The heat engine-movements within atmospheric and oceanic masses
A heat engine is a system which converts heat into work by taking heat from the reservoir (
hot body) to carry out some work. There is a discharge of some heat to the sink (cold body).
In this system, there will also be some waste in the form of heat
Earth's atmosphere acts like a gigantic heat engine, working on many of the same principles
as a car’s engine. Fuel—in this case, energy from the sun—is used to do work. Because more
sunlight hits the tropics than higher latitudes, the planet constantly redistributes heat via air
motions. Those air motions are the engine’s work. They also help produce the rainstorms and
snowstorms. The engine isn't 100-percent efficient, though. Some heat is lost to space. And
much of the remaining energy is expended in the planet’s water cycle, used in the evaporation
and precipitation of water.
Heat transfer from the hot object (or hot reservoir) is denoted as Qh, while heat transfer into
the cold object (or cold reservoir) is Qc, and the work done by the engine is W. The
temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs are Th and Tc, respectively. From the second law
of thermodynamics a heat engine cannot be 100 percent efficient, since there must always be
some heat transfer Qc to the environment.
Figure 1. Transfer of heat in a engine
The operation of this heat engine requires differences in energy levels. These differences are
due to the sun-earth system and their motions, as well as to characteristics of the earth’s
surface and the atmosphere itself. The atmospheric heat engine is a complex engine whose
operation is not easy to understand. Some of the reasons for this are:
1) There are complicated interdependencies of the physical parameters which affect the
energy distribution.
(2) The atmosphere is an open thermodynamic system: it has no material upper boundary and
its lower boundary is not uniform either in height or composition.
Laws of atmospheric motion and circulation models
There are five laws used by scientists to understand large scale Atmospheric Flow Patterns
1. Ideal Gas Law (Equation of State) - expresses the relationship of the pressure a gas exerts
to the volume it occupies and its temperature. (The product of the pressure a gas exerts
and the volume the gas occupies is directly proportional to the temperature of the gas).
The ideal gas law states that the pressure, temperature, and volume of gas are related
to each other. The gas constant (R) can be viewed as a correction factor that is different
for each gas (because of differences in molecular structure) and is usually given for so-
called 'dry air'.
PV = nRT
Where;
P = pressure
V = volume
N = number of moles o the gas
T = temperature
R = Gas constant
2. In the atmosphere, the amount of heat applied to a mass of air (thermal energy input)
must equal the total sum of the warming of the air, plus the amount of work done per unit
mass of air (first law of thermodynamics). Heat is a form of energy, and thermodynamic
processes are therefore subject to the principle of conservation of energy. Atmospheric
processes involves heating and cooling, rising air parcels and falling rain, thunderstorms
and snow, freezing and thawing all which follows the first law of thermodynamics.
3. Newton's Second Law of Motion - states that the acceleration experienced by an object is
due to the sum of the forces acting on the object. (An object at rest will be accelerated in
proportion to the forces that act on the object). (F = ma). Air motion can be understood
on the basis of the forces that cause air to move. In the absence of all other forces, at a
given elevation air tends to be accelerated horizontally from regions of higher pressure to
regions of lower pressure.
4. Hydrostatics Law states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward
direction in fluid/liquid is equal to weight density of the liquid. In other words, the
pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is just due to the weight of the overlying fluid. For
any air parcel, if the net upward pressure force on the parcel is equal to the downward
force of gravity on the slab, the atmosphere is said to be in hydrostatic balance. The
pressure-gradient force prevents gravity from collapsing the planetary atmosphere into a
thin, dense shell, whereas gravity prevents the pressure-gradient force from diffusing the
atmosphere into outer space.
Figure 2. Hydrostatic forces
Every air parcel is acted on by three forces that are in balance, leading to no net force. Since
they are in balance for any air parcel, the air can be assumed to be static or moving at a
constant velocity.
There are 3 forces that determine hydrostatic balance:
a) One force is downwards (negative) onto the top of the cuboid from the pressure of the
fluid above it
b) Similarly, the force on the volume element from the pressure of the fluid below
pushing upwards
c) Finally, the weight of the volume element causes a force downwards. If the density is
ρ, the volume is V, which is simply the horizontal area A times the vertical height.
