VIDEO CAMERA

• The video camera is the single most important piece of production equipment.
• Other production equipment and techniques are greatly influenced by the camera’s
technical and performance characteristics.
• Although the electronics of the television camera have become increasingly complex but
to produce an optimal image, there is no need to be a skilled electronics engineer- all you
need to do is press the right camera buttons.
• A video camera is a camera used for electronic motion picture acquisition, initially
developed for the television industry but now common in other applications as well.

• It is opposite to a movie camera, which record images on film.

MAJOR CAMERA COMPONENTS

• The Camera Head containing the camera’s image sensors and all related electronic
circuits.
• The lens that transmits light into the camera body and forms the image on the camera’s
image sensor.
• The viewfinder that allows the operator to compose the elements making up a shot and
also often provides a visual interface with the camera’s various controls.
HOW VIDEO CAMERA WORKS

(FROM LIGHT TO VIDEO)

• All video cameras, work on the same basic principle, the conversion of an optical image into
electrical signals that are reconverted by a television set into visible screen images.

• Specifically the light that is reflected from an object is gathered by a lens and focused on the
imaging or pick up device. The imaging device is the principal camera element that converts the
light in to electrical energy.

• The imaging or pick up device consists of a small solid state device normally called CCD, (Charged
coupled device).

• The CCD contains hundred of thousands of image sensing elements, called pixels (a word made
up of pix, for picture and els, for elements), that are arranged in horizontal and vertical rows.

• Each pixel translates the light to an electrical current.

• These electrical signal travels to the recording section. The current creates a small magnetic field
which is recorded on the magnetic coating of the tape. To view the image the process is reversed.
The magnetic field on the tape creates an electrical current which is used to generate the picture
in the viewfinder or in television or monitor.
PARTS OF VIDEO CAMERA
• The video camera is central to all television production.

• It is mandatory for the cameraperson to know the camera intimately, it is important for the
producer to have an in-depth knowledge about the camera in order to get the best from the
videographer/cinematographer.

The basic features /parts of the camera are:

• Auto/manual on/off

• Microphone

• Lens Hood

• Aperture ring (iris)

• Focus ring

• Zoom ring

• Manual Zoom control

• White balance/Black balance

• Gain Control

• Colour Composition filter

• LCD monitor/ viewfinder

• Viewfinder brightness/ contrast controls

• Tally light

• Camera back VTR connector, video output, camera cable, monitor video output, gunlock
connection

• Battery pack

• Audio input controls

• On/off/record/pause button

A complex button, the on/off button has many functions put together in one place. The

red button is the record button. It enables us to record and to pause during shooting.

Many cameras also provide the camera on/off switch along with the recording button

• Viewfinder

It allows us to see what we are recording. Almost all models provide us the play back and

review what is being taped.

• LCD viewfinder

New versions have LCD viewfinder. A small screen that allows us to see what we are

recording in color.

• Zoom

The two way zoom button enables us to zoom the camera lens in and out. It is mostly
 marked ‘T’ and ‘W’.

• Internal Mic

Professional models mostly have provision to connect microphones externally. Smaller

models have this feature of internal microphones.

• Recording levels

Most of the professional models have a drum that we can use to modify the level of audio.

• White balance

The white balance button enables the camera to see all blacks as blacks, all whites as

whites, and all the colors in their true form.

• Exposure/aperture

This button helps to increase or decrease the aperture levels so that the picture can

become brighter or darker depending on what we desire. This increase or decreases

the amount of light entering the camera.

Camera Functions
• Most domestic camcorders can do just about everything automatically. All you have to do is turn
them on, point, and press record. In most situations this is fine, but automatic functions have
some serious limitations.

• If you want to improve your camera work, you must learn to take control of your camera. This
means using manual functions. In fact, professional cameras have very few automatic functions,
and professional camera operators would never normally use auto-focus or auto-iris.

There are two answers:

• Although auto-functions usually perform well enough, there will be some situations they can't
cope with (e.g. bad lighting conditions). In these circumstances you may be faced with unusable
footage unless you can take manual control. More commonly, your shots will be useable but poor
quality (e.g. going in and out of focus).

