Introduction to Biology: reason why the earth is cooling.

Origin and Properties of Life formed/molded as it is today.

Major Branches of Biology: 4. Spontaneous Generation

Theory – Suggests that life is
Zoology – Study of Animals generated spontaneously from c. Louis Pasteur [Reinacted
inanimate objects. There are experiment of Spallanzani]
Botany – Study of Plants three people that tried to – utilized two set-ups but with
prove this theory: swan-neck flasks. Ended the
Microbiology – Study of debate of Abiogenesis and
Microorganisms a. Aristotle’s Meat Biogenesis.
Experiment – says that there is only a
Genetics – Study of Genes – a piece of meat was left in certain temperature where the
the open air, only to be seen quality of the product remains
Anatomy – Structure with maggots after several the same while the
days. microorganisms die.
Morphology - Measurement
or Forms of an organism. b. Helmont’s Rat Experiment
– wheat and grains were put
Physiology – Study of how in a container and it attracted
certain structures and forms rats.
happen.
c Needham’s Broth
Taxonomy – From the word Experiment
‘Taxon’ that means scientific – broth was boiled, cooled,
naming an organism. and later seen with organisms 6. Chemical Evolution Theory
in the broth. All of this was – Says that earth was a
Systematics – Classifying an done while the container is primordial base that has
organism based on anatomy, open primordial soup in one spot,
morphology, genetics, that: collision of atoms made
ecology, etc. 5. The Biogenesis Theory – different biomolecules. Then
Suggests that life came from the collision of biomolecules
Ecology – Study of life. An organisms cannot be made different nucleic acids
interactions between living created without a parent and that formed DNA.
and non-living organisms. organism. There are three ___________________________
___________________________ people that recreated the
experiments: PROPERTIES OF LIFE
THE ORIGIN OF LIFE:
Known Theories a. Francesco Redi [Recreated
Meat Experiment] 1. Movement – Movement of
1. Divine Creation Theory – – utilized three set-ups. certain species from one place
There is a single supreme Uncovered, partially covered, to another.
being, God, who created all and fully covered.
organisms. 2. Growth and Development
– Growth is the physical
2. Theory of Panspermia – A process, like an infant to a
particular asteroid that hit toddler, while Development
Earth has components vital for involves a lot of physiological
b. Lazzaro Spallanzani
making it habitable. processes such as milk teeth to
[Recreated Broth Experiment]
temporary teeth, or zygote to
– utilized two set-ups.
3. Theory of Catastrophism – embryo.
Covered and uncovered till
Catastrophes such as
earthquakes & eruptions is the 3. Irritability – Of an
organism being able to
respond to stimuli. Examples – Cells are same in chemical
are makahiya plant and venus 1670 – Discovery of living cells composition.
fly traps. (protozoa) – All energy flow of life occurs
within the cells
4. Reproduction – May it be 1683 – First observation of
sexual or asexual. zooplanktons ^ Still a theory cus it’s not
established/proven like laws.
5. Evolution – Adaptation of 1833 – Discovery & Types of Cells
organisms overtime in their observation of the nucleus
habitat as certain traits 1. PROKARYOTIC CELL
becomes common in the 1839 – Formulation of cell – Found in 2 kingdoms:
population. theory Archaea & Bacteria.
– Divides primarily via binary
6. Metabolism – How 1845 – Reworking of cell fission.
organisms acquire nutrients theory – Lacks membrane-bound
organelles.
7. Homeostasis – Maintains 1855 – Completion of cell – DNA is not enclosed within
equilibrium theory a membrane & is a singular
___________________________ circular chromosome.
Important People – DNA not associated with
Parts of the Microscope histone proteins.
a. Matthias Schleiden – states
that plants are composed of PARTS OF PROKARYOTIC
cells CELLS