5. Conservation of Mass Applied to the Atmosphere (Equation of Continuity)
Conservation of Mass: Mass is not created nor destroyed. The total mass of the
atmosphere is (to a very close approximation) constant over time periods of interest.
Continuity: The fluid is continuous (it contains no holes). This is a fundamental
assumption underlying atmospheric motions.
General circulation models
General circulation models of the atmosphere are computer-driven mathematical models that
aim to represent the numerous actions within the atmosphere of the entire world and its
interactions with the surface of the Earth. They attempt to simulate the Earth's climate
system.
A general circulation model uses lots of intricate math and physics equations to model the
circulation of the atmosphere and the oceans on planet Earth. More complex versions take
many factors into account such as living things, glacier ice, energy from the sun, land forms,
and how all these factors interact. The math required to make all of these calculations is so
elaborate.
GCM lie at the upper end of the climate model hierarchy which range in complexity from
simple zero-dimensional atmospheric models that calculate a single globally-averaged
quantity such as temperature, to fully-coupled three-dimensional atmosphere-ocean-land
cover models that can predict changes over time of many variables such as temperature,
humidity, winds, sea ice cover, and soil moisture. The mathematical expressions that
comprise a GCM can be loosely broken down into three separate, but connected categories:
(1) the dynamics of the climate system that describe the large-scale movement of air masses
and transport of energy and momentum;
(2) the physics of the climate system such as radiation transmission through the atmosphere,
thermodynamics, and evaporation; and
(3) other factors such as air-sea interaction, topography, and vegetation parameters. These
expressions are based on known physical laws such as the conservation of energy and mass,
as well as empirical relations based on observed characteristics and trends, such as formulas
that relate temperature and humidity to cloud formation.
Figure 3. Schematic of a General Circulation Model.
Four types of models have been developed.
1. Energy balance models. These are one-dimensional models in which the zonally-averaged
variation of surface temperature is described. Simplified relationships are used to
calculate each of the terms contributing to the energy balance at a particular latitude.
2. One-dimensional radiative-convective models. These models compute the vertical
temperature structure of the atmosphere from the balance between radiative heating or
cooling and the vertical heat-flux (rate of heat transfer through a surface), generally
incorporating radiative transfer models.
3. Two-dimensional zonally-averaged dynamical models. These represent the
atmosphere on a latitude-altitude grid. The dynamical and physical
processes are calculated in terms of zonally-averaged variables.
4. General circulation models. These resolve the full three-dimensional structure of the
atmosphere and ocean so that synoptic-scale (also read about micro, meso and global
scales) processes are explicitly modelled. All physical processes believed to be important
are represented. These are the most sophisticated form of climate models and provide a
powerful tool for inferring future climatic change associated with perturbations to the
earth's radiative forcing.
Climatic elements and their global distribution
There are three fundamental climatic elements, namely temperature, evaporation and
precipitation.
1.0 Temperature
Temperature provides a measure of the intensity or degree of hotness of a given object or
body. It is therefore the condition that determines the flow of heat energy from one substance
to another with the flow always being from high to low temperature. Thus by studying the
temperature characteristics of the earth- atmosphere system, one is in fact studying the heat
energy of the system and how it is distributed over the earth’s surface.
(a) Vertical distribution of temperature
In the troposphere, temperature decreases with increase in elevation, what is commonly
referred to as Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR). This has been calculated for many world
areas to average 6.50C/km. The vertical distribution of temperature is influenced by the
nature of the underlying surface. For example, temperature decreases most rapidly with
altitude over continental areas than water masses.
Another effect of altitude on temperature is the difference it causes on diurnal range of
temperature, such that this range is greater at a higher elevation than at an equivalent
climate at sea level. The main difference occurs during the night when the escape of
terrestrial energy takes place readily because of the lower density of gases at higher
elevation.
The decrease of pressure with altitude also modifies the mean of given values on
temperature scales. The reduced pressure, for example, means that molecules of water
vapour escape more easily from a water surface. Thus at sea level, water boils at a
temperature of 1000C, at an elevation of about 3000m, water will boil at 900C, at 6000m
water boils at about 700C.
The decrease of temperature with increasing elevation is periodically interrupted, and
temperature increase with altitude may occur. This is referred to as temperature inversion.
