessors [4 Hrs.]
Microprocessor and its Application

• Microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-computer, fabricated on a small chip

capable of performing ALU (Arithmetic Logical Unit) operations and communicating
with the other devices connected to it.
• Microprocessor consists of an ALU, register array, and a control unit.
• ALU performs arithmetical and logical operations on the data received from the
memory or an input device.
• Register array consists of registers identified by letters like B, C, D, E, H, L and
accumulator (register in which intermediate arithmetic and logic results are stored.).
• The control unit controls the flow of data and instructions within the computer.

Features of a Microprocessor
• Cost-effective − The microprocessor chips are available at low prices and results its
low cost.
• Size − The microprocessor is of small size chip, hence is portable.
• Low Power Consumption − Microprocessors are manufactured by using metaloxide
semiconductor technology, which has low power consumption.
• Versatility − The microprocessors are versatile as we can use the same chip in a
number of applications by configuring the software program.
• Reliability − The failure rate of microprocessors is very low; hence it is reliable.

Components of Microprocessor
 • ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit) – It performs such arithmetic operations as addition and
subtraction, and such logic operations as AND, OR, and XOR. Results are stored
either in registers or in memory.
• Register Array – It consists of various registers identified by letter such as B, C, D, E,
H, L, IX, and IY. These registers are used to store data and addresses temporarily
during the execution of a program.
• Control Unit – The control unit provides the necessary timing and control signals to
all the operations in the microcomputer. It controls the flow of data between the
microprocessor and memory and peripherals.
• Input – The input section transfers data and instructions in binary from the outside
world to the microprocessor. It includes such devices as a keyboard, switches, a
scanner, and an analog-to-digital converter.
• Output – The output section transfers data from the microprocessor to such output
devices as LED, CRT, printer, magnetic tape, or another computer.
• Memory – It stores such binary information as instructions and data, and provides
that information to the microprocessor. To execute programs, the microprocessor
reads instructions and data from memory and performs the computing operations in
its ALU section. Results are either transferred to the output section for display or
stored in memory for later use.
• System bus – It is a communication path between the microprocessor and
peripherals. The microprocessor communicates with only one peripheral at a time.
The timing is provided by the control unit of the microprocessor.

Microprocessor Vs Microcontroller
Bus organization of Microprocessor
Bus is a group of conducting wires which carries information, all the peripherals are
connected to microprocessor through Bus.

There are three types of buses.

• Address bus – It is a group of conducting wires which carries address only. Address
bus is unidirectional because data flow in one direction, from microprocessor to
memory or from microprocessor to Input/output devices (That is, Out of
Microprocessor).
• Data bus – It is a group of conducting wires which carries Data only. Data bus is
bidirectional because data flow in both directions, from microprocessor to memory
or Input/output devices and from memory or Input/output devices to
microprocessor.
• Control bus –It is a group of wires, which is used to generate timing and control
signals to control all the associated peripherals, microprocessor uses control bus to
process data, that is what to do with selected memory location. Some control
signals are: Memory read, Memory write, I/O read, I/O Write.

Evolution of Microprocessor
• The first microprocessor was introduced in the year 1971. It was introduced by Intel
and was named Intel 4004.
• Intel 4004 is a 4-bit microprocessor and it was not a powerful microprocessor. It can
perform addition and subtraction operation on 4 bits at a time.
• However, it was Intel’s 8080 was the first microprocessor to make it to Home
computers. It was introduced during the year 1974 and it can perform 8 bit
operations.
• Then during the year 1976, Intel introduced 8085 processors which is nothing but an
update of 8080 processors.
 • Intel introduced 8086 pins during the year 1976. The major difference between 8085
and 8086 processors is that 8085 is an 8-bit processor, but 8086 processors is a 16-
bit processor.
• Intel later introduced 8087 processors which was the first math co-processor and
later the 8088 processor which was incorporated into IBM personal computers.
• As the years progressed lots of processors from 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium
II, Pentium III, Pentium IV and now Core2Duo, Dual Core and Quad core processors
are the latest in the market.
• Apart from Intel, there are some other manufacturers. Such manufacturers are
called second source manufacturers.
• The second source manufacturers include: AMD, Mitsubishi, NEC, OKI, Toshiba,
Siemens, Motorola & many more.

Computer Architecture
• Computer architecture is a specification detailing how a set of software and
hardware technology standards interact to form a computer system or platform. In
short, computer architecture refers to how a computer system is designed and what
technologies it is compatible with.
• A very good example of computer architecture is von Neumann architecture, which
is still used by most types of computers today.
• This was proposed by the mathematician John von Neumann in 1945. It describes
the design of an electronic computer with its CPU, which includes the arithmetic
logic unit, control unit, registers, memory for data and instructions, an input/output
interface and external storage functions.

Harvard Architecture
• The Harvard architecture is a computer architecture with physically separate storage
and signal pathways for instructions and data. The term originated from the Harvard
Mark I, which stored instructions on punched tape and data in electro-mechanical
counters.
• These early machines had data storage entirely contained within the central
processing unit, and provided no access to the instruction storage as data. It
required two memories for their instruction and data. Harvard architecture requires
separate bus for instruction and data.
Von Neumann Architecture
• Von Neumann architecture was first published by John von Neumann in 1945.
• His computer architecture design consists of a Control Unit, Arithmetic and Logic
Unit (ALU), Memory Unit, Registers and Inputs/Outputs.
• Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program computer concept,
where instruction data and program data are stored in the same memory. This
design is still used in most computers produced today.
• The modern computers are based on a stored-program concept introduced by John
von Neumann. In this stored-program concept, programs and data are stored in a
separate storage unit called memories and are treated the same. Von Neumann
architecture requires only one bus for instruction and data.
UNIT II & IV – 8085 Theory & Instruction Set
Introduction to 8085 Microprocessor
• 8085 is pronounced as "eighty-eighty-five" microprocessor. It is an 8-bit
microprocessor designed by Intel in 1977.
• It has the following configuration –
- 8-bit data bus
- 16-bit address bus, which can address up to 64KB
- A 16-bit program counter
- A 16-bit stack pointer
- Six 8-bit registers arranged in pairs: BC, DE, HL
- Requires +5V supply to operate at 3.2 MHZ single phase clock
- It is used in washing machines, microwave ovens, mobile phones, etc.

8085 Microprocessor Architecture & Functional Units

Fig: Block Diagram of 8085

8085 consists of the following functional units −
1) Accumulator
It is an 8-bit register used to perform arithmetic, logical, I/O & LOAD/STORE operations. It is
connected to internal data bus & ALU.

2) Arithmetic and logic unit

As the name suggests, it performs arithmetic and logical operations like Addition,
Subtraction, AND, OR, etc. on 8-bit data.

3) General purpose register

There are 6 general purpose registers in 8085 processors, i.e. B, C, D, E, H & L. Each register
can hold 8-bit data. These registers can work in pair to hold 16-bit data and their pairing
combination is like B-C, D-E & H-L.

4) Program counter
It is a 16-bit register used to store the memory address location of the next instruction to be
executed. Microprocessor increments the program whenever an instruction is being
executed, so that the program counter points to the memory address of the next instruction
that is going to be executed.

5) Stack pointer
It is also a 16-bit register works like stack, which is always incremented/decremented push
& pop operations.

6) Temporary register
It is an 8-bit register, which holds the temporary data of arithmetic and logical operations.

7) Flag register
It is an 8-bit register having five 1-bit flip-flops, which holds either 0 or 1 depending upon
the result stored in the accumulator.
These are the set of 5 flip-flops –
- Sign (S)
- Zero (Z)
- Auxiliary Carry (AC)
- Parity (P)
- Carry (C)

a) Sign Flag (S) – After any operation if result is negative sign flag becomes set, i.e. If
result is positive sign flag becomes reset i.e. 0.
Example:
– MVI A 30 (load 30H in register A)
MVI B 40 (load 40H in register B)
 SUB B (A = A – B)
These set of instructions will set the sign flag to 1 as 30 – 40 is a negative
number.
– MVI A 40 (load 40H in register A)
MVI B 30 (load 30H in register B)
SUB B (A = A – B)
These set of instructions will reset the sign flag to 0 as 40 – 30 is a positive
number.

b) Zero Flag (Z) – After any arithmetical or logical operation if the result is 0 (00)H, the zero
flag becomes set i.e. 1, otherwise it becomes reset i.e. 0.
Example:
MVI A 10 (load 10H in register A)
SUB A (A = A – A)
These set of instructions will set the zero flag to 1 as 10H – 10H is 00H

c) Auxiliary Carry Flag (AC) – If intermediate carry is generated this flag is set to 1, otherwise
it is reset to 0.
Example:
MOV A 2B (load 2BH in register A)
MOV B 39 (load 39H in register B)
ADD B (A = A + B)
These set of instructions will set the auxiliary carry flag to 1, as on adding 2B and 39,
addition of lower order nibbles B and 9 will generate a carry.

d) Parity Flag (P) – If after any arithmetic or logical operation the result has even parity, an
even number of 1 bits, the parity register becomes set i.e. 1, otherwise it becomes reset.
1-accumulator has even number of 1 bits
0-accumulator has odd parity

e) Carry Flag (CY) – Carry is generated when performing n bit operations and the result is
more than n bits, then this flag becomes set i.e. 1, otherwise it becomes reset i.e. 0.
During subtraction (A-B), if A>B it becomes reset and if (A<B) it becomes set.
Carry flag is also called borrow flag.

8) Instruction register and decoder

It is an 8-bit register. When an instruction is fetched from memory then it is stored in the
Instruction register. Instruction decoder decodes the information present in the Instruction
register.

9) Timing and control unit

It provides timing and control signal to the microprocessor to perform operations. Following
are the timing and control signals-
Control Signals: READY, RD’, WR’, ALE
Status Signals: S0, S1, IO/M’
DMA Signals: HOLD, HLDA
RESET Signals: RESET IN, RESET OUT
10) Interrupt control
As the name suggests it controls the interrupts during a process. When a microprocessor is
executing a main program and whenever an interrupt occurs, the microprocessor shifts the
control from the main program to process the incoming request. After the request is
completed, the control goes back to the main program.
There are 5 interrupt signals in 8085 microprocessors: INTR, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, TRAP.
When microprocessor receives interrupt signals, it sends an acknowledgement (INTA) to the
peripheral which is requesting for its service.

Maskable and Non-Maskable Interrupts

• Maskable Interrupts are those which can be disabled or ignored by the
microprocessor. INTR, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5 are maskable interrupts in 8085
microprocessor.
• Non-Maskable Interrupts are those which cannot be disabled or ignored by
microprocessor. TRAP is a non-maskable interrupt.

Priority of Interrupts
When microprocessor receives multiple interrupt requests simultaneously, it will execute
the interrupt service request (ISR) according to the priority of the interrupts.

11) Serial Input/output control

It controls the serial data communication by using these two instructions: SID (Serial input
data) and SOD (Serial output data).

12) Address buffer and address-data buffer

The content stored in the stack pointer and program counter is loaded into the address
buffer and address-data buffer to communicate with the CPU. The memory and I/O chips
are connected to these buses; the CPU can exchange the desired data with the memory and
I/O chips.