• Your camera can't know what you want. To get the best results or obtain a particular effect it is
often necessary to over-ride auto-functions and go manual.

• As you learn more about camera work you will begin to appreciate the better results gained
through manual functions.
Zoom
• The zoom is the function which moves your point of view closer to, or further away from,
the subject. The effect is similar to moving the camera closer or further away.
• The two most common zoom mechanisms are
Manual zoom (ring)

This is a zoom ring on the lens housing which is rotated manually, typically by the left
thumb and index finger.

Advantages: Speed (you can do super-fast zooms); doesn't require power (so no drain on your
battery).
Disadvantages: More difficult to control; harder to get smooth zooms.
Servo zoom (lever)
This is a lever which sits on the lens housing. It's usually positioned so that when you slide
your right hand into the grip belt, the servo zoom will be sitting under your first two fingers.
Pressing the front part of the lever zooms in; pressing the rear part zooms out. Cheaper
cameras usually have a constant zoom speed, whereas a good servo zoom will have variable
speed -- the further you depress the lever, the faster the zoom. The lever may have labels such
as T and W (tele and wide).

Advantages: Easy to use in most situations; nice smooth zooms.

Disadvantages: Uses battery power; may be limited to fixed speeds.

• There's an important characteristic of zoom lenses that you should be aware of: The
further you zoom in, the more difficult it is to keep the picture steady. At very long zooms,
a tripod is essential. If you're having trouble keeping your shot steady, it may be possible
to move yourself closer to the subject and then zoom out. This way you'll have essentially
the same framing, but much steadier.
• Zooming is the function everyone loves. It's easy and you can do lots with it, which is why
it's so over-used. The most common advice on using the zoom is use it less. It's a great
tool in moderation, but when most of your shots are zooming in and out, your audience
will feel nauseous.
• As a rule, don't zoom unless there is a reason to. If you want to show both the whole
scene as well as some close-up details, you don't need to have a zoom in. Instead, shoot
 a wide shot, stop recording, zoom in to a close up, and then start recording again. The
result is one shot which cuts cleanly and quickly to another, portraying the same
information as a zoom, but more efficiently.

Focus
• To give all the attention to something.

• To change or be changed so that things can be seen clearly.

• The center of interest or attention.
• Special attention given to somebody/something.
• Focus is all important because it is the gateway to all thinking: Perception

• Auto-focus is strictly for amateurs. Unlike still photography, there is no way auto-focus
can meet the needs of a serious video camera operator.
• Many people find manual focus difficult, but if you want to be any good at all, good focus
control is essential.

• Professional cameras usually have a manual focus ring at the front of the lens housing.
• Turn the ring clockwise for closer focus, anti-clockwise for more distant focus. Consumer
cameras have different types of focus mechanisms — usually a small dial.
• To obtain the best focus, zoom in as close as you can on the subject you wish to focus on,
adjust the ring until the focus is sharp, and then zoom out to the required framing.

Some Focus Jargon

• Soft : Out of focus

• Sharp : In focus
• Depth of Field : The range of distances from the lens at which an acceptably sharp focus
can be obtained
• Pull focus : Adjust the focus to a different point during a shot

How to Use the Manual Focus

• First of all, locate the focus control. Professional cameras usually have a manual focus ring
near the front of the lens housing. Consumer-level cameras usually have a small dial.
• Make sure the camera is set to manual focus.
• Zoom in as tight as you can on the subject you wish to focus on.
 • Adjust the focus ring until the picture is sharp. Turn the ring clockwise for closer focus,
anti - clockwise for more distant focus.
• Zoom out to the required framing — the picture should stay nice and sharp.

• If the picture loses focus when zoomed out, check the back-focus and make sure the
macro focus is not engaged.

Difficult Focus Conditions

• You'll notice that focusing is more difficult in certain conditions. Basically, the more light
coming through the lens, the easier it is to focus. Obviously it will be more difficult to
focus in very low light.

• If you're really struggling with low-light focus, and you can't add more lighting, try these
things:
• If your camera has a filter wheel, make sure you're using the correct low-light filter.
Remove any add-on filters.