Inversion can occur at ground level when associated with radiation cooling or above the
ground level because of subsidence (the gradual caving in or sinking of an area of land).
An inversion is a layer in the atmosphere where the temperature increases with altitude
instead of decreasing. With warmer, less dense air, it acts as a lid on updrafts. It is the
most stable condition that exists, especially when close to the surface.
Figure 4. Temperature inversion where warm air is above cooler air at the surface
(b) Horizontal distribution of temperature
The horizontal distribution of global temperature is influenced by two main factors:
(i) Location factors
(ii) Dynamic factors
(i) Locational factors
A. Latitude of a place
B. Surface properties
C. Aspect and topography
(A) Latitude: This is of prime importance in determining solar energy receipt.
The earth-sun relationship show that both the angle of the sun in the sky and
length of day determine solar energy receipts. These two factors are determined
by latitude. More insulation reaches the earth’s surface when the angle of the
sun’s rays is 900 than when it is less than 900. The sun’s rays pass through a
greater thickness of atmosphere to reach the higher latitudes than to reach the
lower latitudes.
The highest temperatures on earth are not found at the equator but near the tropic of cancer
and Capricorn. Warm air unloads almost all of its moisture in the clouds above equatorial
regions, but still continues to move higher up. This warm air, now also dry (on account of
depositing all its moisture in equatorial clouds), begins to move towards the pole, but is
stopped due to the Coriolis force, which prevents it from continuing in the direction of poles.
As a result, it loops back closer to the surface in the tropics (Hadley cell).
During its descent into the tropical regions, the dry air becomes even hotter. This is because
as the dry air descends from high altitudes, its compression leads to an increase in its
temperature. Typically, when moist air descends through 1 kilometer, it becomes hotter by 6
degrees Celsius, but it increases by 10 degrees Celsius when the air is dry.
Figure 5. Hottest places on earth
So, if air temperature at the equator is 30 degrees Celsius, by the time it rises 10 kilometers in
the sky, travels poleward and eventually descends into the tropics, it’s temperature would be
raised by around 12 degrees. Therefore, air temperature in the tropics (42 degrees Celsius) is
greater than that of the Equator (30 degrees Celsius). This is why tropical regions are hotter
than the Equator.
Temperature regimes, especially the seasonal cycles, are also related to earth’s sun motions.
The temperature regime at equatorial stations shows few variations, with two maximums at
the period of equinoxes. Stations further north show a distant summer-winter maximum and
minimum, with the range generally increasing with latitude.
(B) Surface properties
The solar energy received on the earth surface depends on the type of surface the energy is
striking. Of particular note is the surface reflectivity or albedo. Surfaces with high albedo
absorb less incident radiation, with the result that the total energy available is diminished.
Thus the polar ice caps are maintained because as much as 80% of the solar radiation falling
on them is reflected.
Different surfaces have different specific heat capacity. Specific heat capacity is defined as
the amount of heat in calories required to raise the temperature of 1g of a substance through
10C. For example the specific heat capacity of water is five times greater than that of rock and
the land surface in general. This means that the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of water through 10C is five times greater than that required for the same
temperature increase on land. The same amount of energy applied to land surface would
result in the lands becoming much hotter than the water.
(C) Aspect and Topography
The combined influences of steepness and direction faced by a slope determine its aspect.
The importance of aspect is best seen in differences that occur on north-facing and south-
facing slopes in the northern hemisphere. A north-facing slope may still have snow lying on it
while a south-facing slope is quite clear. The north-facing slope gets less intense radiation
and, as the sun gets lower in the sky, it will be in shadow long before the south-facing slope.
The influence of aspect is seen in many ways; for example, the height of the level of
permanent snow and ice on mountains will vary from one slope to another, while vegetation
levels (e.g. the tree line) will also be affected. Similarly the depth of snow and frost are found
to differ on north-facing and south-facing slopes.
Topography also plays an important role in the nature of climates of neighbouring lands. On a
continental scale, mountain ranges that run north-south have a different effect from those that
run east- west. Thus the lack of any extensive east-west barrier in some regions permits polar
and tropical air to penetrate great distances into the continent. The relief alignment of
continents also affects the flow of air masses into the interior.