13) Address bus and data bus

Data bus carries the data to be stored. It is bidirectional, whereas address bus carries the
location to where it should be stored and it is unidirectional. It is used to transfer the data &
Address I/O devices.
8085 Pin Configuration

The pins of a 8085 microprocessor can be classified into seven groups −

1) Address bus
A15-A8, it carries the most significant 8-bits of memory/IO address.

2) Data bus
AD7-AD0, it carries the least significant 8-bit address and data bus.

3) Control and status signals

These signals are used to identify the nature of operation. There are 3 control signal and 3
status signals. Three control signals are RD, WR & ALE.
a) RD − This signal indicates that the selected IO or memory device is to be read and is ready
for accepting data available on the data bus.
b) WR − This signal indicates that the data on the data bus is to be written into a selected
memory or IO location.
c) ALE − It is a positive going pulse generated when a new operation is started by the
microprocessor. When the pulse goes high, it indicates address. When the pulse goes down
it indicates data.

Three status signals are IO/M, S0 & S1.

IO/M
This signal is used to differentiate between IO and Memory operations, i.e. when it is high
indicates IO operation and when it is low then it indicates memory operation.
S1 & S0
These signals are used to identify the type of current operation.

4) Power supply
There are 2 power supply signals − VCC & VSS. VCC indicates +5v power supply and VSS
indicates ground signal.

5) Clock signals
There are 3 clock signals, i.e. X1, X2, CLK OUT.

6) Interrupts & externally initiated signals

Interrupts are the signals generated by external devices to request the microprocessor to
perform a task. There are 5 interrupt signals, i.e. TRAP, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, and INTR.

7) Serial I/O signals

There are 2 serial signals, i.e. SID (Serial input data line) and SOD (Serial output data line)
and these signals are used for serial communication.

Addressing Modes in 8085

To perform any operation, we have to give the corresponding instructions to the
microprocessor. In each instruction, programmer has to specify 3 things:
1. Operation to be performed.
2. Address of source of data.
3. Address of destination of result.

The method by which the address of source of data or the address of destination of result is
given in the instruction is called Addressing Modes. The term addressing mode refers to the
way in which the operand of the instruction is specified.

Intel 8085 uses the following addressing modes:

1) Direct Addressing Mode
2) Register Addressing Mode
3) Register Indirect Addressing Mode
4) Immediate Addressing Mode
5) Implicit Addressing Mode
1) Direct Addressing Mode
• In direct addressing mode, the data to be operated is available inside a memory
location and that memory location is directly specified as an operand. The operand is
directly available in the instruction itself.
Example:
LDA 2050 (load the contents of memory location into accumulator A)

2) Register Addressing Mode

• In register addressing mode, the data to be operated is available inside the
register(s) and register(s) is(are) operands. Therefore, the operation is performed
within various registers of the microprocessor.
Examples:
MOV A, B (move the contents of register B to register A)
ADD B (add contents of registers A and B and store the result in register A)
INR A (increment the contents of register A by one)

3) Register Indirect Addressing Mode

In register indirect addressing mode, the data to be operated is available inside a memory
location and that memory location is indirectly specified by a register pair.
Example:
MOV A, M (move the contents of the memory location pointed by the H-L pair to the
accumulator)

4) Immediate Addressing Mode

In immediate addressing mode the source operand is always data. If the data is 8-bit, then
the instruction will be of 2 bytes, if the data is of 16-bit then the instruction will be of 3
bytes.
Example:
MVI B 45 (move the data 45H immediately to register B)

5) Implied/Implicit Addressing Mode

In implied/implicit addressing mode the operand is hidden and the data to be operated is
available in the instruction itself.
Examples:
RRC (rotate accumulator A right by one bit)
RLC (rotate accumulator A left by one bit)

Instruction Set of 8085

An instruction is a binary pattern designed inside a microprocessor to perform a specific
function. The entire group of instructions that a microprocessor supports is called
Instruction Set.
8085 has 246 instructions. Each instruction is represented by an 8-bit binary value. These 8-
bits of binary value is called Op-Code or Instruction Byte.
Following are the classification of instructions:
a) Data Transfer Instruction
b) Arithmetic Instructions
c) Logical Instructions
d) Branching Instructions
e) Control Instructions

a) Data Transfer Instruction

These instructions move data between registers, or between memory and registers. These
instructions copy data from source to destination. While copying, the contents of source are
not modified.
Example: MOV, MVI

b) Arithmetic Instructions
These instructions perform the operations like addition, subtraction, increment and
decrement.
Example: ADD, SUB, INR, DCR

c) Logical Instructions
These instructions perform logical operations on data stored in registers and memory. The
logical operations are: AND, OR, XOR, Rotate, Compare and Complement.
Example: ANA, ORA, RAR, RAL, CMP, CMA

d) Branching Instructions
Branching instructions refer to the act of switching execution to a different instruction
sequence as a result of executing a branch instruction. The three types of branching
instructions are: Jump, Call and Return.

e) Control Instructions
The control instructions control the operation of microprocessor. Examples: HLT, NOP, EI
(Enable Interrupt), DI (Disable Interrupt).

Data Transfer Instructions

Instruction Opcode Addressing Bytes Description

Mode

LDA address 3A Direct 3 Transfers contents stored in memory

location to accumulator.

STA address 32 Direct 3 Transfers contents stored in accumulator to

memory address.

MOV A, A 7F Register 1 Transfers the contents from one register to

another
MOV A, B 78 Register 1

MOV A, C 79 Register 1

MOV A, D 7A Register 1

MOV A, E 7B Register 1

MOV A, H 7C Register 1

MOV A, L 7D Register 1

MOV B, A 47 Register 1

MOV B, B 40 Register 1

MOV B, C 41 Register 1

MOV B, D 42 Register 1

MOV B, E 43 Register 1

MOV B, H 44 Register 1

MOV B, L 45 Register 1

MOV C, A 4F Register 1

MOV C, B 48 Register 1

MOV C, C 49 Register 1

MOV C, D 4A Register 1

MOV C, E 4B Register 1

MOV C, H 4C Register 1

MOV C, L 4D Register 1

MOV D, A 57 Register 1

MOV D, B 50 Register 1

MOV D, C 51 Register 1

MOV D, D 52 Register 1
MOV D, E 53 Register 1

MOV D, H 54 Register 1

MOV D, L 55 Register 1

MOV E, A 5F Register 1

MOV E, B 58 Register 1

MOV E, C 59 Register 1

MOV E, D 5A Register 1

MOV E, E 5B Register 1

MOV E, H 5C Register 1

MOV E, L 5D Register 1

MOV H, A 67 Register 1

MOV H, B 60 Register 1

MOV H, C 61 Register 1

MOV H, D 62 Register 1

MOV H, E 63 Register 1

MOV H, H 64 Register 1

MOV H, L 65 Register 1

MOV L, A 6F Register 1

MOV L, B 68 Register 1

MOV L, C 69 Register 1

MOV L, D 6A Register 1

MOV L, E 6B Register 1

MOV L, H 6C Register 1

MOV L, L 6D Register 1
MOV A, M 7E Register Indirect 1 It moves / copies the data stored in
memory location whose address is given in
H-L register pair, to the given register.

MOV B, M 46 Register Indirect 1

MOV C, M 4E Register Indirect 1

MOV D, M 56 Register Indirect 1

MOV E, M 5E Register Indirect 1

MOV H, M 66 Register Indirect 1

MOV L, M 6E Register Indirect 1

MOV M, A 77 Register Indirect 1 This instruction moves / copies the data in

the given register to the memory location
addressed by H-L register pair.

MOV M, B 70 Register Indirect 1

MOV M, C 71 Register Indirect 1

MOV M, D 72 Register Indirect 1

MOV M, E 73 Register Indirect 1

MOV M, H 74 Register Indirect 1

MOV M, L 75 Register Indirect 1

MVI A, data 3E Immediate 2 This instruction transfers the given data

immediately to the register.

MVI B, data 06 Immediate 2

MVI C, data 0E Immediate 2

MVI D, data 16 Immediate 2

MVI E, data 1E Immediate 2

MVI H, data 26 Immediate 2

MVI L, data 2E Immediate 2

IN port- DB Immediate 2 Load data from input port to accumulator.
address (8-
bit)
OUT port- D3 Immediate 2 Transfer data to output port from
address (8- accumulator.
bit)
LXI H, 16-bit 21 Immediate 3 Transfer 16-bit data to H-L pair.
data
LXI D, 16-bit 11 Immediate Transfer 16-bit data to D-E pair.
data
LXI B, 16-bit 01 Immediate 3 Transfer 16-bit data to B-C pair.
data
XCHG EB Implied/Implicit 1 Exchange contents of H-L pair and D-E pair.

LHLD address 2A Direct 3 Load 16-bit contents of memory address to

H-L pair.

SHLD address 22 Direct 3 Load 16-bit contents of H-L pair to memory

address.

LDAX B 0A Register Indirect 1 This instruction copies the contents of that

memory location into the accumulator. The
contents of either the register pair or the
memory location are not altered.

LDAX D 1A Register Indirect 1

STAX B 02 Register Indirect 1 The contents of the accumulator are copied

into the memory location specified by the
contents of the operand (register pair). The
contents of the accumulator are not
altered.

STAX D 12 Register Indirect 1

Total = 84
Arithmetic Instructions
Instruction Opcode Addressing Bytes Description
Mode
ADD A 87 Register 1 It adds the content stored in given register
with the accumulator. The result of this
addition is stored in accumulator.

ADD B 80 Register 1

ADD C 81 Register 1

ADD D 82 Register 1

ADD E 83 Register 1

ADD H 84 Register 1

ADD L 85 Register 1

ADD M 86 Register Indirect 1 adds the content of memory location whose

address is given in H-L register pair with the
accumulator and the answer is stored in
accumulator.

ADI data C6 Immediate 2 It immediately adds the given data with the
accumulator and the answer will be stored in
Accumulator.