• If your camera has a digital gain function, try adding a little gain (note: this compromises
picture quality).

Video Camera Iris

• The iris is an adjustable opening (aperture), which controls the amount of light coming
through the lens (i.e. the "exposure"). The video camera iris works in basically the same
way as a still camera iris -- as you open the iris, more light comes in and the picture
appears brighter. The difference is that with video cameras, the picture in the viewfinder
changes brightness as the iris is adjusted.
• Professional cameras have an iris ring on the lens housing, which you turn clockwise to
close and anticlockwise to open.
• Consumer-level cameras usually use either a dial or a set of buttons. You will probably
need to select manual iris from the menu.

The Correct Exposure

• Before using your manual iris, you need to know what the correct exposure looks like in
your viewfinder. A good start is to set your camera on auto-iris and frame a shot with
nice, even lighting. Notice how bright the picture is, then set the iris to manual. Most
cameras will retain the same exposure as set by the auto-function, which you can adjust
from there as you go. Open and close the iris, then try to set the exposure where it was
before.
 • Always set your iris so that the subject appears correctly exposed. This may mean that
other parts of the picture are too bright or too dark, but the subject is usually more
important.

• Professional cameras have an additional feature called zebra stripes which can help you
to judge exposure.
• Practice is the only way to get exposure right. Record a number of shots in different light
conditions, then play them back and see how good your exposure was. Remember, if
you're not sure about your exposure, try flicking the iris to auto and see what the camera
thinks, then go back to manual. In time, you'll come to trust yourself more than the auto-
iris.

Gain
• Gain is used to amplify signal strength in low-light conditions at the cost of picture
quality. It creates picture noise. The unit is dB.0dB, 3dB, 6dB, 9dB, 12dB, 15dB, 18dB.

Backlight
• A common difficulty with exposure is what to do in uneven lighting situations. The "strong
backlight" scenario is a headache -- this is where your subject is set against a much
brighter background, as in the pictures below...
• In the first example, the camera is set to auto-iris. The camera adjusts the exposure for
the strong backlight, which leaves the subject as a silhouette. Some cameras have a
"backlight" feature which helps with this problem, but it won't work as well as manual iris
control.
• Assuming that you can't change your framing or add more lighting to the subject, the only
option is to open the iris until the subject is exposed correctly.
• This will mean the background is too bright, but it's better than the subject being too dark.
In the second example, the manual iris is opened until the subject is correctly exposed.
• Although this is still far from ideal exposure, it's an improvement on the silhouette effect.
In fact this situation is quite common -- on television you'll often see an outside window
which looks too bright, but you don't usually notice because you're watching the subject
inside.
• Remember, the rule of thumb for iris control is: Set your exposure for the subject.
Everything else is secondary.
How to adjust Video Camera Viewfinder
• This page deals with black and white electronic viewfinders (EVFs), although colour
viewfinders work in basically the same way.
• Different cameras have various options for adjusting the EVF. Consumer camcorders are
usually limited to making focus/sharpness adjustments, whereas professional cameras
have numerous options. Work through the following procedures, ignoring the functions
which aren't available on your camera.

Some notes on electronic viewfinders

• Professional cameras generally use black and white EVFs. Colour EVFs are becoming more
popular with consumer camcorders.
• The EVF is more-or-less WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get ). This means that if
the viewfinder image changes brightness, then the recorded signal changes brightness as
well.
• Once your viewfinder is set up correctly, you can judge your picture quality by what you
see (ie. it's not necessary to use the f-stop indicator to see if your exposure is correct).

• The messages which appear in the viewfinder can give you valuable information. Learn
what they all mean.
• If your viewfinder is fogging up, hold your eye slightly away from the eyepiece. Also, limit
your intake of fluids - this reduces perspiration, which is what causes the fogging.
• Many viewfinder eyepieces can be flipped open, allowing you to stand back from the
camera. This can be useful if you have the camera mounted on a tripod, or if more than
one person wants to look at the viewfinder. It can also help reduce eye fatigue.

