SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION 2014

REVIEW NOTES IN SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION - is a special study of modern techniques

in the investigation of serious and specific crimes including murder, homicide,
rape, abortion, robbery, arson kidnapping, blackmail, carnapping and criminal
negligence. The emphasis is on physical evidence rather than an extra judicial
confession. Special crime investigation focuses on specific crimes which by
their nature are difficult and complex to investigate

EXAMPLE OF CASES SUBJECT TO SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION

1. Robbery
2. Arson
3. Kidnapping
4. Abortion
5. Rape
6. Murder
7. Homicide
8. Carnapping
9. Criminal Negligence, Hit and Run cases
10. Drug Cases
11. Bombing
12. Swindling

Successful, high quality crime scene investigation is a simple,

methodological process; it is not rigid; it follows a set of principles and
procedures that are reasonable and ensure that all physical evidence is
discovered and investigated with the result that justice is served.

BASIC CRIME SCENE PROCEDURES

1. Physical Evidence Recognition
2. Documentation
3. Proper Collection, Packaging, Preservation
4. Scene Reconstruction

CRIME SCENE
The only thing consistent about crime scenes is their
inconsistency.

CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION 45

2014 SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION
CLASSIFICATION OF CRIME SCENES ACCORDING TO THE LOCATION
OF THE ORIGINAL CRIMINAL ACTIVITY
1. Primary Crime Scene – this classification of the crime scene
labels the site of the original or first criminal activity
2. Secondary Crime Scene – any subsequent crime scenes are
termed as secondary crime scene

CLASSIFICATION OF CRIME SCENES IS BASED ON THE SIZE

1. Single Macroscopic Crime Scene – is composed of many crime
scenes
For example, a gunshot victim’s body dumped in a field represents
the following crime scenes within the overall crime scene of the
field: the body, the body’s wounds, and the ground around the
body.
2. Microscopic Crime Scene – is more focused on the specific
types of physical evidence found at macroscopic crime scenes
The microscopic crime scenes are the trace evidence on the body,
the gunshot residue around the wound, and the tire tread marks in
the ground next to the body.

OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE CRIME SCENE

1. Type of Crime Committed (homicide, robbery, sexual assault, etc.)
2. Crime Scene Condition (organized or disorganized)
3. Physical Location of the Scene (indoors, outdoors, vehicle, etc.)
4. Type of Criminal Behavior Associated with the Scene (passive or
active)

OBJECTIVES OF ANY CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION

1. Recognize
2. Preserve
3. Collect
4. Interpret
5. Reconstruct all the relevant physical evidence at a crime scene

EXAMPLES OF TYPES OF INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM THE

EXAMINATION OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE IN A CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
1. Information on the Corpus Delicti
This is the determination of the essential facts of an investigation -
the physical evidence, the patterns of the evidence, and the
laboratory examinations of the evidence. The red-brown stains in a

46 CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION 2014
kitchen may be significant to an investigation, but may be more
relevant if their DNA matches that of a victim.
2. Information on the Modus Operandi
Criminals repeat their behavior and a certain behavior becomes a
criminal’s “signature” or preferred method of operation. Burglars
frequently gain entry into scenes using the same techniques.
Bombers will use the same types of ignition devices repeatedly.
3. Linkage of Persons, Scenes, and Objects
The Locard Exchange Principle states that whenever two objects
come into contact, a mutual exchange of matter will take place
between them.
4. Proving or Disproving Witness Statements
Credibility is an important issue with witnesses, victims and
suspects. The presence or absence of certain types of physical
evidence will be useful in the determination of the accuracy of their
statements.
5. Identification of Suspects
Forensic examination is a process of steps: recognition,
identification, individualization and reconstruction. Identification of
a suspect is accomplished by the first three steps that result in an
individualization or determination of the source of an item of
physical evidence.
6. Identification of Unknown Substances
The identification of unknown substances is a common use of
physical evidence. Identification of drugs, poisons and even
bacteria such as anthrax are good examples.
7. Reconstruction of A Crime
This is the final step in the forensic examination process. The
crime scene investigator is frequently more interested in how a
crime occurred than identifying or individualizing the evidence at
the scene. The “how” of the crime scene is more important than
the “who”.
8. Providing Investigative Leads
Physical evidence can provide direct information to an investigator.
However, not all physical evidence frequently provides indirect
information or investigative leads. This is the most important and
significant use of physical evidence in a criminal investigation.

CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION 47

2014 SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION
CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION is not a mechanical process delegated to
“technicians” who go through a series of steps to “process a crime scene”. It is
a dynamic process that requires an active approach by the scene investigator
who must be aware of the linkage principle of the evidence, use scene analysis
and definition techniques, and be able to offer an opinion on the reconstruction
of the scene.

STEPS TO A SCIENTIFIC CRIME SCENE RECONSTRUCTION

RECOGNITION Scene Survey

Documentation,
IDENTIFICATION Collection and
Preservation

Comparison and
INDIVIDUALIZATION Evaluation

Interpretation,
RECONSTRUCTION Reporting and
Presentation

GENERAL CRIME SCENE PROCEDURES

 Scene Management – its components are:
 Information Management
 Manpower Management
 Technology Management
 Logistics Management

48 CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION 2014
Model Type Description Advantages Disadvantages
Minimal
Useful if experience and
Patrol Officers
resources and time
Traditional serve as crime
demand are commitments;
scene technician
relatively low conflicts with
regular duties
Minimal
Continuity,
Specially trained investigative
Crime Scene specialization ,
full-time civilian experience; no
Technician scientific and
personnel global view of
technical training
investigation
Transfer out of
Primary
unit may deplete
Major Crime Full-time , sworn assignment;
investigation
Squad officers increased
resources; only
experience
for major cases
Superior
No investigative
technical and
Lab Crime Laboratory experience;
scientific skills;
Scene Scientist scientists depletes lab
knowledge of
resources
current methods
Police, Advanced Requires
technician, lab scientific, extensive
personnel, technical and resources,
Collaborative
medical investigative comprehensive
Team
examiners, and resources; procedures, and
prosecuting shared continual
authorities responsibilities communication

FIRST RESPONDING OFFICERS

 Police Officers
 Fire Department Personnel
 Emergency Medical Personnel

The first responders must always maintain an open and objective mind
when approaching a crime scene.
Upon arrival, safety is a primary concern.

CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION 49

2014 SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION
When the scene and the victim are safe, the first responders must
begin to thoroughly document their observations and actions at the
scene.

DUTIES OF THE FIRST RESPONDER

1. Assist the victim
2. Search for and arrest the suspect if still on the scene.
3. Detain all witnesses for the purpose of taking their statements.
4. Protect the crime scene.
5. Note and communicate to crime scene investigators all
movements and alterations made to the crime scene.

SECURING THE CRIME SCENE

Level 1: Overall Scene Security for Restriction

of General Public
Media

Level 2: Restriction to
Official Business

Level 3: Target Area (High

Security)

Command Center

50 CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION 2014
CRIME SCENE SURVEY

GUIDELINES FOR CRIME SCENE SURVEY OR “WALK-THROUGH”

1. Use the walk-through to mentally prepare a reconstruction theory
that can and should be changed as the scene investigation
progresses
2. Note any transient (temporary) or conditional (the result of an
action) evidence that requires immediate protection or processing
3. Be aware of weather conditions and take precautions if anticipated
4. Note all points of entry or exit and paths of travel within the crime
scene that may require additional protection. Be aware of
alterations or contaminations of these areas by first responder
personnel.
5. Record initial observations of who, what, where, when , and how
6. Assess the scene for personnel, pre-cautions, or equipment that
will be needed and notify superior officers or other agencies as
required

CRIME SCENE DOCUMENTATION

 Taking Notes at the Crime Scene
Effective notes as part of an investigation provide a
written record of all of the crime scene activities.
The notes are taken as the activities are completed to
prevent possible memory loss if notes are made at a later time.
A general guideline for note taking is to consider the
who, what, when, where, why, and how, and specifically include:
a. Notification information
b. Arrival information
c. Scene description
d. Victim’s description
e. Crime scene team

VIDEOTAPING THE CRIME SCENE

Videotaping a crime scene has become a routine documentation
procedure. Its acceptance is widespread, due to the “three-dimensional”
portrayal of the scene and increased availability of affordable equipment with
user-friendly features like zoom lens and compact size.

