WRITING
KEY TERMINOLOGY:
Genre = a piece of writing with a recognisable structure which may be
used by a particular section of society or within a particular profession. It
is likely to have a clearly-discernible structure and layout and may
employ instantly recognisable language. Ex: newspaper reports, recipes,
horoscopes, travel guides, memos, etc.
Script = a system of writing which employs a set of recognisable
characters, such as Roman, Cyrillic, Greek, Arabic, Chinese, etc.
Product approach (see below)
Process approach (see below)
Writing to learn = means that the task requires students to write but the
task does not develop the skill of writing in any overt way
Learning to write = means that the writing task develops in some way
their knowledge of genre, of the kind of language used in the task and
appropriate writing processes for this kind of task; the students are
helped in the process of learning to write
Task achievement = the extent to which a learner’s production achieves
its purpose in terms of transmitting or requesting information, or
answering a given question
Cohesion = the use of grammatical or lexical means to achieve logically-
ordered text; it is often governed by such things as use of tense, linkers,
reference devices, etc.
Coherence = to what extent a text ‘makes sense’, i.e., has any logical
progression from sentence to sentence
Accuracy = the extent to which language follows the ‘rules’ of the
standard variety of a language; in language teaching, it is linked to
grammatical form
Complexity = a learner’s language can be considered complex if it shows
features of more advanced usage than more basic
Paragraph = a subdivision of a larger text, (usually) comprised of a
number of sentences; usually begin with a topic sentence which is then
developed
APPROACHES:
1. Product (aka The Model Text) = an approach to writing where the focus
is on the final text produced, often after analysing and imitating a model
text of the same sort
2. Process = an approach to writing where the stages followed in order to
produce the final text are of paramount importance; emphasises
creativity and unpredictability of writing
Stages:
Pre-writing (specifying the task and generating/collecting ideas for
content)
Focussing (identifying the central idea, the viewpoint, the purpose,
the reader and the appropriate form)
Composing/drafting
Evaluating and revising (SS produce the first draft, T makes
suggestions)
Editing and redrafting (SS produce ~3 more drafts following T’s
feedback)
Publication (more people should read the final text, not only the T)
Cons:
Quite a lot of time is spent on producing one piece of writing, and not all
SS may value it. Plus, for some types of writing (e.g., formal letters, etc.),
it is not the most efficient way of production.
3. Genre = an approach to writing where the emphasis is on identifying
appropriate genres for the learners, on authenticity in the texts, on the
communication and style aspects of each type of text, and on the effect
on the target reader
Stages:
Exposing SS to examples of the genre
Analysing the text (social context, purpose, text organisation, and
language features)
Producing partial texts with help from other learners/T)
Construction of SS’ own texts
ASSESSING SS’ WRITING:
- Task achievement
Has the writer covered all elements of the task specified in the rubric
without irrelevancies and within the word count?
- Effect on the reader
Are the ideas clear enough to understand? Given the task, is the writing
engaging and effective? Is the tone suitable for the intended reader?
- Style and genre
Is the overall style and content appropriate to the type of text? The tone?
Does it follow the format for the type of text?
- Organisation
Does the layout follow the format for the type of text? Are there
paragraphs? Is the content and order of these appropriate?
- Cohesion
Does the text “hang together well”? Does the writing ‘flow’? Are linking
devices used accurately? Is their range good?
- Punctuation
- Range and complexity of lexis
Is there a wider or narrower variety of lexical items / collocations /
expressions than you would expect, given the S’s level? Is the writing
repetitive? Does it vary sufficiently?
- Range and complexity of grammar
In relation to the genre, is the variety of verb forms and other structures
good enough? Is the S ‘playing safe’ in their use of compound and
complex sentences, of structures after verbs, of dependent prepositions,
etc.? Are these poor or strong for the level?
- Accuracy of lexis (incl. spelling)
Given the S’s level, are there many errors in terms of collocations,
derivatives, dependent prepositions and the choice and spelling of
lexical items?
- Accuracy of grammar
How good is the S’s control of grammar? Think about verb forms and
other structures, use of determiners (including articles), prepositions,
concord (subject-verb agreement), complex sentences, etc.