ADC A C6 Register 1 A=A+A+CY (Add with carry)

ADC B 8F Register 1 A=A+B+CY

ADC C 88 Register 1

ADC D 89 Register 1

ADC E 8B Register 1

ADC H 8C Register 1

ADC L 8D Register 1

ADC M 8E Register Indirect 1

ACI data CE Immediate 2

DAD B 09 Register 1 HL=HL+BC

DAD D 19 Register 1 HL=HL+DE

DAD H 29 Register 1 HL=HL+HL

SUB A 97 Register 1 A=A-A

SUB B 90 Register 1 A=A-B

SUB C 91 Register 1

SUB D 92 Register 1

SUB E 93 Register 1

SUB H 94 Register 1

SUB L 95 Register 1

SUB M 96 Register Indirect 1

SUI data D6 Immediate 2

SBB A 9F Register 1 A=A-A-CY

SBB B 98 Register 1 A=A-B-CY

SBB C 99 Register 1

SBB D 9A Register 1

SBB E 9B Register 1

SBB H 9C Register 1

SBB L 9D Register 1

SBB M 9E Register Indirect 1

SBI data DE Immediate 2

INR A 3C Register 1 A=A+1

INR B 04 Register 1 B=B+1

INR C 0C Register 1
INR D 14 Register 1

INR E 1C Register 1

INR H 24 Register 1

INR L 2C Register 1

INR M 34 Register Indirect 1 M=M+1 (pointed by HL)

INX B 03 Register 1 BC=BC+1

INX D 13 Register 1 DE=DE+1

INX H 23 Register 1 HL=HL+1

DCR A 3D Register 1 A=A-1

DCR B 05 Register 1

DCR C 0D Register 1

DCR D 15 Register 1

DCR E 1D Register 1

DCR H 25 Register 1

DCR L 2D Register 1

DCR M 35 Register Indirect 1 M=M-1

DCX B 0B Register 1 BC=BC-1

DCX D 1B Register 1 DE=DE-1

DCX H 2B Register 1 HL=HL-1

RAL 17 Implied/Implicit 1 Rotate accumulator left

RAR 1F Implied/Implicit 1 Rotate accumulator right

RLC 07 Implied/Implicit 1 Rotate accumulator left through carry

RRC 0F Implied/Implicit 1 Rotate accumulator right through carry

Total=65
Logical Instructions
Instruction Opcode Addressing Bytes Description
Mode
ANA A A7 Register 1 A=A AND A

ANA B A0 Register 1 A=A AND B

ANA C A1 Register 1

ANA D A2 Register 1

ANA E A3 Register 1

ANA H A4 Register 1

ANA L A5 Register 1

ANA M A6 Register 1
Indirect
ANI data E6 Immediate 2 A=A AND data

ORA A B7 Register 1 A=A OR A

ORA B B0 Register 1 A=A OR B

ORA C B1 Register 1

ORA D B2 Register 1

ORA E B3 Register 1

ORA H B4 Register 1

ORA L B5 Register 1

ORA M B6 Register 1
Indirect
ORI data F6 Immediate 2

XRA A AF Register 1 A=A XOR A

XRA B A8 Register 1 A=A XOR B

XRA C A9 Register 1

XRA D AA Register 1
XRA E AB Register 1

XRA H AC Register 1

XRA L AD Register 1

XRA M AE Register 1
Indirect
XRI data EE Immediate 2

CMP A BF Register 1 A=A-A (Accumulator remain unchanged)

CMP B B8 Register 1 A=A-B

CMP C B9 Register 1

CMP D BA Register 1

CMP E BB Register 1

CMP H BC Register 1

CMP L BD Register 1

CMP M BE Register 1
Indirect
CPI data FE Immediate 2 A=A-data (Acc. Remain unchanged)

CMA 2F Implied/implicit 1 Complement Accumulator contents

CMC 3F Implied/implicit 1 Complement Carry flag

STC 37 Implied/implicit 1 CY=1 (It sets carry flag)

Total=39
Branching Instructions
Instruction Opcode Addressing Bytes Description
Mode
JMP address C3 Immediate 3 Unconditional Jump

JC address DA Immediate 3 Jump if CY=1

JNC address D2 Immediate 3 Jump if CY=0

JZ address CA Immediate 3 Jump if Z=1

JNZ address C2 Immediate 3 Jump if Z=0

JM address FA Immediate 3 Jump if S=1

JP address F2 Immediate 3 Jump if S=0

JPE address EA Immediate 3 Jump if P=1

JPO address E2 Immediate 3 Jump if P=0

CALL address CD Immediate 3 Unconditional Call

CC address DC Immediate 3 Call Subroutine if CY=1

CNC address D4 Immediate 3 Call Subroutine if CY=0

CZ address CC Immediate 3 Call Subroutine if Z=1

CNZ address C4 Immediate 3 Call Subroutine if Z=0

CM address FC Immediate 3 Call Subroutine if S=1

CP address F4 Immediate 3 Call Subroutine if S=0

CPE address EC Immediate 3 Call Subroutine if P=1

CPO address FE Immediate 3 Call Subroutine if P=1

RNZ C0 Register 1 Return to main program if Z=0

Indirect
RZ C8 Register 1 Return to main program if Z=1
Indirect
RNC D0 Register 1 Return to main program if C=0
Indirect
RC D8 Register 1 Return to main program if C=1
Indirect
RM F8 Register 1 Return to main program if S=1
Indirect
RP F0 Register 1 Return to main program if S=0
Indirect
RPO E0 Register 1 Return to main program if P=0
Indirect
RPE E8 Register 1 Return to main program if P=1
Indirect
Total=26

Program Control & Stack Instructions

Instruction Opcode Addressing Bytes Description
Mode
PUSH B C5 Register 1 PUSH data from data from stack on the basis of
Indirect address pointed by BC pair.

PUSH D D5 Register 1
Indirect
PUSH H E5 Register 1
Indirect
POP B C1 Register 1 POP data from data from stack on the basis of
Indirect address pointed by BC pair.

POP D D1 Register 1
Indirect
POP H E1 Register 1
Indirect
NOP 00 Implied/Implicit 1 No operation is performed

HLT 76 Implied/Implicit 1 Terminate program

DI F3 Implied/Implicit 1

EI 7B Implied/Implicit 1

RIM 20 Implied/Implicit 1 Read interrupt mask (read status of interrupt)

SIM 30 Implied/Implicit 1 Set interrupt mask (used to implement

interrupt)

Total=12 Grand Total=226

UNIT II & IV – 8086 Theory & Instruction Set
Introduction to 8086 Microprocessor
• 8086 Microprocessor is an enhanced version of 8085 Microprocessor that was
designed by Intel in 1976.
• It is a 16-bit Microprocessor having 20 address lines and16 data lines that provides
up to 1MB storage.
• It consists of powerful instruction set, which provides operations like multiplication
and division easily.
• It supports two modes of operation, i.e. Maximum mode and Minimum mode.
Maximum mode is suitable for system having multiple processors and Minimum
mode is suitable for system having a single processor.

Features 8086 Microprocessor

• It has an instruction queue, which is capable of storing six instruction bytes from
the memory resulting in faster processing.
• It was the first 16-bit processor having 16-bit ALU, 16-bit registers, internal data bus,
and 16-bit external data bus resulting in faster processing.
• It uses two stages of pipelining, i.e. Fetch Stage and Execute Stage, which improves
performance. Fetch stage can prefetched up to 6 bytes of instructions and stores
them in the queue. Execute stage executes these instructions.
• It consists of 29,000 transistors.
• It can address upto 1 MB of memory.

Comparison between 8085 & 8086

SN 8085 Microprocessor 8086 Microprocessor

1 It is an 8 bit microprocessor. It is a 16 bit microprocessor.

2 It has 16 bit address line. It has 20 bit address line.
3 It has 8- bit data bus. It has 16- bit data bus.
4 The memory capacity is 64 KB. The memory capacity is 1 MB.

5 Clock speed of this microprocessor is 3 Clock speed of this microprocessor varies

MHz. between 5, 8 and 10 MHz for different
versions.
6 It has 5 flags. It has 9 flags.
7 8085 microprocessor does not support 8086 microprocessor supports memory
memory segmentation. segmentation.
8 It does not support pipelining. It supports pipelining.
9 It is accumulator based processor. It is general purpose register based processor.
 10 It has no minimum or maximum mode. It has minimum and maximum modes.

11 In 8085, only one processor is used. In 8086, more than one processor is used.
Additional external processor can also be
employed.
12 It contains less number of transistors It contains more number of transistors
compare to 8086 microprocessor. It compare to 8085 microprocessor. It contains
contains about 6500 transistor. about 29000 in size.
13 The cost of 8085 is low. The cost of 8086 is high.

Internal Architecture of 8086

Fig: Block Diagram of 8086

8086 contains two independent functional units: a Bus Interface Unit (BIU) and an
Execution Unit (EU).
Bus Interface Unit (BIU)
The segment registers, instruction pointer and 6-byte instruction queue are associated with
the bus interface unit (BIU).
• The BIU:
 Handles transfer of data and addresses,
 Fetches instruction codes, stores fetched instruction codes in first-in-first-out
register set called a queue,
 Reads data from memory and I/O devices,
 Writes data to memory and I/O devices

• It has the following functional parts:

 Instruction Queue: When EU executes instructions, the BIU gets 6-bytes of the next
instruction and stores them in the instruction queue and this process is known as
instruction pre fetch. This process increases the speed of the processor.

 Segment Registers: A segment register contains the addresses of instructions and

data in memory which are used by the processor to access memory locations.

 Instruction Pointer (IP): The instruction pointer in the 8086 microprocessor acts as a
program counter. It indicates to the address of the next instruction to be executed.

Memory Segmentation
 To increase execution speed and fetching speed, 8086 segments the memory.
 It’s 20 bit address bus can address 1MB of memory, it segments it into 4 64kB
segments.
 8086 works only with four 64KB segments within the whole 1MB memory.

 There are 4 segment registers in 8086 as given below:

• Code Segment Register (CS): Code segment of the memory holds instruction codes
of a program.
• Data Segment Register (DS): The data, variables and constants given in the program
are held in the data segment of the memory.
• Stack Segment Register (SS): Stack segment holds addresses and data of
subroutines. It also holds the contents of registers and memory locations given in
PUSH instruction.
• Extra Segment Register (ES): Extra segment holds the destination addresses of some
data of certain string instructions.
Execution Unit(EU)
 The EU receives opcode of an instruction from the queue, decodes it and then
executes it. While Execution, unit decodes or executes an instruction, then the BIU
fetches instruction codes from the memory and stores them in the queue.

 It consists of following:
• General Purpose Registers: There are four 16-bit general purpose registers: AX
(Accumulator Register), BX (Base Register), CX (Counter) and DX.
• Index Register: The following four registers are in the group of pointer and index
registers: Stack Pointer (SP), Base Pointer (BP), Source Index (SI), Destination Index
(DI).

• ALU: It handles all arithmetic and logical operations. Such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, AND, OR, NOT operations.

• Flag Register: It is a 16 bit register which exactly behaves like a flip-flop, means it
changes states according to the result stored in the accumulator. It has 9 flags and
they are divided into 2 groups i.e. conditional and control flags.

 Conditional Flags: This flag represents the result of the last arithmetic or logical
instruction executed. Conditional flags are:
- Carry Flag
- Auxiliary Flag
- Parity Flag
- Zero Flag
- Sign Flag
- Overflow Flag

 Control Flags: It controls the operations of the execution unit. Control flags are:
- Trap Flag
- Interrupt Flag
- Direction Flag

 Interrupts: The Intel 8086 has two hardware interrupt pins:

- NMI (Non-Maskbale Interrupt)
- INTR (Interrupt Request) Maskable Interrupt.
Pin Configuration of 8086

• AD0-AD15 (Address Data Bus): Bidirectional address/data lines. These are low order
address bus. When these lines are used to transmit memory address the symbol A is
used instead of AD for example A0- A15.
• A16 - A19 (Output): High order address lines. These are multiplexed with status
signals.
• A16/S3, A17/S4: A16 and A17 are multiplexed with segment identifier signals S3 and
S4.
• A18/S5: A18 is multiplexed with interrupt status S5.
• A19/S6: A19 is multiplexed with status signal S6.
• BHE/S7 (Output): Bus High Enable/Status. During T1, it is low. It enables the data
onto the most significant half of data bus, D8-D15. 8-bit device connected to upper
half of the data bus use BHE signal. It is multiplexed with status signal S7. S7 signal is
available during T3 and T4.
• RD (Read): For read operation. It is an output signal. It is active when LOW.
• Ready (Input): The addressed memory or I/O sends acknowledgement through this
pin. When HIGH it denotes that the peripheral is ready to transfer data.
 • RESET (Input): System reset.
• CLK (input): Clock 5, 8 or 10 MHz.
• INTR: Interrupt Request.
• NMI (Input): Non-maskable interrupt request.
• TEST (Input): Wait for test control. When LOW the microprocessor continues
execution otherwise waits.
• VCC: Power supply +5V dc. GND: Ground.