Process that should be followed for Effective Videotaping of Crime Scenes

1. Introduce the video
2. Begin with the scene surroundings.
CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION 51
2014 SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION
3. General orientation of the scene.
4. Victim’s viewpoint.
5. Camera techniques
6. Original videos constitute evidence and should not be edited or
changed

PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE

The purposes of still photography documentation of the crime
scene are to:
1. provide a true and accurate pictorial record of the crime scene
and physical evidence present
2. records the initial condition of the scene
3. provides investigators and others with a record that can be
analyzed or examined
4. serves as a permanent record for legal concerns

A systematic, organized method for recording the crime scene and

pertinent physical evidence is best achieved by proceeding from general to
specific guidelines.

General or Overall Photos

Midrange Photos

Close-up Photos

Lists of Basic Equipment needed for Photographic Documentation

 Camera
 Normal lens (50 to 60 mm)
 Wide angle lens (28 to 35 mm)
 Close up lens with accessories
 Electronic flash with cord
 Tripod
 Film (color and b & w)
 Label materials (cards, pens, markers)
 Scales or rulers
 Flashlight
 Extra batteries
 Photo log sheets
52 CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION
SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION 2014
Guidelines for Photographing the Crime Scene

Exteriors: Surroundings; buildings and major structures; roads

and paths of travel into or away from the scene; street signs
and survey markers; mailboxes and address number; take
aerial photographs when possible.
Overall
Interiors: Use the four compass points or room corners as
guides; take overlapping views; doors leading into and from
structure; use tripod in low light situations for increased depth
of focus concerns.
Follow a stepwise progression of views; use various lenses or
change the focal length of the lens to achieve a “focused” view
Midrange of the individual items of evidence within the original view of the
crime scene; add flash lighting to enhance details or patterned
evidence.
Use documentation placards; detach flash from camera; use
Close-up proper side lighting effects; fill in with flash when harsh
shadows are present; take photos with and without scales.
Record in log; use camera settings that achieve good depth of
focus; no extraneous objects like team members, equipment,
All
feet or hands; change point of view; be aware of reflective
surfaces; when in doubt, photograph!

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

After completion of the crime scene documentation and intensive
search of the scene for physical evidence, the collection and preservation of
the evidence can begin.
One individual should be designated as the evidence collector to
ensure that the evidence is collected, packaged, marked, sealed, and
preserved in a consistent manner.
No item of evidence will be missed, lost, or contaminated if only
one person has the obligation for this important stage in the investigation.

CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION 53

2014 SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION
CRIME SCENE SEARCH METHODS
Link Method
 Based on linkage theory
 most common and productive
 one type of evidence leads to another
 experiential, logical and systematic
 works with large and small, indoor and outdoor scenes

Line or Strip Method

In this method, the area is blocked out in the form of a rectangle.

The searcher proceeds slowly at the same pace along path parallel to one side
of the rectangle. When a piece of evidence is found, the finder announces his
discovery and the search must stop until the evidence has been cared of. A
photographer is called, if necessary. The evidence is collected and tagged and
the search proceeds at a given signal.

54 CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION 2014
Grid Method (Double Strip Method)

Modified double-line search; effective but time – consuming.

The grid or double strip method of search is a modification of strip
search method. Here, the rectangle is traverse first parallel to the base then
parallel to the side. This is ideal for Disaster Victim Identification (DVI)
Operation

Zone Method

Best used on scenes with defined zones or areas; effective in

houses or Buildings; teams are assigned small zones for searching; combined
with other methods; good for warrant searches.

CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION 55

2014 SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION
Wheel or Ray Method

In this method of search, the area is considered to be

approximately circular. The searchers gather at the center and proceed
outward along radii or spokes. The procedure should be repeated several
times depending on the size of the circle and the number of searchers. One
shortcoming of this method is the great increase in the area to be observed as
the searcher departs from the center. Another is the possibility of evidence
contamination or destruction with the likelihood that the searchers will step on
them as they converge at the center.
Used for special situations; limited application; best used on small,
circular crime scenes.