To set the brightness and contrast

• Switch the camera to colour bars.
• Adjust the viewfinder brightness and contrast until you see a smooth greyscale from peak
white to black. You should be able to see a dividing line between each bar.

• Switch the camera to picture.

• Check your exposure on a reliable monitor, either by connecting a cable from the camera
output or by doing a test record.
To set the focus/sharpness (dioptre adjustment)
• The "dioptre is the EVF's eyepiece lens. Adjust this to make the viewfinder image as sharp
as possible. This adjustment is usually made either with a ring on the EVF or a sliding
button.
• Choose a subject with plenty of contrast - this makes focus easier.

• Zoom out wide and focus the camera lens normally.

• Adjust the dioptre until you see the clearest image. If necessary, secure the dioptre.

Zebra Stripes
• Zebra stripes, or zebras, are a feature of professional cameras which give an indication of
exposure levels. When activated, diagonal lines appear across any part of the picture
which is approaching over-exposure.

• These lines appear only in the viewfinder/LCD — they are not output from the camera or
recorded.
• If the camera has the option to change between different zebra settings (eg 75% or 100%),
make sure you know which setting you're using, and the resulting effect.

• Use the zebras to guide your iris settings. In general, a small amount of zebras on the
hottest part of the subject is desirable. Practice and experiment with this feature. Be
aware that zebras aren't foolproof — they should be used as a guide only.

White Balance
• White balance basically means colour balance. It is a function which gives the camera a
reference to "true white" — it tells the camera what the colour white looks like, so the
camera will record it correctly. Since white light is the sum of all other colours, the camera
will then display all colours correctly.
• Incorrect white balance shows up as pictures with orange/red or blue tints, as
demonstrated by the following examples:

Most consumer-level camcorders have an "auto-white balance" feature, and this is how most
amateurs operate. The camera performs it's own white balance without any input from the
operator. In fact, very few home-video users are aware of it's existence.
Unfortunately, the auto-white balance is not particularly reliable and it is usually preferable to
perform this function manually.
How to Perform a Manual White Balance
• You should perform this procedure at the beginning of every shoot, and every time the
lighting conditions change. It is especially important to re-white balance when moving
between indoors and outdoors, and between rooms lit by different kinds of lights.
• During early morning and late evening, the daylight colour changes quickly and
significantly (although your eyes don't notice, your camera will).
• Do regular white balances during these periods.

You will need-

• A camera with a manual white-balance function. There should be a "white balance"
button or switch on your camera.
• If your camera has a filter wheel (or if you use add-on filters), make sure you are using the
correct filter for the lighting conditions.
• Point your camera to a pure white subject, so that most of what you're seeing in the
viewfinder is white. The subject should be fairly matte, that is, non-reflective.
• Set your exposure and focus.

• Activate the white balance by pressing the button or throwing the switch. The camera
may take a few seconds to complete the operation, after which you should get a message
(or icon) in the viewfinder. Hopefully this will be telling you that the white balance has
succeeded - in this case, the camera will retain it's current colour balance until another
white balance is performed.

• If the viewfinder message is that the white balance has failed, then you need to find out
why. A good camera will give you a clue such as "colour temperature too high" (in which
case change filters). Also try opening or closing the iris a little.

How to Black Balance

• A black balance is usually done in conjunction with a white balance. The exact sequence
varies between operators but this is a common routine:

• Perform a white balance first.

• Throw the black-balance switch. This should shut the iris down and perform a black
balance in much the same way as the white balance. Some cameras may require you to
close the iris manually first, and you may need to open the iris again when the operation
is complete.
• If you like, perform the white balance again, making a sequence of "white - black - white".
Beam Splitter
• The beam splitter contains various prisms and filters. The role of this device is to separate
the white light that passes through the camera lens into the three light beams—red,
green, and blue, usually referred to as RGB.

Prism Block
Incoming light can be passed through a small prism block.

Color encoder
This device takes the output of each of the three color channels (RGB) and recombines them into
one color signal, including both chrominance* and luminance*.