8086 Addressing Modes

The way of specifying data to be operated by an instruction is known as addressing modes.
This specifies that the given data is an immediate data or an address. It also specifies
whether the given operand is register or register pair.

Types of addressing modes:

a) Register Addressing Mode (Eg. MOV AX,BX)
b) Direct Addressing Mode
c) Immediate Addressing Mode
d) Implied/Implicit Addressing Mode
e) Register Indirect mode - In this addressing mode the effective address is in SI, DI or
BX. Example:
MOV AX, [DI]
ADD AL, [BX]
MOV AX, [SI]

f) Based Indexed Mode - In this the effective address is sum of base register and index
register. Example,
Base register: BX, BP
Index register: SI, DI
The physical memory address is calculated according to the base register.
MOV AL, [BP+SI]
MOV AX, [BX+DI]

g) Indexed mode – In this type of addressing mode the effective address is sum of
index register and displacement. Example,
MOV AX, [SI+2000]
MOV AL, [DI+3000]

h) Based mode – In this the effective address is the sum of base register and
displacement. Example,
MOV AL, [BP+ 0100]

i) Based indexed displacement mode – In this type of addressing mode the effective
address is the sum of index register, base register and displacement.
MOV AL, [SI+BP+2000]

j) Input/Output mode – This addressing mode is related with input output operations.
 k) Relative mode – In this the effective address is calculated with reference to
instruction pointer.
JNZ 8 bit address
IP=IP+8 bit address

8086 Instruction Set

LEA Instruction
 Used to load the effective address of operand into the provided register.
 Effective address is used to fetch operand.
 Format - LEA Register, Source
 Example:
LEA BX, [DI] (This instruction load the contents of DI to BX register)

MUL Instruction
 Used to multiply unsigned byte by byte/word by word.
 It is always performed with accumulator.
 Only overflow and carry flag are affected.
 Format – MUL reg / MUL mem
 Example:
MUL BX (AX=AX*BX)

IMUL Instruction
 Used to multiply signed byte by byte/word by word.
 It is always performed with accumulator.
 Format – IMUL reg / IMUL mem
 Example:
IMUL BX (AX=AX*BX)

DIV Instruction
 Used to divide unsigned byte by byte/word by word.
 It is always performed with accumulator.
 Format – DIV reg / DIV mem
 Example:
DIV BX (AX=AX/BX)

IDIV Insturction – Used to divide signed number.

LOOP Instruction
 Used to loop a group of instructions until the condition satisfies, i.e., CX = 0
 This intruction decremets CX by 1 and transfers control to the target location if CX is
not 0; otherwise, the instruction following LOOP is executed.
 Format – LOOP label

AAA Instruction
 Used to adjust ASCII after addition.
AAS Instruction
 Used to adjust ASCII after subtraction.

DAA Instruction
 Used to adjust the decimal after the addition/subtraction operation.
INT 21H functions
INT 21h is the assembly language mnemonic for the Intel CPU command used to perform a
System call to the operating system MS-DOS.
MS-DOS actually used quite a few different software interrupt vectors for system calls, but
INT 21h was the main one.

Function number Description

01h Keyboard input with echo:
e.g. mov ah,01h This operation accepts a character from the keyboard buffer. If none is
int 21h present, waits for keyboard entry. It returns the character in AL.

02h Display character:

e.g. mov ah,02h Send the character in DL to the standard output device console.
int 21h

09h String output:

e.g. mov ah,09h Send a string of characters to the standard output. DX contains the
int 21h offset address of string. The string must be terminated with a ‘$’ sign.

0Ah String input

4Ch Terminate the current program
e.g. mov (mov ah,4Ch
ax,4C00h int 21h is also used.)
int 21h

INT 10H functions

It is a video display vector interrupt used for Video display services (BIOS services).

Function number Description

00h Set video mode

01h Set cursor size
02h Set cursor position
06h Scroll window up
07h Scroll window down

08h Read character and attribute of cursor

09h Display character and attribute at cursor
0Ah Display character at cursor
Macro Assemblers
Macros are just like procedures, but not really. Macros look like procedures, but they exist
only until your code is compiled, after compilation all macros are replaced with real
instructions.
If you declared a macro and never used it in your code, compiler will simply ignore it.
Unlike procedures, macros should be defined above the code that uses it, for example:

Assembler Directives
An assembler directive is a message to the assembler that tells the assembler something it
needs to know in order to carry out the assembly process; for example, an assemble
directive tells the assembler where a program is to be located in memory.
Following are 8086 assembler directives:
1. DB – The DB directive is used to declare a BYTE – A BYTE is made up of 8 bits.

2. DW – The DW directive is used to declare a WORD type variable – A WORD occupies

16 bits or (2 BYTE).

3. DD – The DD directive is used to declare a DWORD – A DWORD double word is made

up of 32 bits =2 Word’s or 4 BYTE.

4. STRUCT and ENDS directives to define a structure template for grouping data items.

5. The EQU directive - is used to give name to some value or symbol. Each time the
assembler finds the given names in the program, it will replace the name with the
value or a symbol. The value can be in the range 0 through 65535.

6. Extern - It is used to tell the assembler that the name or label following the directive
are some other assembly module.

7. GLOBAL - The GLOBAL directive can be used in place of PUBLIC directive .for a name
defined in the current assembly module; the GLOBAL directive is used to make the
symbol available to the other modules.

8. SEGMENT - It is used to indicate the start of a logical segment. It is the name given to
the segment. Example: the code segment is used to indicate to the assembler the
start of logical segment.

9. PROC: (PROCEDURE) - It is used to identify the start of a procedure. It follows a

name we give the procedure.

10. NAME - It is used to give a specific name to each assembly module when program
consists of several modules.

11. INCLUDE - It is used to tell the assembler to insert a block of source code from the
named file into the current source module. This shortens the source module.

12. OFFSET - It is an operator which tells the assembler to determine the offset or
displacement of a named data item from the start of the segment which contains it.
It is used to load the offset of a variable into a register so that variable can be
accessed with one of the addressed modes.

13. GROUP - It can be used to tell the assembler to group the logical segments named
after the directive into one logical group. This allows the contents of all he segments
to be accessed from the same group.
Unit III – Instruction Cycle
Instruction cycle in 8085 microprocessor
Time required to execute and fetch an entire instruction is called instruction cycle. It
consists:
 Fetch cycle – The next instruction is fetched by the address stored in program
counter (PC) and then stored in the instruction register.
 Decode instruction – Decoder interprets the encoded instruction from instruction
register.
 Reading effective address – The address given in instruction is read from main
memory and required data is fetched. The effective address depends on direct
addressing mode or indirect addressing mode.
 Execution cycle – consists memory read (MR), memory write (MW), input output
read (IOR) and input output write (IOW)

Upon the completion of step 4, the control goes back to step 1 to fetch, decode, and
execute the next instruction. This process continues indefinitely unless a HALT instruction is
encountered.

The time required by the microprocessor to complete an operation of accessing memory or

input/output devices is called machine cycle. Following are the different types of machine
cycle:
- Opcode fetch, which takes 4 t-states
- Memory Read, which takes 3 t-states
- Memory Write, which takes 3 t-states
- I/O Read, which takes 3 t-states
- I/O Write, which takes 3 t-states
One-time period of frequency of microprocessor is called t-state. A t-state is measured from
the falling edge of one clock pulse to the falling edge of the next clock pulse.

Fetch cycle takes four t-states and execution cycle takes three t-states. It is shown below:

Different types of Machine Cycles:

Opcode Fetch Cycle
The first machine cycle of every instruction is opcode fetch cycle in which the 8085 finds the
nature of the instruction to be executed. In this machine cycle, processor places the
contents of the Program Counter on the address lines, and through the read process, reads
the opcode of the instruction. The length of this cycle is not fixed. It varies from 4T states to
6T states as per the instruction.
Below figure shows timing diagram of opcode fetch:
Memory Read Cycle
The 8085 executes the memory read cycle to read the contents of R/W memory or ROM.
The length of this machine cycle is 3-T states (T1 – T3). In this machine cycle, processor
places the address on the address lines from the stack pointer, general purpose register pair
or program counter, and through the read process, reads the data from the addressed
memory location.
Timing diagram is shown below:

Memory Write Cycle

The 8085 executes the memory write cycle to store the data into data memory or stack
memory. The length of this machine cycle is 3T states. (T1 — T3). In this machine cycle,
processor places the address on the address lines from the stack pointer or general purpose
register pair and through the write process, stores the data into the addressed memory
location.
I/O Read and I/O Write cycles
The I/O read and I/O write machine cycles are similar to the memory read and memory
write machine cycles, respectively, except that the I0/M signal is high for I/O read and I/O
write machine cycles. High IO/M signal indicates that it is an I/O operation.
Timing Diagrams
Draw timing diagrams for following instructions:
a) MOV
b) MVI
c) IN
d) OUT
e) LDA
f) STA

Memory Interfacing
As we know that any system which process digital data needs the facility for storing the
data. Interfacing is a technique to be used for connecting the Microprocessor to Memory.

Now a days Semiconductor memories are used for storing purpose. There are some of the
advantages of the semiconductor memory.
 Small size
 High speed
 Better reliability
 Low cost

Generally, RAM or ROM is used for memory interfacing.

Memory: -A memory is a digital IC which stores the data in binary form.

Memory Size: - The number of location and number of bits per word will vary from memory
to memory. For example, if a particular memory chip is capable of storing M words with
each word having N-bits. Then the size of the memory will be M× N.
Interfacing a ROM memory of 4096*8 with 8085 Microprocessor: -

Given memory size = 4096 * 8 (4k*8)

4096 =2^12.
So 12 lines will be used for interfacing. A0 to A11

In this system A0 to A11 lines of Microprocessor will be connected to the address lines of
the memory. and D0 to D7 of the 8085 microprocessor will be connected to the data bus of
the memory.
As we know that the it is EPROM, so only RD pin is connected to the microprocessor. There
is not the facility for writing data.

In case if you are using RAM then you have to connect one more pin for writing operation.

As we can see that there is a pin named CS. Generally, this pin is used for Selection for the
chip in case of two or more than memory chip.
Latch has been used to separate the data and address bus.
UNIT V – Basic I/O, Memory R/W & Interrupt Operations

I/O Operations
CPU uses two methods to perform input/output operations between the CPU and
peripheral devices in the computer. These two methods are called memory mapped IO and
IO mapped IO.
 Memory-mapped IO uses the same address space to address both memory and I/O
devices.
 On the other hand, IO mapped IO uses separate address spaces to address memory
and IO devices.

Memory Mapped I/O

Memory mapped IO uses one address space for memory and input and output devices. In
other words, some addresses are assigned to memory while others are assigned to store the
addresses of IO devices.
There is one set of read and write instruction lines. The same set of instructions work for
both memory and IO operations. Therefore, the instructions used to manipulate memory
can be used for IO devices too. Hence, it can lessen the addressing capability of memory
because some are occupied by the IO.