b. Theodore Schwann – states 1. Cell Wall – gives the cell its

that animals are composed of shape, acts as a protective
cells though the shape of the cover and is used for
cell is different. identifying the identity of the
cell.
c. Rudolf Virchow – states that
cells came from pre-existing 2. Capsule – composed of
cells. lipid components, allows cell
to adhere to surface and
The Cell Theory protects bacteria from
– All organisms are made up phagocytes.
a. Mechanical Parts – Coarse
of
and fine adjustment knob,
1 or more cells. 3. The Nucleoid – The large
arm, inclination joint,
– Cell is the basic unit of life of circular strand of DNA of the
revolving nosepiece, base,
all living things. organism.
stage, etc. Adjustment and
– All cells are produced by the – Located throughout the cell
support.
division of pre-existing cells. membrane of the cell.
– May contain bacterial
b. Illumination Parts –
The MODERN Cell Theory plasmids
Mirror. Light sources.
– All living things are made
up 4. The Flagella -- A whip-like
c. Magnifying parts – Ocular
of cells. protrusion located on the
piece, objectives.
– The cell is the structural & surface of the cell
___________________________
functional unit of life. – Enables the cell to move
– All cells arise from pre – Not present on all organisms
TIMELINE of Cell Theory
existing cells. – has adhesives that stick to
– Cells contain hereditary surfaces.
1665 – Discovery & first
info.
observation of cells
 – Contains membrane
bounded organelles
– DNA are associated with
histone proteins
– DNA is enclosed by the
nucleus

4 FLAGELLA TYPES

Monotrichous – only one side

of the cell has a flagella.

Amphitrichous – there is one

flagella on both sides of the
cell.

Lophotrichous – numerous
flagella are present on one
end.

Peritrichous – flagella is
found throughout the body
and is randomly placed.

5. The Pilus – A hair-like

protrusion located throughout
the surface of the cell
– May function for adhesion to
surface
– Composed of oligo proteins
– Related to the colonization
and infection of the cell
-Needed for bacterial
conjugation.

Bacterial Conjugation – A
process in which one
bacterium transfers genetic
material to another bacterium
through direct physical
contact. It's a way for bacteria
to share and exchange genetic
information, usually in the
form of plasmids.

2. EUKARYOTIC CELL
– Are found in four kingdoms:
Animalia, Plantae, Fungi and
Protista
– DNA is found in multiple
chromosomes
PARTS OF EUKARYOTIC – Produces the vesicles which – The number is dependent on
CELLS are transported throughout the type of cell
the cell – Contains its own DNA and
1. Nucleus ribosomes
– Known as the control center 5. Vesicles
of the cell. – Short-lived membrane
10. Chloroplast
– It is responsible for storing enclosed sac.
– Present only for
the genetic information of the – May be formed by the
photosynthetic eukaryotic
cell. smooth endoplasmic
cells (often in plants and some
– It is also the main site for the reticulum and the Golgi
bacteria).
transcription of DNA (Central apparatus.
Dogma) and can exhibit – Responsible for carrying out
– Needed in membrane
various shapes photosynthesis.
transport systems
– Composed of: Nucleolus, – Contains pigments known as
Nuclear Pores, Chromatin, chlorophyll.
6. Vacuole
and Nuclear Envelope – Has its own DNA and
– Long lived membrane
– It has 3 shapes. Rounded, ribosomes.
enclosed sac
enlarged, and lobed
– Responsible for the storage
THE ENDOSYMBIOTIC
of different cellular
2. Ribosome THEORY
components
– Complexes composed of – “isang bidabidang cell
– Needed in the regulation of
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and nagproduce ng sarili niyang
water balance
proteins energy tapos sabi ng isa pang
– Can be modified as a food or
– Responsible for the cell pano kaya kapag kinain
contractile vacuole
translation of protein kita, so ayon minukbang niya
– Larger in plant cells as
– Amount is dependent on yung cell.”
compared to animal cells
cellular activity
– Classified as free and bound
ribosomes 7. Lysosome
– A special type of vesicle
which functions for cell
3. Endoplasmic Reticulum
protection
- Classified as the Rough and – contains acidic enzymes
Smooth Endoplasmic – Responsible for digesting
Reticulum bacteria and worn out
- Classification is based on the organelles
presence of ribosomes – Needed in the autophagy or
- Rough Endoplasmic apoptosis of the cell
Reticulum
8. Peroxisome
– Responsible for producing – houses enzymes which are
the proteins for export needed for oxidation reactions
-Smooth Endoplasmic – Needed for cell
Reticulum detoxification process
– Responsible for producing – Breaks down fatty acids and
lipids amino acids