ASSESSING TEXTBOOK WRITING TASKS:
- Is it relevant to your students’ needs?
- Is it motivating?
- Does it have a clear communicative purpose?
- Does it exemplify a particular genre?
- Are students provided with opportunities to generate ideas?
- Are students provided with models or guidelines about how the text
should be?
- Is language support available?
- Are the instructions for the task clear?
- Are students given ideas on how to proceed with the task?
- Are students given opportunities to revise and edit their work?
- Is there a clear teaching/learning aim?
- Do students have the possibility of personal input into the task?
- Is the methodology motivating (variety of stages, interaction, materials,
etc.)?
ESSENTIAL WRITING SKILLS (by Pincas, 1982):
- Communication:
Communication between people
Suiting a specific subject
Presenting ideas
- Composition:
Constructing sentences
Using paragraphs
Using linking devices
- Style:
Writing in the 4 major styles, i.e., narrative, descriptive, expository,
argumentative
Achieving the desired degree of formality
Creating the desired emotive tone
SUBSKILLS:
Related to knowledge of genre:
o Organise content in a coherent way
o Select appropriate content for the genre
o Follow established conventions in the organisation and content
o Use paragraphs or other means to clarify organisation
o Make the purpose/message of the text clear
o Lay the text out in an appropriate way
o Organise content logically within paragraphs
o Write in a way that is appropriate to the reader of the text, in terms
of content and style
Related to knowledge of language systems:
o Use punctuation correctly, including hyphens, inverted commas etc.
Use appropriate grammar/vocabulary to express intended meaning
o Get the intended message across
o Write with a high degree of accuracy in lexis and grammar
o Spell correctly
o Use appropriate language to express the message
o Vary the language used to avoid repetition (unless done for effect)
o Use a range of cohesive devices to link the message of the text
(logical, grammatical, lexical)
o Write legibly
o Produce the Roman script
Related to knowledge of writing processes:
o Plan the writing
o Gather any information that is needed, prior to writing
o Revise and edit the text
o Correct errors of content and language
DIFFICULTIES FOR L2 WRITERS:
- Lack of motivation
- Language difficulties
- Difference between writing conventions in English and students’ L1
- Unfamiliarity with script
- Lack of knowledge of the world
- Lack of knowledge of genre to transfer from L1
- Educational interference
- Writing is dull
- Lack of good writing skills in L1
RESPONDING TO STUDENT WRITING
1. Traditional approach: SS do writing as a homework, and T then marks it
(underlines/circles errors, occasionally corrects them, and writes a brief
comment at the end)
Pros:
Writing in real life is a solitary activity
Class time can be spent on more interactive learning activities
Underlining/Circling errors allows the S to self-correct
Supplying corrections provides new language input -> S learns from their
mistakes
Cons:
Such approach emphasises the testing of writing rather than the teaching
of it
There is no support during the writing process
SS usually just look at the final mark & comment without analysing it ->
no learning process
Such feedback is often vague, and S can hardly act on it
2. Negotiating marking criteria
- Questionnaires [Writing, by Hedge]
(Ex: learners’ beliefs regarding writing)
- Reformulating [Writing, pp.137-138, by Hedge]
(SS write a draft together; T rewrites one of the drafts and makes it
better; SS compare the original draft and rewritten one and make
conclusions and changes)
- Conferencing
(A strategy for teaching writing where a teacher provides individualised
support to each learner. This support may consist of helping generate and
organise ideas, guidance about layout and other genre-related issues, and
also linguistic support)
- Establishing what makes a good piece of writing [Writing 3, Unit 7, by Littlejohn]
(SS brainstorm, then look at some examples of writing and assess them
referring to a set of criteria questions, e.g., Does the text achieve its
purpose? It is clear and easy to understand? etc.)
- Establishing priorities [Writing, p.128, by Hedge]
(What do you think is most important in a composition? SS rank items in
the list from 1 to 10, so does the T. They discuss and negotiate then)
- Peer evaluation
(Make sure to structure this kind of activity and follow on it by raising an
awareness of what constitutes effective writing)
- Checklists
(SS and T make a checklist of important points to consider when writing
together. SS then refer to this checklist when doing writing and before
submitting their work)