Spiral Method

56 CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION 2014
Inward or outward spirals; best used in crime scenes with no
physical barriers (open water, etc) requires the ability to trace a regular pattern
with fixed diameters; limited application.

TYPES OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

Physical Evidence may be defined as any material which can be
used to link a suspect, a weapon or a scene. Physical evidence falls into two
main categories:
1. Biological
2. Non-biological

Biological Evidence most commonly encountered by the medical

examiner/investigator. Examples of these are:
a. Blood
b. Semen
c. Hair
d. Tissue
e. Fingernails
f. Bite marks
g. Saliva

Non-biological Evidence is more varied and can be virtually any item. The
most common forms that will be encountered by the medical
examiner/investigator are the following:
a. Clothing
b. Bullets/shotgun pellets/wadding
c. Fibers
d. Paint
e. Glass
f. Soil
g. Weapon

PRESERVATION OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE ON THE BODY

1. Transport of Body
The medical examiner cannot collect trace evidence from the body
if it is lost in transport. Therefore, in order to minimize any loss of
trace evidence and to prevent the body from acquiring, in transit,
any materials that may be interpreted as being trace evidence:
a. place paper bags on the hands at the scene, securing them
in place with rubber bands
b. Wrap the body in a clean sheet
CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION 57
2014 SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION
2. The Morgue
a. It should be handled as little as possible
b. Identification tags indicating the deceased’s name and the
case number should be placed on the body
c. The sheet should not be removed
d. The body should never be undressed, fingerprinted, washed
or embalmed

RECOVERY OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

1. The body should be carefully examined for materials adherent to
the clothing and skin, such as fibers and hair. Dried blood may be
collected from the skin. Fingernail cuttings may be taken as well as
swabbing of the mouth, rectum or vagina. Gunshot residue may be
collected from the hands
2. After recovery of the trace evidence, it should be labeled with, at a
minimum:
a. The deceased’s name;
b. The case number;
c. The date of the examination;
d. Where the item was recovered from;
e. What the item is (or presumed to be);
f. The signature of the medical examiner who collected the
evidence.
3. In the case of bullets, the case number or some other form of
identification should be inscribed on either the base or the tip of
the bullet. No inscriptions should ever be made on the side of the
bullet as this may destroy rifling marks necessary for ballistic
comparisons
4. The container with the evidence is then transmitted to a police
officer or the Crime Lab.
5. A receipt should be obtained for the evidence in order to maintain
chain of custody

PROCEDURES FOR COLLECTION OF BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

1. Blood for DNA Analysis
a. From the body, collect one tube of blood in a lavender top
test tube
b. Dried blood from the surface of the body may be scraped off
the surface of the skin with a clean scalpel and placed in a
sterile test tube

58 CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION 2014
c. If the specimen is too small to scrape off, use a sterile gauze
pad moistened with saline solution; air dry and place in a
sterile test tube
d. If the blood is still wet, use a sterile gauze pad and air dry
prior to placing into the tube
2. Semen
a. Place two cotton tipped swabs in the vagina and leave in
place for 5 minutes. Remove; make two slides from the
swabs and package in appropriately labeled containers
3. Hair
a. Collect hair adherent to the body and place in envelope
noting aria collected from
b. Control hair should be taken from the deceased to rule out
the possibility that the hair found on the body came from the
deceased. In the case of head hair, take samples from
multiple areas and pull them out to get the roots
c. In cases of suspected or known rape, the pubic hair should
be combed for foreign hair and head hair pulled and retained
d. DNA analysis can be performed on hair with roots
4. Tissue
a. Collect with clean pickups, place in sterile test tube and
refrigerate
5. Fingernails
a. Collect any free pieces of fingernail on the body and place in
clean envelope
b. Cut off the ends of the fingernails, place each individually in
a clean container and label as to source. (A broken
fingernail from a scene or on a body can be matched to its
source by either a direct physical match to the broken end or
by stria on the undersurface of the nail which are as
individual as fingerprints. Thus, if a portion of a fingernail
from the assailant is recovered from the body, it can be
linked to the assailant months later by the stria pattern.)
c. If the fingernails are being collected just to determine if there
is any material under them, they can be placed in two
containers, one for the right hand and the other for the left
6. Bite Marks
Bite mark comparisons are accepted in Court roughly
equivalent to fingerprints.

CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION 59

2014 SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION
a. If a forensic odontologist is available, have them conduct the
examination of the bite mark prior to the autopsy or cleaning
of the body
b. If none is available, swab the bite mark with a sterile gauze
pad moistened with saline, followed by a dry cotton swab.
Air dry and place both in sterile tubes. This done to collect
saliva. The material then can be analyzed by STR DNA
analysis
c. Take photographs of the bite mark with a metric ruler in the
photographic field
d. If one has access to dental casting material, one should then
make a cast of the mark
7. Saliva
a. See bite marks, DNA typing can be performed on cells in the
saliva

PROCEDURES FOR COLLECTION OF NON-BIOLOGICAL PHYSICAL

EVIDENCE
1. Clothing
a. Remove carefully from the body. Do not cut off
b. Air dry if wet
c. Wrap each individual article of clothing in a clean paper bag
or box the articles
d. Label and submit to the Crime Laboratory
2. Bullets/Shot/Wadding
a. Collect from body using gloved fingers or rubber tipped
instruments to prevent marking up the bullet
b. Do not remove any foreign material from the bullet
c. Inscribe the case number on either the tip or the base of the
bullet. No inscriptions are necessary for shot or wadding
d. Place in envelope and label as to source
3. Fibers/Paint/Glass
These materials can be tested for their physical
properties e.g. chemical composition, refraction index etc. An
analyst can then testify the materials that you collected from the
body are identical in all measurable characteristics to material from
a car, house, sweater etc.
a. Collect from the body with clean instruments.
b. Place in individual envelopes noting source of evidence.

60 CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION 2014
DNA ANALYSIS
DNA analysis can be performed on any tissue or substance that
contains nucleated cells. The two most common tissues examined are blood
and semen. Less commonly, analysis is performed on hair and saliva.
1. In dealing with DNA identification, two concepts must be
understood:
a. If the DNA profile of evidence from a crime scene or victim is
different from that of the suspected source, then that
evidence absolutely did not come from the suspected
individual
b. If the DNA profile of the evidence matches that of an
individual, then the individual is not excluded as the source
of the evidence
2. Whenever you perform DNA analysis, there are three possible
results:
a. The specimen is inadequate in size, degraded, or
contaminated, thus resulting in an insufficient amount of
DNA for analysis
b. The DNA profiles are different and one has exclusion
c. The DNA profiles match. If this last situation occurs, the
match can be due to:
c1. The samples come from the same person
c2. The samples come from different people but an error
was made in either the collection of the material or in the
laboratory

FACTORS USED IN ESTIMATING TIME OF DEATH

A. Livor Mortis (postmortem lividity) is a reddish, purplish-blue
discoloration of the skin due to settling of blood, by gravity, in the
vessels of the dependent areas of the body. In dependent area
pressed against a hard surface, the vessels are mechanically
compressed by the pressure and blood cannot settle in them. This
given these areas a pale coloration.
1. Livor mortis usually becomes apparent within a half hour of
death. In individuals dying of cardiac failure, livor mortis may
actually begin to develop prior to death
2. As time progress, livor mortis becomes progressively more
prominent

CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION 61

2014 SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION

3. As long as livor mortis consists of the intravascular collection

of blood, it can “shift”. By this, one means that it can move
from one area to another if the position of the body is
changed. Thus, if the body is first face down, livor will be
present anteriorly. If the body is then turned over, the blood
will flow to the newly dependent areas and livor will appear
on the posterior aspect of the body

Blood settles to
lower extremities
of body

4. After a certain period of time livor becomes “fixed”, i.e.,

changing the position of the body will not cause the livor to
shift. This occurs after the blood has hemolyzed and begins
to set in