I/O Mapped I/O

IO mapped IO uses two separate address spaces for memory locations and for IO devices.
There are two separate control lines for both memory and IO transfer. In other words, there
are different read-write instruction for both IO and memory.
IO read and IO write are for IO transfer whereas memory read and memory write are for
memory transfer. IO mapped IO is also called port-mapped IO or isolated IO.
Memory Mapped Vs I/O Mapped I/O
1) Address Spaces
• The main difference between memory mapped IO and IO mapped IO is that the
memory mapped IO uses the same address space for both memory and IO devices.
IO mapped IO uses two separate address spaces for memory and IO device.
2) Addresses for Memory
• Branching from the above, there is another difference between memory mapped IO
and IO mapped IO. As the memory mapped IO uses one address space for both IO
and memory, the available addresses for memory are minimum due to the
additional addresses for IO. In IO mapped IO, all the addresses can be used by the
memory.
3) Instructions
• While memory mapped IO uses the same instructions for both IO and memory
operations, IO mapped IO uses separate instructions for read and write operations in
IO and memory. We can say this as one other difference between memory mapped
IO and IO mapped IO.
4) Efficiency
• Moreover, memory mapped IO is less efficient while IO mapped IO is more efficient.

Hybrid I/O
• Combination of both previous I/O.
• Uses same address in some cases and two address space in some cases.

Conclusion
• Memory mapped IO and IO mapped IO are two methods to perform input/output
operations between the CPU and peripheral devices in the computer.
• The basic difference between memory mapped IO and IO mapped IO is that memory
mapped IO uses the same address space for both memory and IO device while IO
mapped IO uses two separate address spaces for memory and IO device.

Direct Memory Access (DMA)

• Direct memory access (DMA) is a method that allows an input/output (I/O) device to
send or receive data directly to or from the main memory, bypassing the CPU to
speed up memory operations.
• The process is managed by a chip known as a DMA controller (DMAC).
• It moves the data between memory and peripheral without bothering the CPU. This
means it frees up both CPU power and bandwidth between CPU and main memory.
• For a CPU based copy, the data has to go into and out of the CPU, which is often a
slow process and blocks both the core doing the copy and the other cores. And if the
data flow has gaps, as it will in the case of HDD and network, the CPU can sit there
wasting time until more data becomes available.
• If the data rate is very low, DMA is overkill. But if the data is either fast or large, DMA
offloads the CPU and lets it get on with useful work.
• The problem of slow data transfer between input-output port and memory or
between two memories is avoided by implementing Direct Memory Access (DMA)
technique.
 • This is faster as the microprocessor/computer is bypassed and the control of address
bus and data bus is given to the DMA controller.

Advantages & Disadvantages of DMA

Advantages
• DMA allows a peripheral device to read from/write to memory without going
through the CPU.
• DMA allows faster processing since the processor can be working on something else
while the peripheral can be populating memory.
• DMA enables more efficient use of interrupts.
• High transfer rates.
• DMA capable device can communicate directly with memory.
Disadvantages
• Cost of DMA hardware.
• Data has to be stored in continuous memory locations.
• DMA controller is slow in comparison to CPU.

Application of DMA
• DMA has been a built-in feature of PC architecture since the introduction of the
original IBM PC.
• PC-based DMA was used for floppy disk I/O in the original PC and for hard disk I/O in
later versions.
• PC-based DMA technology, along with high speed bus technology, is driven by data
storage, communications, and graphics needs-all of which require the highest rates
of data transfer between system memory and I/O devices.
• Applications areas are: cinemas, theatres, hotels, railway stations, shopping
centres, trade shows, museums & many more.
8237 DMA Controller
• A DMA controller interfaces with several peripherals that may request DMA.
• The controller decides the priority of simultaneous DMA requests communicates
with the peripheral and the CPU, and provides memory addresses for data transfer.
• DMA controller commonly used with 8088/8085 is the 8237 programmable device.
• The 8237 is in fact a special-purpose microprocessor.
• Normally it appears as part of the system controller chip-sets.
• The 8237 is a 4-channel device.
• Each channel is dedicated to a specific peripheral device and capable of addressing
64 K bytes’ section of memory.
How DMA Operations Are Performed?
Following are the sequence of operations performed by a DMA −
• Initially, when any device has to send data between the device and the memory, the
device has to send DMA request (DRQ) to DMA controller.
• The DMA controller sends Hold request (HRQ) to the CPU and waits for the CPU to
assert the HLDA.
• Then the microprocessor tri-states all the data bus, address bus, and control bus. The
CPU leaves the control over bus and acknowledges the HOLD request through HLDA
signal.
• Now the CPU is in HOLD state and the DMA controller has to manage the operations
over buses between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.

Interrupt
• 8085 Interrupt pins & priority. (Discussed already)
• Maskable and Non-maskable interrupt (Discussed already)
• RST Instructions –

Instruction Op Code Binary equivalent

RST 0 C7 1100 0111

RST 1 CF 1100 1111

RST 2 D7 1101 0111

RST 3 DF 1101 1111

RST 4 E7 1110 0111

RST 5 EF 1110 1111

RST 6 F7 1111 0111

RST 7 FF 1111 1111

Vector Interrupt
• In a computer, a vectored interrupt is an I/O interrupt that tells the part of the
computer that handles I/O interrupts at the hardware level that a request for
attention from an I/O device has been received and also identifies the device that
sent the request.
• Vectored Interrupts are those which have fixed vector address (starting address of
sub-routine) and after executing these, program control is transferred to that
address.
• Vector Addresses are calculated by the formula 8 * TYPE
 INTERRUPT VECTOR ADDRESS

TRAP (RST 4.5) 24 H

RST 5.5 2C H

RST 6.5 34 H

RST 7.5 3C H

Polled Interrupt
• A polled interrupt is a certain kind of input/output (I/O) interrupt that sends a
message to the part of the computer that houses the I/O interface.
• The message states that a device is ready to be accessed without an identifying
device.
• In a computer, a polled interrupt is a specific type of I/O interrupt that notifies the
part of the computer containing the I/O interface that a device is ready to be read or
otherwise handled but does not indicate which device.
• The interrupt controller must poll (send a signal out to) each device to determine
which one made the request.

8259 Interrupt Controller

• Intel 8259 is designed for Intel 8085 and Intel 8086 microprocessor.
• 8259 is defined as Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC).
• There are 5 hardware interrupts and 2 hardware interrupts in 8085 and 8086
respectively. But by connecting 8259 with CPU, we can increase the interrupt
handling capability. 8259 combines the multi interrupt input sources into a single
interrupt output.
• Interfacing of single PIC provides 8 interrupts inputs from IR0-IR7.
• For example, Interfacing of 8085 and 8259 increases the interrupt handling
capability of 8085 microprocessor from 5 to 8 interrupt levels.
 Fig: 8259 Interrupt Controller block diagram

The Block Diagram consists of 8 blocks which are – Data Bus Buffer, Read/Write Logic,
Cascade Buffer Comparator, Control Logic, Priority Resolver and 3 registers- ISR, IRR, IMR.
1) Data bus buffer –
• This Block is used as a mediator between 8259 and 8085/8086 microprocessor by
acting as a buffer. The data bus buffer consists of 8 bits represented as D0-D7 in the
block diagram. Thus, shows that a maximum of 8 bits data can be transferred at a
time.
2) Read/Write logic –
• This block is responsible for the flow of data depending upon the inputs of RD and
WR. These two pins are active low pins used for read and write operations.
3) Control logic –
• It is the centre of the microprocessor and controls the functioning of every block. It
has pin INTR which is connected with other microprocessor for taking interrupt
request and pin INT for giving the output.
4) Interrupt request register (IRR) –
• It stores all the interrupt level which are requesting for Interrupt services.
5) Interrupt service register (ISR) –
• It stores the interrupt level which are currently being executed.
6) Interrupt mask register (IMR) –
• It stores the interrupt level which have to be masked by storing the masking bits of
the interrupt level.
7) Priority resolver –
• It examines all the three registers and set the priority of interrupts and according to
the priority of the interrupts, interrupt with highest priority is set in ISR register.
Also, it reset the interrupt level which is already been serviced in IRR.
8) Cascade buffer –
• To increase the Interrupt handling capability, we can further cascade more number
of pins by using cascade buffer. So, during increment of interrupt capability, CSA
lines are used to control multiple interrupt structure.
8259 Pin Diagram

Priority Modes of 8259

• Priority Resolver determines the priorities of the interrupt requests appearing
simultaneously.
• The highest priority is selected and stored into the corresponding bit of ISR during
INTA pulse.
• The IR 0 has the highest priority while the IR 7 has the lowest one, normally in fixed
priority mode.
• The priorities however may be altered by programming the 8259A in rotating
priority mode.
UNIT VI – I/O Interfaces

Parallel Communication
• In data transmission, parallel communication is a method of conveying multiple
binary digits (bits) simultaneously. It contrasts with serial communication, which
conveys only a single bit at a time.
• In Parallel Transmission, many bits are flow together simultaneously from one
computer to another computer.
• Parallel Transmission is faster than serial transmission to transmit the bits. Parallel
transmission is used for long distance.

Serial Communication
• Serial communication is the process of sending data one bit at a time, sequentially,
over a communication channel or computer bus.
• In Serial Transmission, data-bit flows from one computer to another computer in bi-
direction. In this transmission one bit flows at one clock pulse.
• In Serial Transmission, 8 bits are transferred at a time having a start and stop bit.
Serial Vs Parallel Communication
S.NO SERIAL TRANSMISSION PARALLEL TRANSMISSION
1. In serial transmission, data(bit) flows In Parallel Transmission, data flows in
in bi-direction. multiple lines.
2. Serial Transmission is cost efficient. Parallel Transmission is not cost efficient.

3. In serial transmission, one bit In Parallel Transmission, eight bits

transferred at one clock pulse. transferred at one clock pulse.

4. Serial Transmission is slow in Parallel Transmission is fast in comparison

comparison of Parallel Transmission. of Serial Transmission.

5. Generally, Serial Transmission is used Generally, Parallel Transmission is used for

for short distance. long distance.

Programmable Communication Interface 8251

• 8251 is a USART (Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) for
serial data communication.
• It acts as a mediator between microprocessor and peripheral to transmit serial data
into parallel form and vice versa.
• It takes data serially from peripheral (outside devices) and converts into parallel
data. After converting the data into parallel form, it transmits it to the CPU.
• Similarly, it receives parallel data from microprocessor and converts it into serial
form. After converting data into serial form, it transmits it to outside device
(peripheral).

Block Diagram of 8251 PCI

The block diagram includes five section:
1. Read/write Control Logic
2. Transmitter
3. Receiver
4. Data Bus Buffer and
5. Modem Control
 Fig: Block Diagram of 8251 PCI

1. Read/Write Control Logic

• The control logic interfaces the chip with the processor, and monitors the data flow.
It controls the overall working by selecting the operation to be done.

2. Data bus buffer

• This block helps in interfacing the internal data bus of 8251 to the system data bus.
The data transmission is possible between 8251 and CPU by the data bus buffer
block.

3. Transmit Buffer
• This block is used for parallel to serial converter that receives a parallel byte for
conversion into serial signal and further transmission onto the common channel.
– TXD: It is an output signal, if its value is one, means transmitter will transmit
the data.

