UNIT IV

CANAL ENGINEERING

Canals - Classification - Distribution network - Cross

sectional details - Sedimentation in canals - Silt theories -
Design of canals based on silt theories and use of charts -
Balancing depth of cutting - Design procedure for fixing
longitudinal section - Canal losses - Canal maintenance -
Canal lining - types - Design of lined canals.
Introduction
•A canal is an artificial channel
constructed on the ground to carry
water from a river or another canal or a
reservoir to the fields.
Types of Canals (Based on Nature of Supply)

• (a) Permanent Canals: These canals flow all the year round and thus
they are known as perennial canals. They draw water from perennial
rivers or from artificial lakes which maintain a high level of water on
the upstream side.

• (b) Inundation Canals: These canals are directly taken out of rivers
without building any barrage or dams. When the rivers are in flood,
excess water flows into these canals. These canals are not useful
during the dry months
Types of Canals (BASED ON FUNCTION)

• Irrigation Canal :
• Carries water from its source to agricultural fields.
• Navigation Canal :
• Used for transport of goods.
• Power Canal :
• Used to carry water for generation of hydroelectricity
• Feeder Canal :
• Feeds two or more canals.
Inundation canals are made under the
following circumstances:
• River water level during floods remains high.
• If sufficient flood water reaches the river in March or April, the flood water
may be used to submerge the land, so that Kharif crop could be sown.
• If flood water remains available say up to late September, the Kharif crops
can be irrigated upto this time and, even, areas may be submerged to sow
early Rabi crops in October.
• Areas to be irrigated when in the vicinity of the river banks the inundation
canals may serve the purpose of irrigation.
• When soil has good stabilizing power so that bed and banks of the canal
remain stable.
Characteristics of Inundation Canals

• Inundation canals are mostly used in deltic and alluvial regions of the river,
as river course here is generally at a higher level and course is maintained
between dykes or embankments.
• The section of the canal is not regular.
• The banks are not very strong and may breach if not properly looked after.
• These canals have longitudinal, slope varying from 25 cm to as much as 1
m per kilometer length.
• Depth of the canal may be 1.5 m to 3.5 m. Like regular canal system
inundation canal system may also have main canal and then smaller canals.
• Inundation canal may be provided with two or three heads. It is done
that if one head is washed away water may be taken from the other
head.
• Lower the bed level of the canal more will be the time for which
water will remain available.
• At the end of the head reach, a flood regulator is constructed. An
escape should be provided near the regulator, so that if more water
gets entered into the canal, it may be taken out and re-discharged
into the river D/S.
• Lot of silt is deposited in the canals and as such silt clearance should
be done after every flood.
Design Consideration of Inundation Canals
• The head regulator should be installed a few kilometers D/S of the
off-take point. This measure would eliminate the risk of head
regulator being washed away.

• As escape should be located D/S of the head regulator and escape

channel should be joined to the river D/S. If more water enters the
canal at off-take point it can be taken out through the escape.
• Vertical lift gates are provided at the flood regulator to exclude silt.
• The bed of the canal should be as low as possible. Low bed level of
the canal can draw some river water even when the river is in lower
stage.
• Full supply of main canal should be kept equal for good irrigation
level. Steady water for 40 t o 50 days.
• B/D ratio is kept small
• Slope of the canal may be 0.25 m per kilometer length. The slope of
the canal depends upon the general slope of the area also.
• The flood water is heavily charged with silt. The canals may be aligned
with a number of bends so as to trap the silt at intervals.
Advantages of Inundation Canals
• It is cheap, as no head work and other works have to be constructed.

• Water being rich in silt, has good manurial qualities.

• The area is less liable to be water logged.

Disadvantages of Inundation Canals
• As there is no head works structure the head of the canal is liable to
be washed away during floods.

• Duty of water is very low.

• Since availability of water is dependent upon the floods, the scarcity

of water is always felt. Irrigation water may be badly required and the
flood water in the river may not be available.

• Due to lack of assured supply, the farmers take little interest in their
work.
• Canals will have to be frequently cleared from silt.

• The bigger size of the canal is generally adopted. This is done to get as
much of flood water as possible within limited time.

• The alignment of the canal is not very precise. It may be silting at

some section, and scouring at other section.
Types of Canals (BASED ON ALIGNMENT)
• (a) Contour Canal: Canal is aligned parallel to the contour and
irrigates on one of its side only.
•
• (b) Ridge Canal: Canal aligned along a watershed boundary irrigating
on both of its sides.
•
• (c) Side Slope Canal: Canal aligned roughly at right angles to the
contours parallel to natural drainage and has steep slope.
Bandhara Irrigation
• Bandhara is a special type of irrigation scheme, between inundation
type and permanent type irrigation.