4. Golgi Apparatus 9.The Mitochondria

– Has a distinct receiving (cis) – The powerhouse of the cell
and exporting (trans) ends – responsible for the
– Responsible for accepting production of energy in the
the proteins from the ER and form of adenosine
repackaging them triphosphate (ATP)
– Aids in the regulation of the
cell surface tension
The Flagella and Cilia
– Hair-like structures present
in some cells.
– Composed of 9 pairs of
microtubules arranged in a
circle of 2 more in center.
– Has a basal body which is
also composed of
microtubules.
– Responsible for movement.

The Centrosome
-Contains the centrioles at the
center.
-Composed of 9 triplets of
microtubules arranged in a
ring.
-Usually duplicated before cell
division.
-Releases microtubules needed
for cell division.
-Not present in all cells.

The Plant Cell Wall

– Responsible for giving
mechanical strength to the
plant body.
– Glues the plant cells
together.
– Controls the actual shape of
the plant cell.
– Acts as a major protective
covering for pathogens.
– Primarily composed of
cellulose.

The Cell Wall structure

– middle lamella
– primary walls
– plasma membrane
TISSUES
– A group of cells with similar structure and function
– Can be classified into 4 types (animals) and 3 types (plants)

ANIMAL TISSUES __________________________

Type 1 - EPITHELIAL TISSUE

– Lines the body surface (internal and external)
– Covers the internal and external surface of the body
– Can be classified according to the number of cellular layers present
– Can be classified according to its cellular shape
– Has two distinct surfaces: the basal and free surface
– Forms the glands of the body

CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES

According to LAYERS:

a. Simple
– Only one layer of cells

b. Stratified
– Two or more cell layers

c. Pseudostratified
– Composed of a single layer of cells with varying height
– The nucleus of individual cells are found in different levels
– May contain mucus secreting cells and cilia
– Specialized for the secretion of mucus
– Usually found in the lining of the upper respiratory tract

d. Transitional
– Composed of multiple layers of cells
– The cellular shape will be dependent on the presence of fluids in the system
– Specialized for the protection of the underlying cells
– Usually found in the lining of the urinary bladder, ureter, and superior urethra

According to CELL SHAPE:

a. Squamous
– Composed of flat shaped cells
– Connected closely via gap junctions
– Specialized for diffusion, secretions, and protection
– Usually found on blood vessels, alveoli, and capillaries

b. Cuboidal
– Composed of cube shaped cells with a large, spherical nuclei
– Usually arranged in a circular manner
– Specialized for secretions and absorption
– Usually found in kidney tubules, ducts, and the secretory layer of glands

c. Columnar
– Composed of tall shaped cells with oval nuclei
– May contain mucus-secreting cells and cilia
– Specialized for absorption and secretions of mucus and enzyme
– Usually found in the lining of the digestive system

Type 2 - CONNECTIVE TISSUE

– Found throughout the body and is responsible for connecting the tissues
– Found throughout the body
– Composed of large amounts of extracellular materials (matrix)
– Usually formed by different protein fibers (collagen, reticular, and elastic)
– Can be classified into three: connective tissue proper, supporting connective tissue, and fluid connective
tissue

CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES

a. CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER

> Lose Connective Tissue
Areolar

Adipose

Reticular

> Dense Connective Tissue

Dense Regular

Dense Irregular
b. SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE
> Cartilage
Hyaline

Fibrocartilage

Elastic Cartilage

> Bone
Spongy and Compact bone
– Composed of a hard and bony matrix
– Cellular components are termed as osteo connected to a suffix which is related to its
– function (-cyte, -blast, or –clast)
– The matrix is usually mineralized
– The mineralization of the matrix is the basis for its strength and rigidity
– Located in all of the bones of the body

>Blood
– Composed of a liquid matrix
– Can be classified into three cellular components: Erythrocytes, Leukocytes, And Thrombocytes
– Responsible for transportation and protection
– Located inside the blood vessels