Camera Image Sensor

Image sensor is a important component of video camera. The function of image sensor is
conversion of light energy to electrical energy. Technically camera image sensor is called “optical
video transducer”
•Pick-up Tube

•charge-coupled device (CCD)

• Complementary metal -oxide semiconductor (CMOS)

How it Works:
•Light passes through the glass and the photosensitive coating, onto the photoconductive layer.
•As light hits the photoconductive layer it causes the change on the target to change in
proportion to relative intensity of the light.
•The video signal is produced as the target is scanned by a beam of electrons

CCD (charge-coupled device)

A charge-coupled device (CCD) is a light -sensitive integrated circuit stores and displays the data
for an image in such a way that each pixel (picture element) in the image is converted into an
electrical charge the intensity of which is related to a color in the color spectrum.
Initially, charge-coupled devices (CCDs) were the only image sensors used in digital cameras. They
had already been well developed through their use in astronomical telescopes, scanners, and
video camcorders.
Broadcast Standards
The National Television System Committee was established in 1940 by the United States Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) to resolve the conflicts that arose between companies over
the introduction of a nationwide analog television system in the United States.
NTSC (National Television Standards Committee) the first color TV broadcast system was
implemented in the United States in 1953. This was based on the NTSC - National Television
System Committee standard. NTSC runs on 525 lines & 30 frames/second . It used in USA ,
Canada, Japan and Latin America.
Phase Alternating Line standard was introduced in the early 1960's and implemented in most
European countries except for France . The PAL standard utilizes a wider channel bandwidth than
NTSC which allows for better picture quality . A standard used almost everywhere else in the
world , has the ability to display 625 lines of resolution with a frame rate of 25 frames per second.
The SECAM - Sequential Couleur Avec Memoire or Sequential Color with Memory standard was
introduced in the early 1960 ' s and implemented in France . SECAM uses the same bandwidth as
PAL but transmits the color information sequentially . SECAM runs on 625 lines & 25
frame/second . is used sparingly around the world and can be found in France, parts of Greece,
Eastern Europe, Russia, Africa and a few other parts of the world.

VIDEO CAMERA LENS

Camera lens
• Lenses work similarly to the human eye and allow to control the amount of light that
enters the camera.
• A lens is a tool used to bring light to a fixed focal point.
• A camera lens is an optical body that features a single lens or an assembly of lenses that
mounts to a camera body.
• In a Film camera the lens send light to the film strip, while in the digital camera, the lens
directs light to the digital sensor.
• In simple, lens is a curved of glass that causes light rays to bend.
• Glass is denser than the air.
• Light glows down at the point where it enters the lens.
 • Inside each lens is a series of convex and concave optical elements that work together to
bend light and refract it into a single sharp focal point.
• Some lenses and interchangeable, while others are built into the construction of the
camera body.
• Lenses bend light so that it can be projected and controlled in proper focus and size at a
specific point behind the lens where a light – sensitive material record or transmit the
image.

• Simply, simple lens falls into two basic categories: Concave and Convex.

Concave lens
• Lens that possesses at least one surface that curves inwards.
• Lenses which are thinner at the center than at the edges.
• Bends light rays away from the centre of the lens.
• It is a diverging lens,that it spreads out light rays that have been refracted through it.

Convex Lens
• Lens that converges rays of light that convey parallel to its principal axis.

• Converges the incident rays towards the principal axis.

• Lenses are thick across the middle and thin at the lower and upper edges.
• Edges are curved outwards rather than inward.
• Bend light towards the centre

Compound Lens
• Modern Film and Video Camera lenses are composed of more than one piece of glass and
are called Compound lens.

• A lens system consisting of two or more lenses on the same axis.

• In various optical instruments like microscope, telescope, two or more lenses are
combined to increase the magnification of the image and to erect image of an object.
• Reduce aberrations or defects caused by using a single lens.

• Compound lenses used in video camera and for films combine several concave and convex
lenses.
 Video Camera Lens Basics
Focal length
• The distance between the optical center of the lens, and the camera sensor or film plane
when focused at infinity.
• The optical center is where light rays converge inside the body of lens.
• The focal length defines the magnification and field of view for given lens.