• Bandhara irrigation is a minor irrigation system suitable for irrigating

isolated areas, up to 500 hectares

• The bandhara is similar to weir which is constructed across a small

stream to raise the water level on the upstream side to divert the
water through the canal.

• The height of bandhara depends on the water level to be raised on

the upstream side.
• It is constructed with brick masonry or stone masonry with R.C.C
crest.

• The crest width varies from 1 m to 2 m.

• The scouring sluices are provided at the bottom of the bandhara near
the head reach of the canal.
Advantages of Bandhara Irrigation
• The water of small streams can be utilized for irrigation purpose by
constructing a simple structure.

• The culturable area is generally close to the source. Hence, there is

less possibility of transmission loss.

• As there is no loss due to transmission, the duty of water is high.

Disadvantages of Bandhara Irrigation
• Normally, the discharge capacity of small streams is low. Moreover, if
bandhara irrigation is implemented on such streams, the people
residing on downstream side will not get water for their use.

• The supply of water mainly depends on rainfall. So, in the period of

drought, this system is practically useless.
Location of Bandharas
• The source of water i.e the river should be a perennial one so that
water is available from the river throughout the year.

• Stable foundation should be available for construction of bandharas.

• The banks of the stream should be high and well defined.

CONSTRUCTION OF CANAL
Canal in Full Cutting: The entire cross section of
the canal is constructed in full cutting with the full
supply level below the general ground level. This
section is adopted where there are no off takes.
Canal in Full Embankment: The entire canal
section is formed in embankment and is not
preferred.
Canal in Partial Cutting and Partial Embankment: The canal
has its FSL above or just below the general ground level.
However the banks are above the ground level. This is the most
widely preferred section.
CROSS SECTION OF A CANAL
(1) Bed Width: It is the bottom width of the canal. It is provided based
on the design requirements.

(2) Side Slopes: The side slopes of the canal will be ½ : 1 for design
purposes, but during execution flatter slope is provided since it is
assumed that it gets silted up and reach the design slope.
(3) Berm: The distance between the toe
of the back and the top edge of cutting.
(4) Hydraulic gradient: It depends upon
the permeability of the soil. Due to the
resistance of the soil, the saturation line
forms a sloping line which may pass
through the country side of the bank.
This sloping line is called as hydraulic
gradient.
(5) Counter Berm: for the stability of the
bank , the gradient should not intersect the
outside of the bank. Sometimes the
hydraulic gradient line intersects the outside
of the bank A projection is provided on the
bank to obtain minimum cover. This
projection is known as counter berm.

(6) Free board: It is the marginal height

between the Full Supply Level and the Top
level of the Bank. It varies 0.6m to 0.75m
(7) Service road or interception road:
The road provided mostly on the left
bank for movement of vehicles of the
operation and maintenance Engineers. It
is about 3m to 5m wide and atleast
0.3m to 0.8m above the FSL.

(8) Dowla or Dowel: An additional

embankment of 0.3m top width and
height with side slope 1½ : 1 is provided
on the left bank which carries the
inspection road so as to provide a safety
for the inspection vehicle. The top is at
the top of the Free Board level of the
canal.
(9) Borrow Pit:
• To construct the embankment
trenches are cut along the alignment
of the canal either within the canal
section or outside the canal section
and the soil is used. These trenches
are called borrow pits.
• The depth of the borrow pit is about
1m.
• The idea behind the borrow pit will
act as water pockets where the silt will
be deposited and ultimately the canel
bed will get levelled up.
(10) Back Berm: When the seepage line cuts
the outer face of the embankment additional
embankment is provided on the outer toes of
either banks for about 2m wide so that the
seepage line is within the bank.

(11) Spoil Bank: when the canal is

constructed in full cutting , the excavated
earth may not be completely required for
forming the bank. In such a case, the extra
earth is deposited I n the form of small banks
which is known as spoil bank.
SOLUTION
 UNIT IV
CANAL ENGINEERING

Canals - Classification - Distribution network - Cross

sectional details - Sedimentation in canals - Silt theories -
Design of canals based on silt theories and use of charts -
Balancing depth of cutting - Design procedure for fixing
longitudinal section - Canal losses - Canal maintenance -
Canal lining - types - Design of lined canals.
Silt theories
• Silt is carried either in suspension or along the bed of the canal.
• If silts up, Capacity reduce
Irrigate less
• A velocity which will keep the silt in suspension, without scouring the
channel is known as non-silting and non-scouring velocity.
Alluvial Channels – water channels made up
of loose sediments
Non-Alluvial Channels
Rigid boundary channels
Kennedy’s Silt theory
• RG Kennedy investigated canals systems for twenty years and come
up with a Kennedy’s silt theory.
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