4. Transmit control
• This block is used to control the data transmission with the help of following pins:
– TXRDY: It means transmitter is ready to transmit data character.
– TXEMPTY: An output signal which indicates that TXEMPTY pin has
transmitted all the data characters and transmitter is empty now.
 – TXC: An active-low input pin which controls the data transmission rate of
transmitted data.

5. Receive buffer
• This block acts as a buffer for the received data.
– RXD: An input signal which receives the data.

6. Receive control
• This block controls the receiving data.
– RXRDY: An input signal indicates that it is ready to receive the data.
– RXC: An active-low output signal which controls the data transmission rate of
received data.
– SYNDET/BD: An input or output terminal.

7. Modem control (modulator/demodulator)

• A device converts analog signals to digital signals and vice-versa and helps the
computers to communicate over telephone lines or cable wires. The following are
active-low pins of Modem.
- DSR: Data Set Ready signal is an input signal.
- DTR: Data terminal Ready is an output signal.
- CTS: It is an input signal which controls the data transmit circuit.
- RTS: It is an output signal which is used to set the status RTS.

Modes of Serial Communication

• As we know in Serial Transmission data is sent bit by bit, in such a way that each bit
follows another. It is of two types namely, Synchronous and Asynchronous
Transmission.
• One of the major differences is that in Synchronous Transmission, the sender and
receiver should have synchronized clocks before data transmission.
• Whereas Asynchronous Transmission does not require a clock, but it adds a parity
bit to the data before transmission.
• Asynchronous is simple, economical and used for transmitting a small amount of
data.
• Conversely, Synchronous Transmission is used for transferring the bulk of data as it
is efficient and has less overhead.

Synchronous Vs Asynchronous Mode

• In Synchronous Transmission, data is transferred in the form of frames. On the other
hand, in Asynchronous Transmission data is transmitted 1 byte at a time.
• Synchronous Transmission requires a clock signal between the sender and receiver
so as to inform the receiver about the new byte. In contrast, in Asynchronous
Transmission sender and receiver does not require a clock signal as the data sent
here has a parity bit attached to it which indicates the start of the new byte.
• Data transfer rate of Asynchronous Transmission is slower than that of Synchronous
Transmission.
 • Asynchronous Transmission is simple and economical, whereas Synchronous
Transmission is complicated and expensive.
• Synchronous Transmission is efficient and has lower overhead as compared to the
Asynchronous Transmission.

Methods of parallel data transfer

1) Simple I/O
• When we need to get digital data from input device, into microprocessor, all we
have to do is connect the switch to an I/O port line and read the port.
• Likewise, when we need to output data to simple display device, such as LED, all we
have to do is connect the input of the LED buffer on an output port pin.

2) Strobe I/O
• In many applications, valid data is present on an external device only at a certain
time, so it must be read in at that time.
• E.g. the ASCII-encoded keyboard. When a key is pressed, circuitry on the keyboard
sends out the ASCII code for the pressed key on eight parallel data lines, and then
sends out a strobe signal on another line to indicate that valid data is present on the
eight data lines.

8255A Programmable Peripheral Interface

• PPI 8255 is a general purpose programmable I/O device designed to interface the
CPU with its outside world such as keyboard.
• We can program it according to the given condition. It can be used with almost any
microprocessor.
• It consists of three 8-bit bidirectional I/O ports i.e. PORT A, PORT B and PORT C. We
can assign different ports as input or output functions.
• 8255A has three ports, i.e., PORT A, PORT B, and PORT C.
– Port A contains one 8-bit output latch/buffer and one 8-bit input buffer.
– Port B is similar to PORT A.
– Port C can be split into two parts, i.e. PORT C lower (PC0-PC3) and PORT C
upper (PC7-PC4) by the control word.
8255A Block Diagram

Fig: Block Diagram of 8255A PPI

• It consists of 40 pins and operates in +5V regulated power supply.

• Port C is further divided into two 4-bit ports i.e. port C lower and port C upper and
port C can work in either BSR (bit set rest) mode or in mode 0 of input-output mode
of 8255.
• Port B can work in either mode or in mode 1 of input-output mode.
• Port A can work either in mode 0, mode 1 or mode 2 of input-output mode.
• It has two control groups, control group A and control group B. Control group A
consist of port A and port C upper. Control group B consists of port C lower and port
B.
Operating modes of 8255A

1) Bit set reset (BSR) mode –

• If MSB of control word (D7) is 0, PPI works in BSR mode. In this mode only port C bits
are used for set or reset.
• The contents of the control register are called the control word that specifies the
input/ output functions of each port.

2) Input/output Mode
There are three types of the input/output mode. They are as follows:
 Mode 0
• In this mode all the three ports (port A, B, C) can work as simple input function or
simple output function. In this mode there is no interrupt handling capacity.

 Mode 1
• In this mode either port A or port B can work as simple input port or simple output
port, and port C bits are used for handshake signals before actual data transmission.
It has interrupt handling capacity.
• Example: A CPU wants to transfer data to a printer. In this case since speed of
processor is very fast as compared to relatively slow printer, so before actual data
transfer it will send handshake signals to the printer for synchronization of the speed
of the CPU and the peripherals.

 Mode 2
• Bi-directional data bus mode. In this mode only port A works, and port B can work
either in mode 0 or mode 1. 6 bits port C are used as handshake signals. It also has
interrupt handling capacity.
RS-232
 RS232 is a standard protocol used for serial communication, it is used for connecting
computer and its peripheral devices to allow serial data exchange between them.

 In simple terms RS232 defines the voltage for the path used for data exchange
between the devices. It specifies common voltage and signal level, common pin wire
configuration and minimum, amount of control signals.

Fig: RS-232
 DTE - A DTE stands for data terminal equipment is an end instrument that convert
user information into signals or reconverts the receive signal. A male connector is
used in DTE and has pin out configuration.

 DCE - A DCE stands for data communication equipment's. It sits between the DTE
and data transmission circuit for example modem. A DCE device uses a female
connector which has holes on the surface to hold male connector.

RS-232 Pin Configuration – 9 pin MALE Connector

RS-232 Pin Configuration – 25 pin
How RS232 Works? – Interconnection between DTE-DCE
• RS232 works on the two-way communication that exchanges data to one another.
There are two devices connected to each other, (DTE) Data Transmission
Equipment& (DCE) Data Communication Equipment which has the pins like TXD,
RXD, and RTS & CTS.
• Now, from DTE source, the RTS generates the request to send the data. Then from
the other side DCE, the CTS, clears the path for receiving the data.
• After clearing a path, it will give a signal to RTS of the DTE source to send the signal.
Then the bits are transmitted from DTE to DCE.
• Now again from DCE source, the request can be generated by RTS and CTS of DTE
sources clears the path for receiving the data and gives a signal to send the data.
• This is the whole process through which data transmission takes place.

Application of RS-232
• RS232 serial communication is used in old generation PCs for connecting the
peripheral devices like mouse, printers, modem etc.
• Nowadays, RS232 is replaced by advanced USB.
• It is still used by some microcontroller boards, receipt printers, point of sale system
(PoS), etc.
UNIT VII – Advanced Microprocessors

80286 Microprocessor
• The Intel 80286 is a high-performance 16-bit microprocessor introduced in 1982.
• It has been specially designed for multiuser and multitasking systems.
• 80286 is upwardly compatible with 8086 in terms of instruction set. (That is the
8086,8088,80186,80286 CPU family all contain the same instruction set)
• It has 24 address lines and 16 data lines.
• There are two operating modes for 80286
- The real address mode
- The protected virtual memory address mode
• In real address mode the processor can address upto 1 MB of physical memory.
• The virtual address mode is for multiuser/multitasking system. In this mode the
processor can address upto 1 GB of virtual memory.

80286 Register Set

The 80286 CPU contains almost the same set of registers, as in 8086.
a) Eight 16-bit general purpose registers.
b) Four 16-bit segment registers.
c) Status and control register
d) Instruction Register.

• The flag register bits are modified according to the result of the execution of logical
and arithmetical instructions. These are called status flag bits.
80286 Block Diagram

Fig: Block Diagram of 80386

Block diagram of 80286 contain four functional parts:

a) Address Unit (AU)
b) Bus Unit (BU)
c) Instruction Set Unit (IU)
d) Execution Unit (EU)

• The Address Unit (AU) is responsible for calculating the physical address of
instructions and data that CPU wants to access.

• The physical address computed by the address unit is handed over to the BUS Unit
(BU) of the CPU.
• One of the major function of the bus unit is to fetch instruction bytes from the
memory.

• The Instruction Unit (IU) accepts instructions from the prefetch queue and an
instruction decoder decodes them one by one.

• The Execution Unit (EU) is responsible for instructions received from the decoded
instruction queue, which sends the data part of the instruction over the data bus. It
is responsible for the execution of the decoded instruction.
Operating Modes of 80286

1) Real Address Mode

• 80286 just act as a faster version of 8086.
• And program for 8086 can be executed without modification in 80286.
• In real address mode the processor can address upto 1 MB of physical memory.

2) Protected Virtual Address Mode

• 80286 supports multitasking
• Able to run several program at the same time
• Able to protect memory space for another program
• In this mode the processor can address upto 16 MB of physical memory whereas
8086 can address only 1 MB.
• In this mode the processor can address upto 1 GB of virtual memory.
• 80286 can treat external storage as it were physical memory and execute programs
that are too large to be contained in physical memory.

Flag Register of 80286

Flag register is similar to 8086 which contains 6 conditional/status flags and 3 control flags.
Conditional/Status Flags
• Carry, Auxiliary Carry, Sign, Parity, Zero & Overflow.
Control Flags
• TRAP, Interrupt & Direction Flag.
The direction flag is a flag that controls the left-to-right or right-to-left direction of string
processing, stored in the FLAGS register.

Interrupt in 80286
Interrupts of 80286 may be divided into three categories,
a) External or Hardware interrupts
b) INT instruction or software interrupts
c) Interrupts generated internally by exceptions (TRAP)

Maskable Interrupt INTR

• This is a maskable interrupt which is to be provided by an external circuit like an
interrupt controller.
Non-maskable Interrupt
• NMI has higher priority than the INTR interrupt.
• Once the CPU responds to a NMI request, it does not serve any other interrupt
request.
80286 Addressing Modes
(Similar to 8086)
1) Register Addressing Mode
2) Immediate Addressing Mode
3) Direct Addressing Mode
4) Register Indirect Addressing Mode
5) Based Index Addressing Mode
6) Based Addressing Mode
7) Indexed Addressing Mode
8) Input Output Addressing Mode

(Give same example as 8086, because all registers are same & it uses same instruction
set).

80286 Memory Management Scheme

Memory is organized into logical segments. Segment size can be anywhere between 1 Byte
to 16 KB. All 24 address pins are active and 16 MB of physical memory is available.

Descriptor Cache
• It is 8-byte quantity. Each segment has a descriptor. There are two main types of
descriptor -
- Segment Descriptor
- System control Descriptor
• Descriptors are contained in a descriptor table. There are two categories of
descriptor table - global and local.
• A system has only one global descriptor table or GDT.
• A local descriptor table or LDT is set up in the system for each task or closely related
group of tasks. Each task can have its own descriptor table and memory area defined
by the descriptors in it.