• Every lens has specific focal length, or magnification number, which is measured in
millimeters (mm).
• This is normally displayed on the lens itself.
• The area that lens is able to capture.
• The longer the focal length, the higher the magnification, for example a lens with a focal
length of 24mm will offer less magnification than a lens with a focal length of 200mm.
• The longer the focal length, the narrower the field of view and shorter focal lengths
capture a wider image.
• Camera lenses come in all shapes and sizes and are designed for different shooting
scenarios.
• Prime lenses have set focal length whereas zoom lenses have variable focal length.
• A basic way of understanding focal length is the magnification of lens.
• A longer lens will give a narrow image that is closer to the subject, whereas a wider lens
will capture more of the area from further back.
• Any lens with a focal length 35mm to 55mm is categorized as “standard” focal length
• This is because the human eye has similar field of view, there is a vast discussion on the
topic, and some even say a more accurate human focal length to be closer to 22mm.

• When it comes to camera lenses, your focal length will not only allow you to capture
footage with different visual properties, but those properties will change the emotional
effect the footage or image will have on the viewer.
• There are both practical and creative reasons for choosing a specific photo or video
camera lens, so understand focal length might be the most important visual tool for a
videographer or cinematographer to understand.
Why is focal length important?
• Focal length dictates what part of the image is in focus, isolating elements in either the
foreground, middle ground or background.

• It generates visual context for shots.

• It alters the visual properties of shot.
Angle of View
• Angle of view is directly associated with focal length of the lens.

• The longer the focal length (in mm) the narrower the angle of view ( in degrees).
• Smaller focal length covers wider area of view.
• Angle of view describes how much of the scene in front of the camera will be captured
by the camera sensor.

• In technical terms, it is the angular extent of the scene captured on the sensor, measured
diagonally.
• Angle of view is entirely determined by both the focal length of the lens and the format
of the camera sensor.
• Different lenses of equal focal length will always have the same angle of view when used
with the same-size sensor.
• In simple terms angle of view refers to the maximum angle that lens can see, based on a
combination of focal length and camera sensor.
Aperture

• Aperture describes the light intensity of a specific image or set of images.

• Lens aperture controls light that passes through the lens to image sensor or film.
• This is measured in F-Stops (estimated measurement) or T- Stops (exact measurement).
• T-Stop and F-Stop are not the same, though they are commonly mixed up or used in place
of one another.
• Professional filmmakers deal with T- Stops.
• While many digital videographers/cinematographers and indie filmmakers use the term
F-Stop, it really depends on the lens he/she is working with.

• The lower the stop number…… The higher the aperture (wider the opening)
 • That means T 2 is higher than a T 8. That’s because the aperture is wider, and therefore
lets in more light.
• Higher light intensity = Higher Stop number.

• Camera lenses with higher stop ratings and wider openings allow more light, which means
that cameraman can film in darker locations.
• Aperture range of a lens is expressed by the lens ratio (focal length divided by max
aperture)

• An f-stops (or f-number) is the ratio of the lens focal length divided by the diameter of the
entrance pupil of the aperture.
• The aperture is physical opening of the lens diaphragm. The amount of light that the
aperture allows into the lens is functionally represented by the f-stop.

Depth of Field
• Depth of field refers to how much of your image is in focus and more specifically the area
of acceptable focus.
• DOF is the distance between the nearest and farthest objects in a scene that appear
acceptably sharp in an image. The range of distance within which all objects will be in
acceptable sharp focus.
• It is an area in front of and behind the principle point of focus that will also be in
acceptable focus.
• A shallow depth of field will give you a blurred background, while a large depth of field
will keep everything in focus so we can see everything around us.
• DOF is as important as composition or picking a focal length.

• A large aperture (e.g. f/2) will result in one thing being in focus and the rest of the image
will be blurred. This is known as minimum DOF.
• A smaller aperture means everything is in focus (e.g. f/22). This is known as maximum
DOF.