(ii) Dynamic factors
The imbalance of energy between the tropics and poles means that an exchange of air must
occur through a dynamic process. The mechanisms for the exchange involve the transfers of
latent heat (LE), sensible heat (H), and the heat that is stored within the waters of the ocean
(S) (ocean heat content)
(A) Latent heat is energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its
physical state (phase) that occurs without changing its temperature.
(B) Sensible heat - Heat that causes a change in temperature in an object.
(C) Ocean heat content- Ocean temperature plays an important role in the Earth's climate
system—particularly sea surface temperature—because heat from ocean surface
waters provides energy for storms and thereby influences weather patterns
The table below provides the theoretical planetary temperature for sea level, assuming the
atmosphere is at rest and the observed mean annual temperature for every 100 of latitude. The
greatest differences are at the equator and for those latitudes above 600. Tropical latitudes are
cooler than the theoretical value, while high latitudes are warmer. The differences between
the actual and theoretical values result from the transport of energy over the globe by air
masses and ocean currents. Every storm system, circulation pattern and
evaporation/precipitation event contributes towards the redistribution of temperature regimes
that prevail over the earth’s surface.
Table 1….Theoretical planetary temperature at sea level
Global pattern of mean sea temperature
The surface temperature of the world’s oceans varies mainly with latitude, with the warmest
waters generally near the equator and the coldest waters in the Arctic and Antarctic regions.
As the oceans absorb more heat, sea surface temperature increases, and the ocean circulation
patterns that transport warm and cold water around the globe change.
Changes in sea surface temperature can alter marine ecosystems in several ways. For
example, variations in ocean temperature can affect what species of plants, animals, and
microbes are present in a location, alter migration and breeding patterns, threaten sensitive
ocean life such as corals, and change the frequency and intensity of harmful algal blooms
such as “red tide.” Over the long term, increases in sea surface temperature could also reduce
the circulation patterns that bring nutrients from the deep sea to surface waters. Changes in
reef habitat and nutrient supply could dramatically alter ocean ecosystems and lead to
declines in fish populations, which in turn could affect people who depend on fishing for food
or jobs.
Because the oceans continuously interact with the atmosphere, sea surface temperature can
also have profound effects on global climate. Increases in sea surface temperature have led to
an increase in the amount of atmospheric water vapor over the oceans. This water vapor feeds
weather systems that produce precipitation, increasing the risk of heavy rain and snow
2.0 Evaporation
It is a physical process by which vapour escapes from any free liquid water surface or wet
surface at a temperature below the boiling point of water. In addition to loss by evaporation
from soil, water is also lost by transpiration from vegetation covering the soil or water
surface. This combined loss is known as evapotranspiration. Water vapour is the principal
participant in the many energy exchanges taking place in the atmosphere. The energy
exchanges are responsible for the weather phenomena, which serve as important links
connecting the various phases of the hydrological cycle.
Measurement of evaporation and evapotranspiration is of importance in many scientific
fields. It is one of the main components of the water budget, knowledge of which is
indispensable for the solution of numerous water management problems. Reliable
evaporation data are required for planning, designing and operating reservoirs, ponds,
shipping canals, irrigation and drainage systems. Evaporation is especially important in arid
zones where water must be used in the most efficient way. Knowledge of the water
requirement of crops depends partly on the accurate determination of the loss of water by
evapotranspiration from cultivated fields.
Global Distribution of evaporation
Maximum rates of actual evaporation occur over subtropical oceans with a general decrease
in amount poleward. Land values are lower than oceanic ones. Generally on a global scale
evapotranspiration from continents is about 470 mm per year, while from the ocean it is about
1300 mm per year.
Average evapotranspiration from the continents varies a great deal through time and space
mainly affected by amounts of water and energy available.
In tropical areas where there is ample water and energy, evapotranspiration rates are very
high. In the lower Amazon valley and the central Congo River Basin the rates of evaporation
are about 1200 mm per year, figures which are comparable to evaporation over the open
ocean. In parts of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal plain of United States, the amount is almost
as high.
Evapotranspiration is highest in the Sudd and in the Chad basin in Sub-Saharan Africa. Here
the rates reach 2400 mm per year which is far in excess of local rainfall. These two extensive
areas of swamp and shallow lakes are supplied by rivers. The White Nile feeds the Sudd, and
Lake Chad is fed by a series of rivers from the south. Solar radiation is intense and the air is
dry, these two factors that enhance evapotranspiration. On the other hand, where
temperatures are lower such as in Northern Europe, evapotranspiration rates drop to as little
as 200 mm per year.