Accessing Segments
• The 80286 microprocessor keeps the base address and limits for the descriptor
tables currently in use in internal registers.
• These registers are load descriptor table register (LDTR) and global descriptor table
register (GDTR).
• Descriptor in memory is addressed by adding segment selector to these registers.
• The descriptors contain the base address of segments, which when added with the
offset in the virtual address points to the required memory location.

Accessing Segments of Higher Privilege Level

• Tasks operate at the lowest privilege level. Usually, segments at a lower privilege
level are not allowed to access segments at a higher privilege level directly.
• However, a lower level segment can access a higher level segment indirectly by a
Gate Descriptor. The details of a gate descriptor are given herewith.
 Fig: Privilige Levels

80386 Microprocessor
• 80386 is a 32bit processor that supports, 8bit/32bit data operands.
• The 80386 instruction set is upward compatible with all its predecessors.
• The 80386 can run 8086 applications under protected mode in its virtual 8086 mode
of operation.
• With the 32 bit address bus, the 80386 can address upto 4Gbytes of physical
memory. The physical memory is organised in terms of segments of 4Gbytes at
maximum.
• The 80386 CPU supports 16K number of segments and thus the total virtual space of
4Gbytes * 16K = 64 Terrabytes.
• The memory management section of 80386 supports the virtual memory, paging and
four levels of protection, maintaining full compatibility with 80286.
• The 80386 offers a set of 8 debug registers DR 0-DR 7 for hardware debugging and
control.
• The concept of paging is introduced in 80386 that enables it to organise the available
physical memory in terms of pages of size 4Kbytes each, under the segmented
memory.

Two versions of 80386 are commonly available:

1) 80386DX
• 32 bit address bus
• 32 bit data bus
• Packaged in 132 pin grid array (PGA)
• Address 4 GB of memory
2) 80386SX
• 24 bit address bus
• 16 bit data bus
• 100 pin flat package
• 16 MB of memory
Block Diagram of 80386 Microprocessor

Fig: Block Diagram of 80386 Microprocessor

The Internal Architecture of 80386 is divided into 3 sections.

– Central processing unit
– Memory management unit
– Bus interface unit
• Central processing unit is further divided into Execution unit and Instruction unit.
• Execution unit has 8 General purpose and 8 Special purpose registers which are
either used for handling data or calculating offset addresses.
• The Instruction unit decodes the opcode bytes received from the 16-byte instruction
code queue and arranges them in a 3- instruction decoded instruction queue.

• The Memory management unit consists of a Segmentation unit and a Paging unit.
• Segmentation unit allows the use of two address components, viz. segment and
offset for relocability and sharing of code and data.
• Segmentation unit allows segments of size 4Gbytes at max.
• The Paging unit organizes the physical memory in terms of pages of 4kbytes size
each.
• Paging unit works under the control of the segmentation unit, i.e. each segment is
further divided into pages. The virtual memory is also organizes in terms of segments
and pages by the memory management unit.

• The Bus control unit has a prioritizer to resolve the priority of the various bus
requests. This controls the access of the bus. The address driver drives the bus
enable and address signal A0 – A31.
80386 Register Organization

• The 80386 has eight 32 - bit general purpose registers which may be used as either 8
bit or 16 bit registers.
• A 32 - bit register known as an extended register, is represented by the register
name with prefix E.
• Example: A 32-bit register corresponding to AX is EAX, similarly BX is EBX etc.
• The 16 bit registers BP, SP, SI and DI in 8086 are now available with their extended
size of 32 bit and are names as EBP, ESP, ESI and EDI.
• AX represents the lower 16 bit of the 32-bit register EAX.
• BP, SP, SI, DI represents the lower 16 bit of their 32 bit counterparts, and can be
used as independent 16 bit registers.
• The six segment registers available in 80386 are CS, SS, DS, ES, FS and GS.
• The CS and SS are the code and the stack segment registers respectively, while DS,
ES, FS, GS are 4 data segment registers.
• A 16-bit instruction pointer IP is available along with 32-bit counterpart EIP.
• The Flag register of 80386 is a 32-bit register.
• Control Registers: The 80386 has three 32-bit control registers CR), CR 2 and CR 3 to
hold global machine status independent of the executed task. Load and store
instructions are available to access these registers.
• Debug and Test Registers: Intel has provided a set of 8 debug registers for hardware
debugging.
Protected Mode of 80386
• All the capabilities of 80386 are available for utilization in its protected mode of
operation.
• The 80386 in protected mode support all the software written for 80286 and 8086 to
be executed under the control of memory management and protection abilities of
80386.
• The protected mode allows the use of additional instruction, addressing modes and
capabilities of 80386.

ADDRESSING IN PROTECTED MODE

• In this mode, the contents of segment registers are used as selectors to address
descriptors which contain the segment limit, base address and access rights byte of
the segment.

Paging in 80386
• Paging is one of the memory management techniques used for virtual memory
multitasking operating system.
• The segmentation scheme may divide the physical memory into a variable size
segments but the paging divides the memory into a fixed size pages.
• The pages are just fixed size portions of the program module or data.
• The advantage of paging scheme is that the complete segment of a task need not be
in the physical memory at any time.
• The paging unit is a memory management unit enabled only in protected mode. The
paging mechanism allows handling of large segments of memory in terms of pages of
4Kbyte size.

• Only a few pages of the segments, which are required currently for the execution
need to be available in the physical memory. Thus the memory requirement of the
task is substantially reduced, relinquishing the available memory for other tasks.
• Whenever the other pages of task are required for execution, they may be fetched
from the secondary storage.
• The previous page which are executed, need not be available in the memory, and
hence the space occupied by them may be relinquished for other tasks.
• Thus paging mechanism provides an effective technique to manage the physical
memory for multitasking systems.
8085 Programs
1. Program to add two 8-bit numbers.
Statement: Add numbers 05H & 13H and display result in output port 03H.
MVI A,05H //Move data 05H to accumulator
MVI B,13H //Move data 13H to B register
ADD B //Add contents of accumulator and B register
OUT 03H //Transfer result to output port 03H
HLT //Terminate the program.

Input: A=05H B=13H Output: (port 03H) = 18H

2. Program to add two 8-bit numbers.

Statement: Add numbers from memory location 2050H & 2051H and store result in
memory location 2055H.
LDA 2051H //Load contents of memory location 2051 to accumulator
MOV B,A //Move contents of accumulator to B register
LDA 2050H //Load contents of memory location 2050 to accumulator
ADD B // Add contents of accumulator and B register
STA 2055H //Store contents of accumulator in memory location 2055H
HLT //Terminate the program.

Input:
Memory Location Data
2050H 45H
2051H 53H
Output:
Memory Location Data
2055H 98H

3. Program to subtract two 8-bit numbers.

Statement: Subtract numbers 25H & 12H and display result in output port 01H.
MVI A,25H //Move data 05H to accumulator
MVI B,12H //Move data 13H to B register
SUB B //Add contents of accumulator and B register
OUT 01H //Transfer result to output port 01H
HLT //Terminate the program.

Input: A=25H B=12H Output: (port 03H) = 13H

4. Program to subtract two 8-bit numbers.

Statement: Subtract numbers from memory location 2050H & 2051H and store result
in memory location 2055H.
LDA 2051H //Load contents of memory location 2051 to accumulator
MOV B,A //Move contents of accumulator to B register
 LDA 2050H //Load contents of memory location 2050 to accumulator
SUB B // Add contents of accumulator and B register
STA 2055H //Store contents of accumulator in memory location 2055H
HLT //Terminate the program.

Input:
Memory Location Data
2050H 65H
2051H 53H
Output:
Memory Location Data
2055H 12H

5. Program to find 1’s complement of a number.

Statement: Input number from memory location 2013H and store result in memory
location 2052H.
LDA 2013H //Load contents from memory location 2013H to accumulator
CMA //Complement contents of accumulator
STA 2052H //Store result in memory location 2052H
HLT //Terminate the program.

Input:
Memory Location Data
2013H 12H
Output:
Memory Location Data
2052H EDH

6. Program to find 2’s complement of a number.

Statement: Input number from memory location 2013H and store result in memory
location 2052H.
LDA 2013H //Load contents from memory location 2013H to accumulator
CMA //Complement contents of accumulator
ADI 01H //Add 01H to the contents of accumulator
STA 2052H //Store result in memory location 2052H
HLT //Terminate the program.

Input:
Memory Location Data
2013H 12H
Output:
Memory Location Data
2052H EEH

7. Program to right shift 8-bit numbers.

Statement: Shift an eight-bit data four bits right. Assume data is in memory location
2051H. Store result in memory location 2055H.
 LDA 2051H //Load data from memory location 2051H to accumulator
RAR //Rotate accumulator 1-bit right
RAR
RAR
RAR
STA 2055H //Store result in memory location 2055H
HLT //Terminate the program.

8. Program to left shift 8-bit numbers.

Statement: Shift an eight-bit data four bits left. Assume data is in memory location
2051H. Store result in memory location 2055H.
LDA 2051H //Load data from memory location 2051H to accumulator
RAL //Rotate accumulator 1-bit left
RAR
RAR
RAR
STA 2055H //Store result in memory location 2055H
HLT //Terminate the program.

9. Program to add two 16-bit numbers.

Statement: Add numbers 1124H & 2253H and store result in memory location 2055H
& 2056H.
LXI H,1124H //Load 16-bit data 1124H to HL pair
LXI D,2253H //Load 16-bit data 2253H to DE pair
MOV A,L //Move contents of register L to Accumulator
ADD E //Add contents of Accumulator and E register
MOV L,A //Move contents of Accumulator to L register
MOV A,H //Move contents of register H to Accumulator
ADC D //Add contents of Accumulator and D register with carry
MOV H,A //Move contents of Accumulator to register H
SHLD 2055H //Store contents of HL pair in memory address 2055H & 2056H
HLT //Terminate the program.

Input:
Register Pair Data
HL 1124H
DE 2253H
Output:
Memory Location Data
2055H 77H
2056H 33H

10. Program to add two 16-bit numbers.

Statement: Input first number from memory location 2050H & 2051H and second
number from memory location 2052H & 2053H and store result in memory location
2055H & 2056H.
 LHLD 2052H //Load 16-bit number from memory location 2052H & 2053H to HL
pair
XCHG //Exchange contents of HL pair and DE pair
LHLD 2050H //Load 16-bit number from memory location 2050H & 2051H to HL
pair
MOV A,L //Move contents of register L to Accumulator
ADD E //Add contents of Accumulator and E register
MOV L,A //Move contents of Accumulator to L register
MOV A,H //Move contents of register H to Accumulator
ADC D //Add contents of Accumulator and D register with carry
MOV H,A //Move contents of Accumulator to register H
SHLD 2055H //Store contents of HL pair in memory address 2055H & 2056H
HLT //Terminate the program.

Input:
Memory Location Data
2050H 33H
2051H 45H
2052H 24H
2053H 34H
Output:
Memory Location Data
2055H 57H
2056H 79H

11. Program to subtract two 16-bit numbers.

Statement: Subtract number 1234H from 4897H and store result in memory location
2055H & 2056H.
LXI H,4567H //Load 16-bit data 4897H to HL pair
LXI D,1234H //Load 16-bit data 1234H to DE pair
MOV A,L //Move contents of register L to Accumulator
SUB E //Subtract contents of Accumulator and E register
MOV L,A //Move contents of Accumulator to L register
MOV A,H //Move contents of register H to Accumulator
SBB D //Subtract contents of Accumulator and D register with borrow
MOV H,A //Move contents of Accumulator to register H
SHLD 2055H //Store contents of HL pair in memory address 2055H & 2056H
HLT //Terminate the program.