• It is how you set the level of intimacy in a story or how you direct where the audience be
putting their focus in the frame.
• It’s the emotion, the punctuation, and the eyes of the story in filmmaking.
• The aperture is the setting that beginners typically use to control DOF.
 • The wider the aperture (smaller f-number f/1.4 to f/4), the shallower the DOF. On the
contrary, the smaller the aperture (large f-number f/11 to f/22) the deeper the depth of
field.

Aspect Ratio
• Aspect ratio is the relationship between width and height of an image.

• It is usually written as two numbers separated by a colon (4:3)

• It can also be written with an ‘x’ between the numbers.
• For an x:y aspect ratio, the image is x units wide and y units high.
• One can easily visualize any aspect ratio by allocating units to the width and height of an
image.
• The aspect ratio is often determined by the form factor of the camera’s film/image sensor,
which is practically always rectangular.
• Widely used aspect ratios include 1.85:1 and 2.39:1 in film

• 4:3 (1.3:1) and 16:9 (1.7:1) in television.

• 3:2 in still camera photography.
• Video cameras come with variety of aspect ratio settings.
• This allows to decide which aspect ratio one would like to record the video.

Common Aspect Ratios

• 1:1
• 4:3

• 16:9
• 3:2
• 21:9
• 9:16
Storage Aspect Ratios
• For digital files there are two types of AR.
• The first and easiest to understand, is the storage aspect ratio, which is simply ratio of
horizontal resolution to vertical resolution.

• For example, a standard NTSC DVD has a storage AR of 1.5:1 (720/480 = 1.5:1), while a
typical PAL DVD has a storage AR of 1.25 (720 / 576 = 1.25)

Types of Camera Lens

Prime Lens
• A telephoto lens is a long-focus lens that allows cameraman to utilize a focal length that
is in fact shorter than the lens’ physical length.
• A telephoto lens increases focal length.
• It’s most commonly used to show far away objects with accurate perspective and with a
level of precise detail that was once only possible with close range photography.

• The advantage is that you can keep more distance between you and your subject.
 • You can capture distant objects without needing to physically move.
• Disadvantages – often heavy and bulky. Only subject will appear in focus, while most of
the background and foreground will be blurry.

Wide angle Lens

• Any lens with a set focal length that is shorter than the length of the sensor or film
(measured diagonally)
• For a full frame sensor, wide angle focal length would be anything below 35mm.

• Often any lens with a focal length that fall between 35mm to 24mm can be categorized
as a wide-angle lens.
• Anything between 24mm to 18mm is considered as ultra wide angle lens.
• Below 18mm enters fisheye lens territory.

• Wide angle lens has a short focal length and thus a wider field of view.
Zoom Lens
• A lens in which the image size can be varied continuously while the image remains in
focus.
• Any lens with a variable focal length.

• It can be zoomed in to transform the focal length and, therefore, the field of view.
• This magnifies or demagnifies the subject to bring them ‘closer to’ or ‘further from’ the
audience.
• It differs from prime lens which has a fixed focal length.

• Zoom lenses always feature two focal lengths in the name which indicate the shortest and
longest focal lengths in relation to the ful frame sensor.
• Zoom ratio is simply the ratio of the shortest and longest ranges of zoom lens.
• 18-55MM lens has a ratio of 0.33, or about 1:3.

• Zoom ratios have no connection to field of view, but merely express the range between
short and long.
Parafocal Lens
• A fisheye lens is a type of ultra wide angle lens that distorts the scene or subject to create
a hemispherical or wide panoramic.
 • It produces a 180 degree angle of view or larger which is projected as a circle within the
image frame.
• The image is highly distorted and this will be more prominent depending on how close
objects are to the lens and where in the frame they are located.
• Distortion is annoying a lot of times, but not always. It is an advantage for the fish eye
lens.
• The distortion gives it a more abstract yet dynamic aesthetics.

• They are primarily used for landscape, artistic and extreme sports coverage.
Macro Lens
• A macro lens is a camera lens designed for capturing small subjects at a very close
distances.