ERYTHOCYTES
– Usually appears as a biconcave disc under the microscope
– The cells are anucleated and lacks cell organelles
– Contains the protein hemoglobin
– Needed for the transportation of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other nutrients needed by the cells

LEUKOCYTES
– May be classified as the granulocytes and the agranulocytes
– Can be classified into five different cells
– Unlike the erythrocytes, it contains a nucleus which is very evident under the microscope
– Responsible for protecting the body from invasions and infections

THROMBOCYTES
– The smallest blood cell present in the body
– Similar to the erythrocytes, they are also anucleated
– Usually last about 7-10 days inside the body of the organism
– Required in the response and repair to injured tissues and is mainly responsible for the clotting of the
blood

Blood Cells

Type 3 - MUSCLE TISSUES

– Has the ability to contract or shorten. Enables the movement of the body.
– The length of the cells present is usually greater than its diameter
– Also called as fibers as it resembles tiny threads
– Can be classified according to its movement: voluntary or involuntary
a. Skeletal Muscle
– Exhibits a VOLUNTARY movement
– Cells present are usually long and cylindrical with multiple nuclei located at the edges of the cell
– Has the presence of striations due to the arrangement of the different muscle proteins
– Usually found attached to the bones of the body which enables body movement.

b. Cardiac Muscle
– Exhibits an INVOLUNTARY movement and exhibits striations. Each individual cells mononucleated,
branching, and connected to one another via the intercalated discs
– It is primarily needed for pumping of blood from the heart to the other parts of the body

c. Smooth Muscle
– lacks striations
– typically found in hour stomach, intestines etc.

Type 4 - NERVOUS TISSUE

– Composed to two cells: the nerve cell and the glial cells
– Does not undergo cell division
– Allows organism to preserve memories
– basically, the neurons, found in nerves, nervous system, spinal cord
PLANT TISSUES
 Dermal Tissue – Lines the body surface
 Ground Tissue – Provides a compact and firm structure and enables metabolic functions.
 Vascular Tissue – Responsible for the transportation of materials (water and sugars).

I. Meristem
- regions of undifferentiated cells found in plant tissues. They continuously divide and produce new cells,
allowing for growth and development throughout the plant's life.
- there are 3 types of meristems.
•Apical Meristem: Found at the tips of stems and roots, responsible for primary growth in length.
•Lateral (or Axillary) Meristem: Found in the axils of leaves and stems, contributing to lateral growth.
•Intercalary Meristem: Located at the base of leaves or nodes, aiding in regrowth after damage.

Its Role in plant growth

•Primary Growth: Apical meristems elongate stems and roots, resulting in the plant's height and depth.
•Secondary Growth: Lateral meristems contribute to growth in width, leading to thicker stems and roots.
1. Zone of Division:
 This is the region at the tip of the root, just behind the root cap.
 It's where active cell division, also known as mitosis, occurs.
 New cells are continuously produced in this zone, providing cells for both the zone of
elongation and the zone of differentiation.
2. Zone of Elongation:
 Located just above the zone of division.
 In this zone, the newly formed cells from the zone of division elongate and increase
in size.
 This elongation is what contributes to the lengthening of the root.
3. Zone of Differentiation (or Maturation):
 This zone is above the zone of elongation.
 In this region, cells begin to differentiate into specific cell types with distinct
functions.
 Cells mature and adopt their specialized roles, forming the various tissues that make
up the root.

PLANT CELL TISSUE

Parenchyma
- The fundamental cell found in both the dermal and ground tissue
- These are living cells which has a thin primary cell wall
- May contain chlorophyll to carry out photosynthesis (chlorenchyma)
- Mainly concerned in the vegetative activities of the plant body
- Usually found in the stem, leaves, and roots

Collenchyma
- Living cells which have a much thicker cell wall than the parenchyma.
- Cells are usually elongated.
- Primarily concerned in providing mechanical support for the growing plant.
- Can be found directly below the dermal tissue of leaves and stems.

Sclerenchyma
- Dead cells during its maturity.
- Cells walls are highly thick and usually has a secondary cell wall.
- Cell walls are strengthened by lignin.
- Mainly responsible for providing strong mechanical support, rigidity, and flexibility for the plant body.
- Usually found around the vascular bundles of stems and roots.