Input:
Register Pair Data
HL 4897H
DE 1234H
Output:
Memory Location Data
2055H 63H
2056H 36H
12. Program to subtract two 16-bit numbers.
Statement: Input first number from memory location 2050H & 2051H and second
number from memory location 2052H & 2053H and store result in memory location
2055H & 2056H.
LHLD 2052H //Load 16-bit number from memory location 2052H & 2053H to HL
pair
XCHG //Exchange contents of HL pair and DE pair
LHLD 2050H //Load 16-bit number from memory location 2050H & 2051H to HL
pair
MOV A,L //Move contents of register L to Accumulator
SUB E //Subtract contents of Accumulator and E register
MOV L,A //Move contents of Accumulator to L register
MOV A,H //Move contents of register H to Accumulator
SBB D //Subtract contents of Accumulator and D register with carry
MOV H,A //Move contents of Accumulator to register H
SHLD 2055H //Store contents of HL pair in memory address 2055H & 2056H
HLT //Terminate the program.

Input:
Memory Location Data
2050H 78H
2051H 45H
2052H 24H
2053H 34H
Output:
Memory Location Data
2055H 54H
2056H 11H

13. Program to multiply two 8-bit numbers.

Statement: Multiply 06 and 03 and store result in memory location 2055H.

MVI A,00H
MVI B,06H
MIV C,03H
X: ADD B
DCR C
JNZ X
STA 2055H
HLT
14. Program to divide to 8-bit numbers.
Statement: Divide 08H and 03H and store quotient in memory location 2055H and
remainder in memory location 2056H.
MVI A,08H
MVI B,03H
MVI C,00H
X: CMP B
JC Y
SUB B
INR C
JMP X
Y: STA 2056H
MOV A,C
STA 2055H
HLT

15. Program to find greatest among two 8-bit numbers.

Statement: Input numbers from memory location 2050H & 2051H and store greatest
number in memory location 2055H.
LDA 2051H
MOV B,A
LDA 2050H
CMP B
JNC X
MOV A,B
X: STA 2055H
HLT

16. Program to find smallest among two 8-bit numbers.

Statement: Input numbers from memory location 2050H & 2051H and store smallest
number in memory location 2055H.
LDA 2051H
MOV B,A
LDA 2050H
CMP B
JC X
MOV A,B
X: STA 2055H
HLT

17. Program to find whether a number is odd or even.

Statement: Input number from memory location 2050H and store result in 2055H.
LDA 2050H
ANI 01H
JZ X
MVI A,0DH
 JMP Y
X: MVI A,0EH
Y: STA 2055H
HLT

18. Program to count no. of 1’s in given number.

Statement: Input number from memory location 2050H and store result in 2055H.
LDA 2050H
MVI C,08H
MVI B,00H
X: RAR
JNC Y
INR B
Y: DCR C
JNZ X
MOV A,B
STA 2055H
HLT

19. Display number from 1 to 10.

LXI H,2050H
MVI B,01H
MVI C,0AH
X: MOV M,B
INX H
INR B
DCR C
JNZ X
HLT

20. Find sum of numbers from 1 to 10.

LXI H,2050H
MVI B,01H
MVI C,0AH
MVI A,00H
X: ADD B
INX H
INR B
DCR C
JNZ X
STA 2055H
HLT

21. Display all odd numbers from 1 to 10.

LXI H,2050H
MVI B,01H
MVI C,0AH
X: MOV M,B
INX H
INR B
 INR B
DCR C
DCR C
JNZ X
HLT

22. Display all even numbers from 1 to 20.

LXI H,2050H
MVI B,02H
MVI C,14H
X: MOV M,B
INX H
INR B
INR B
DCR C
DCR C
JNZ X
HLT

23. Display all even numbers from 10 to 50.

LXI H,2050H
MVI B,0AH
MVI C,32H
X: MOV M,B
INX H
INR B
INR B
DCR C
DCR C
JNZ X
HLT

24. Find sum of 10 numbers in array.

LXI H,2050H
MVI C,OAH
MVI A,00H
X: MOV B,M
ADD B
INX H
DCR C
JNZ X
STA 2060H
HLT
25. Find the largest element in a block of data. The length of the block is in the memory
location 2200H and block itself starts from memory location 2201H. Store the maximum
number in memory location 2300H.
LDA 2200H
MOV C,A
LXI H,2201
MVI A,00H
X: CMP M
JNC Y
MOV A,M
Y: INX H
DCR C
JNZ X
STA 2300H
HLT

26. Find smallest number in array.

LDA 2200H
MOV C,A
LXI H,2201H
MVI A,00H
X: CMP M
JC Y
MOV A,M
Y: INX H
DCR C
JNZ X
STA 2300H
HLT

27. Generate Fibonacci series upto 10th term.

LXI H,2050H
MVI C,08H
MVI B,00H
MVI D,01H
MOV M,B
INX H
MOV M,D
X: MOV A,B
ADD D
MOV B,D
MOV D,A
INX H
MOV M,A
DCR C
JNZ X
HLT
28. Sort 10 numbers in ascending order in array.
MVI C,0AH
DCR C
X: MOV D,C
LXI H,2050H

Y: MOV A,M
INX H
CMP M
JC Z

MOV B,M
MOV M,A
DCX H
MOV M,B
INX H

Z: DCR D
JNZ Y
DCR C
JNZ X
HLT

29. Sort numbers in descending order in array. Length of array is in memory location
2050H.
LDA 2050H
MVI C,A
DCR C
X: MOV D,C
LXI H,2051H

Y: MOV A,M
INX H
CMP M
JNC Z

MOV B,M
MOV M,A
DCX H
MOV M,B
INX H

Z: DCR D
JNZ Y
DCR C
JNZ X
HLT
30. Multiply two 8 bit numbers 43H & 07H. Result is stored at address 3050 and 3051.

LXI H,0000H
MVI D,00H
MVI E,43H
MVI C,07H
X: DAD D
DCR C
JNZ X
SHLD 2050H
HLT

31. Multiply two 8 bit numbers stored at address 2050 and 2051. Result is stored at
address 3050 and 3051.

LDA 2050H
MOV E,A
LDA 2051H
MOV C,A
MVI D,00H
LXI H,0000H
X: DAD D
DCR C
JNZ X
SHLD 3050H
HLT
8086 Programs
1. Program to add two 8-bit numbers.
Statement: Add data 05H & 13H and store result in memory location 2050H.
MOV AL,05H
MOV BL,13H
ADD AL,BL
MOV 2050H,AL
HLT

2. Program to add two 8-bit numbers.

Statement: Input numbers from memory location 2050H and 2051H and store in
memory location 2055H.
MOV SI,2050H
MOV AL,[SI]
INC SI
MOV BL,[SI]
ADD AL,BL
MOV 2055H,AL
HLT

3. Program to add two 16-bit numbers.

Statement: Add numbers 1122H & 2233H and store result in memory location
2055H.
MOV AX,1122H
MOV BX,2233H
ADD AX,BX
MOV 2055H,AH
MOV 2056H,AL
HLT

4. Program to subtract two 8-bit numbers.

Statement: Subtract data 05H from 13H and store result in memory location 2050H.
MOV AL,13H
MOV BL,05H
SUB AL,BL
MOV 2050H,AL
HLT

5. Program to subtracct two 8-bit numbers.

Statement: Input numbers from memory location 2050H and 2051H and store in
memory location 2055H.
MOV SI,2050H
MOV AL,[SI]
INC SI
MOV BL,[SI]
SUB AL,BL
 MOV 2055H,AL
HLT

6. Program to subtract two 16-bit numbers.

Statement: Subtract numbers 1122H from 2233H and store result in memory
location 2055H.
MOV AX,2233H
MOV BX,1122H
SUB AX,BX
MOV 2055H,AH
MOV 2056H,AL
HLT

7. Program to multiply two 8-bit numbers.

Statement: Multiply 06H & 03H and store result in memory location 2055H.
MOV AL,06H
MOV BL,03H
MUL BL
MOV 2055H,AL
HLT

8. Program to multiply two 8-bit numbers.

Statement: Multiply 43H & 13H and store result in memory location 2055H and
2056H. (This program works for 16-bit too.)
MOV AX,0043H
MOV BX,0013H
MUL BX
MOV 2055H,AH
MOV 2056H,AL
HLT

9. Program to divide two 8-bit numbers.

Statement: Divide 43H & 13H and store result in memory location 2055H.
MOV AL,43H
MOV BL,13H
DIV BL
MOV 2055H,AL
HLT

10. Program to divide two 8-bit numbers.

Statement: Divide 43H & 13H and store quotient in 2055H and remainder in 2056H.
MOV AL,43H
MOV BL,13H
MOV CL,00H
X: CMP AL,BL
JNC Y
SUB AL,BL
 INC CL
Y: MOV 2056H,AL
MOV AL,BL
MOV 2055H,AL
HLT

11. Program to divide two 16-bit numbers.

Statement: Divide 1243H & 0013H and store result in memory location 2055H &
2056H.
MOV AX,1243H
MOV BX,0013H
DIV BX
MOV 2055H,AL
MOV 2056H,BL
HLT

12. Program to find sum of numbers from 1 to 10.

MOV AL,00H
MOV BL,01H
MOV CL,0AH
X: ADD BL
INC BL
LOOP X
MOV 2055H,AL
HLT

13. Program to display numbers from 1 to 20.

MOV SI,2050H‘
MOV BL,01H
MOV CL,14H
X: MOV [SI],BL
INC BL
LOOP X
HLT

14. Program to find factorial of given number. (Number is in memory location 2050H).
MOV CX,2050H
MOV AX,00H
X: MUL CX
LOOP X
MOV 2055H,AH
MOV 2056H,AL
HLT

(Likewise all programs done in 8085 can be done in 8086)

15. Program to display string “I love my country” in screen.
.DATA
MESSAGE DB "I love my country$"

.CODE
START:
MOV AX,DATA
MOV DS,AX

MOV AH,09H
INT 21H

MOV AH,4CH
INT 21H

END START

16. Program to display string “I love my country” in screen character by character.

.DATA
MESSAGE DB "I love my country$"
.CODE

START:
MOV AX,DATA
MOV DS,AX

LEA SI,MESSAGE
MOV CL,11H
L1:MOV DX,[SI]
MOV AH,02H
INT 21H
INC SI
LOOP L1

MOV AH,4CH
INT 21H

END START
17. Program to reverse any string.

.DATA
MESSAGE DB "BSC CSIT$"
.CODE

START:
MOV AX,DATA
MOV DS,AX

LEA SI,MESSAGE

MOV CL,08H

L1:MOV BX,[SI]
PUSH BX
INC SI
LOOP L1

MOV CL,05H
L2:POP DX
MOV AH,02H
INT 21H
LOOP L2

MOV AH,4CH
INT 21H

END START

(This program can be used for example program for stact PUSH and POP operation)