• They can focus much nearer than normal lenses, allowing to fill the frame with subject
and capture more details.
• There are two important distinctions between macro lens and a regular lens.
• A macro lens increases the magnification of the subject to make it look bigger.
• They typically project a 1:1 ratio, meaning the subject appears the exact same size as it is
in real life. Some macro lenses also allow for the subject to appear bigger than their actual
size.
• Secondly, macro lenses have a shorter minimum focus distance than a regular lens.
(around 30cm)

• This means that cameraman can get close to the subject and still stay in focus to capture
as much details as possible.
• Macro lenses are best used in well-lit environment.

VIDEO CAMERA FILTERS

A filter is a device used to remove unwanted parts from something.

A piece of colored glass used with a camera to hold back some types of light.
Filters help minimize glare and reflections, enhance colors, reduce light coming into the
lens, and more.
Camera filters are transparent or translucent optical elements which are either attached
to the front of the lens or included as part of the lens housing.
Filters alter the properties of light before it reaches the CCD/CMOS (Image sensor)
Filters can be used to correct problems with light or to create certain effects.
Each lens filter serves a specific purpose, as each one is built to deliver a specific effect
that can help enhance the final look of an image.
Use caution when using a filter in a way that draws attention to itself as an effect.
Combined with all other elements of image-making, filters make visual statements,
manipulate emotions and thought, and make believable what otherwise would not be.

They get the viewer involved.

Filter Planning
Filter effects can become a key part of the “look” of a production, if considered in the
planning stages.
They can also provide a crucial last-minute fix to unexpected problems, if you have them
readily available.

Where possible, it is best to run advance tests for pre-conceived situations when time
allows.

COMMON TYPES OF FILTERS

Neutral density (ND)
A color- neutral filter which absorbs light evenly throughout the visible spectrum.
Used to reduce the amount of light coming through the lens in strong lighting situations.
When it is desirable to maintain a particular lens opening for sharpness or depth-of-field
purposes, or simply to obtain proper exposure when confronted with too much light
intensity, use neutral density (ND).
ND filters are denoted by (Optical) Density value.
Density is defined as the log, to base 10, of the Opacitance.

Opacitance means degree of absorption.

ND filters are also available in combination with other filters.

Ultra Violet (UV)

Video cameras are sensitive to both visible light and ultra violet (UV) light.
UV is invisible to humans but it can create a blue tinge and/or washed-out effect on video,
especially outside.
UV filter removes UV light while leaving visible light intact.

This is most often outdoors, especially at high altitudes, where the UV-absorbing
atmosphere is thinner; and over long distances, such as marine scenes.
It can show up as a bluish color cast with color film, or it can cause a low-contrast haze
that diminishes details, especially when viewing far-away objects, in either color or black-
and-white.
UV filters absorbs UV light generally without affecting light in the visible region.
UV filters are also commonly used as a protective filter for lens.

Polarizing
A special type of lens/filter which removes polarized light, reducing the washed-out effect
sometimes created by reflected light.

This results in more saturated, vibrant colors.

Polarized filters are usually mounted with a rotational adjustment to align the
polarization.
Polarizers are most useful for increasing general outdoor color saturation and contrast.
Polarizers can darken a blue sky, a key application, on color as well as on black-and-white
film, but there are several factors to remember when doing this.
Polarization is also angle-dependent.
Polarizers can also control unwanted reflections from surfaces such as glass and water.

Diffusion
Effectively blurs the image for a slightly soft look.
A mild diffusion filter can be used to soften faces (removes wrinkles etc.).

A stronger filter can be used to create a dream-sequences effect.

Color Conversion/Correction/ Compensating
Adjust the color temperature of light.
Color Conversion filters are used to correct for sizeable differences in color temperature
between film and the light source.
Light balancing filters are used to make minor corrections in color temperature. They are
often used in combination with various neutral density filters for exposure control.
Color Compensating filters are used to make adjustments to the red, blue or green
characteristics of light.
Star Effect
Makes single points of light stretch out in various star patterns.
This effect is created by numerous fine etches in the filter.

It can be used to give dramatic, sophisticated or glamorous look to the image.

Star filters, like “stars”, streaking outward from a central light source.
This can make lighting within the scene take on a more glittering appearance.