62 CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION 2014
a. The amount of time for livor to become fixed is very
variable and depends on how long it takes the body to
begin to decompose. Obviously, this is dependent to a
great degree on the environment
5. As livor intensifies, one may get the development of
postmortem petechiae due to rupture of capillaries with
leakage of blood. This is most pronounced when the
dependency is accentuated by additional effects gravity, i.e.,
an arm hanging over the side of the bed
6. Occasionally, livor mortis is misinterpreted by emergency
room physicians and EMT’s as contusions. At autopsy there
should be no problem in differentiating the two. Incising the
questioned area will reveal the difference
a. In contusions, the bleeding is into the extravascular
spaces
b. In livor, the blood is within the vessels
c. The only time differentiation may not be possible is in
livor mortis of the scalp where decomposition has
occurred with escape of the degraded blood into the
extravascular space
7. In certain deaths, livor mortis may be an unusual color
a. In deaths from carbon monoxide or cyanide the livor
may be a cherry red color.
b. Prolonged refrigeration of a body or exposure to cold
may also cause the same color change.

Areas of skin in
contact with a
surface may
prevent livor from
discoloring the
skin at the point of
contact

CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION 63

2014 SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION
B. Rigor Mortis – refers to the “stiffening” of the body observed after
death due to postmortem muscle contraction.
1. This is due to depletion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
with resultant development of a stable complex of action and
myosin thus preventing the muscle fibers from relaxing
2. Rigor mortis typically begins to develop within two hours
after death
3. It appears first in the muscles of the jaw, followed by the
face, the upper and the lower extremities; disappearance
occurs in the same order
4. It usually takes 6-12 hours to develop full rigor mortis
5. Violent exercise, which depletes ATP, and high body
temperatures accelerate the development of rigor
6. Rigor mortis is lost due to decomposition
7. In temperate climates, rigor persists 36 to 48 hours. It may
disappear in less than 24 hours in hot weather and persist
for several days in cold weather

Rigor mortis is a good indicator of whether or not

a person was moved after the onset of rigor
mortis

Conditions Stimulating Rigor Mortis

1. Heat Stiffening – A condition characterized by hardening of the
muscles due to coagulation of muscle proteins when the dead
body is exposed to intense heat as by burning or immersion in a
hot liquid.
2. Cold Stiffening – A condition characterized by hardening of the
muscles due to solidification of fats, muscles and fluid when the
dead body is exposed to extremely cold or freezing temperature.
64 CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION
SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION 2014
3. Cadaveric Spasm or Instantaneous Rigor – the instant stiffening
of a certain group of muscles which occurs immediately at the
moment of death and although its cause is unknown is associated
with the violent death due to extreme nervous tension, fatigue and
injury to the nervous system.

C. Algor Mortis (Body Cooling)

 Relative humidity
 If victim is in contact with water or other wet or cold
surfaces
 It is usually not known what victim’s body temperature
was at time of death
o Heat stroke
o Hypothermia

LIVOR MORTIS
 Is a purplish discoloration of body and organ surfaces
 Results when blood settles to the lower parts of the body
 Becomes visible in the skin ½ to 2 hours after death

BODY TEMPERATURE
1. This is the most commonly used method of “accurately”
determining time of death. It is based on everyone having a
“normal” temperature at the time of death and the assumptions are
erroneous
2. Body temperature, determined orally, in apparently normal
subjects, may vary from 96.0˚F (35.6˚C) to 100.8˚F (38.2˚C)
a. Body temperature may vary diurnally from a low at 6 am to a
high at 4-6 pm
b. Normal temperatures are slightly higher in women
c. Strenuous exercise can raise temperatures as can chronic
diseases such as congestive heart failure
3. Body cooling is not uniform and does not follow a linear pattern
a. After death, there is often an initial plateau where cooling
does not appear to occur or at least is not measurable under
ordinary conditions
b. Body habitus influences the rate of cooling. Fat acts as an
insulator retarding loss of heat
c. Infants cool quicker due to their body mass/surface area
ratio

CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION 65

2014 SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION
4. The ambient temperature and climate conditions influence the rate
of cooling
a. Is the ambient temperature higher or lower than the body
temperature?
b. Is there air conditioning on? What is it set to?
c. Did the police change the setting as the environment
became hotter as more people milled about the scene?
d. Is there wind, rain, snow?
5. How the deceased was dressed, or covered, has an effect on heat
loss. Heavy or multiple layers of cloth (clothing, blankets, etc.)
retard heat loss
6. The surface that the body is lying on may influence heat loss. Is it
a good heat conductor, e.g., marble, or will it insulate the body,
e.g., a rug?