3.0 Precipitation
The type and size of precipitation leaving the cloud base depends on the conditions within the
cloud, but the precipitation that actually reaches the ground is modified by conditions in the
air layer between the cloud and the ground. In general, the temperature structure determines
whether the precipitation will arrive as frozen or as liquid water, while the humidity of the
layer determines the amount of evaporation that will occur and hence the ultimate size of the
precipitation particles. In both cases the fall velocity will dictate the time over which the
processes can act and hence how complete they will be.
The intensity and duration of precipitation is determined largely by the type of cloud system
involved. This in turn is connected with the cloud formation processes considered (i.e.
Collision Coalescence model and Bergeron-Findeisen model). In general cumulus vertical
motions give large drops and intense precipitation for a short period. (NB Cumulus clouds
are an indicator of vertical movement). The higher they rise, the more unstable the
atmosphere is and with higher vertical movement. The air in the atmosphere mixes readily
with updrafts and downdrafts. Winds will be gusty and tend to change direction.) Usually
their influence is restricted to a fairly small geographical area. Stratus and altostratus, in
contrast involve more persistent and less vigorous vertical motions over a much wider area.
Hence prolonged, steadier and usually less intense precipitation results. The difference in
intensity decreases as the duration increases. World rainfall statistics suggest that intensity is
approximately proportional to the inverse square root of the duration, but that there are many
regional variations.
Global precipitation distribution
It is known that both the intensity and duration, and thus the amount of precipitation in an
individual event depend on the processes acting to create the precipitating clouds, and that the
real extent of precipitation depends on the same factors. Since particular processes tend to
dominate particular areas of the globe, we can make several pertinent generalisations about
the global precipitation on an annual basis. The area of maximum annual precipitation over
2000mm per year extends in a band through the equatorial regions. The subtropical deserts
and the Polar Regions have values below 250mm. The mid-latitude regions have intermediate
values, being in general about 1000mm per year. Mountain ranges play a significant role in
the spatial distribution of precipitation. The windward slopes of mountains receive the
greatest amount of precipitation. In the leeward side of the mountain ranges the precipitation
decreases markedly to give rain shadow effects.
Tropical precipitation
Precipitation in much of the tropics is associated with convective activity. Strong vertical
motions occur in a fluctuating band near the equator. This release the abundant water vapour,
which creates a regime of intense, short-lived storms from cumulus clouds. Rainfall rates in
excess of 100 mm per hour are not uncommon. Although the location of the storms is partly
controlled by local topographic features, storms tend to recur sporadically, so that
precipitation does not occur at a particular place every day even though there may be a storm
in the area each day.
More widespread uplift is associated with monsoonal circulations. Such circulations are
particularly well developed over tropical Asia. Although this is a strongly seasonal
precipitation regime, the effects of convective uplift, dynamical uplift (Dynamic lifting is a
forced lifting of air. It is much slower than convective lifting but over time dynamic
lifting can produce a significant amount of vertical uplift. If the uplift occurs with
saturated air then clouds and precipitation will be produced.) and topographic forcing
combine to produce high annual rainfall totals. Locally rainfall rates may be very high but
generally the monsoonal condition is characterised by longer lasting, less intense
precipitation.
Mid- latitude precipitation
In mid-latitude much of the precipitation production is associated with depressions (region of
low pressure) and fronts. The result is widespread uplift giving extended periods of gentle
rain over a broad area. Rainfall rates vary greatly, although 1-2 mm per hour, which is
regarded as a typical value. The intensity is partly controlled by the amount of water vapour
available, which in turn depends on the source of the air, which is being uplifted. Air derived
directly from the subtropical oceans, where evaporation rates are high is likely to lead to
higher precipitation rates. If the source is the tropical deserts, the air is likely to be much drier
and it is not uncommon in these conditions for dust and sand particles to form the
condensation nuclei and hence to be deposited in large quantities with the rain. Convective
activity in the mid latitudes is primarily a summer phenomena. It can be intense, but is
usually less regular, than in the tropics.