POSTMORTEM VITREOUS POTASSIUM LEVELS

Determination of the time of death based on the level of potassium
in the vitreous has been attempted. Sturner and Ganter proposed a formula for
making such determinations. This has since been found to be invalid.
Unfortunately, the levels of potassium in the vitreous are determined by the
degree and rapidity of decomposition rather than the time interval from death.
Thus, anything that accelerates decomposition raises the level of
vitreous potassium. Time is only one factor. As a result of this, formulas and/or
graphs developed for determination of the time interval since death based on
vitreous potassium levels have been found to be unreliable.

EMPTYING OF STOMACH CONTENTS

In cases when the time the last meal was eaten is known, time of
death determinations have been attempted by trying to determine how long it
would take to digest the meal to the state it was found in at the time of autopsy.
1. Radioisotopic studies to determine time of gastric emptying,
however, have revealed great variations
a. From meal to meal
b. From person to person
c. Day to day in the same person
2. In one study where the subjects were given a meal that included
meats, seafood, vegetables, soups, salads, deserts and fluids, and
allowed to eat as much as they wanted, the half gastric emptying
time varied from 60 to 338 minutes with an average of 277 +/-44
minutes

66 CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION 2014
3. Another fact to be considered in the rate of digestion is stress.
Individuals under great stress will cease to digest their food. The
authors have seen cases where individuals hospitalized a number
of days for trauma have come to autopsy with stomachs full of
undigested food taken in prior to the trauma

ENVIRONMENTAL MARKERS
These include both scientific and nonscientific evidence.
1. Insect activity may give one an idea how long an individual has
been dead. Different insects are attracted to a body at different
times after death
An experienced entomologist may be able to determine how long a body
has been dead by determining what insects have preyed or are preying on the
body, and at what stage in their development they are at in their progress from
egg to adult.
2. Nonscientific markers consist of things like a pile of newspapers in
front of a house; uncollected mail; a dated receipt in the
deceased’s pocket etc. in bodies found after years, dates on coins
or the type of clothing may narrow down the time of death

DECOMPOSITION
Decomposition is due to:
A. Autolysis
The aseptic breakdown of tissue caused by intracellular enzymes.
Autolysis is most prominent in organs such as the pancreas which
is rich in enzymes.
B. Putrefaction
The breakdown of tissue due to bacteria. The main source of
bacteria is the gastrointestinal tract. Putrefaction is the main cause
of decomposition. It is accelerated by a hot environment and
sepsis.
1. The first sign of decomposition is often greenish
discoloration of the skin in the lower quadrants of the
abdomen
2. This is followed by greenish-black discoloration of the face
and neck

CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION 67

2014 SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION

a. Swelling of the features;

b. Protrusion of the eyes and tongue;
c. The emergence of decompositional fluid (purge fluid) from
the nose and mouth. Purge fluid, which is reddish in color, is
often mistakes for blood with resultant suspicion of trauma.

68 CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION 2014

3. The body begins to swell due to gas formation

a. There is slippage of the skin with marbling and
“blister” formation

b. Marbling is manifested by greenish-black discoloration

along blood vessels due to the reaction of hemoglobin
and hydrogen sulfide
c. The skin color will change to green and then black
4. The hair will slip from the scalp
5. In bodies exposed to strong sunlight the skin may become
leathery with a gold to black coloration
6. Internally, the brain becomes porridge-like with the other
organs eventually reduced to the consistency of putty
CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION 69
2014 SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION
7. The rate that the body decomposes is usually determined by
the environmental temperature. In hot climates such as
Texas, advanced decomposition can occur in 24 hrs while it
may take a week or two in moderate climates
8. Skeletonization may take a week or two; months or years.
This is dependent on environmental temperature and the
presence or absence of scavengers
9. Rarely a body will undergo adipocere formation. Here the
body’s fat is transformed into oleic, palmitic and stearic
acids. Such a change usually requires high humidity and/ or
water. Adipocere has a white to brown wax-like appearance

70 CRIME DETECTION, INVESTIGATION AND PREVENTION