Istanbul Technical University

Physics Engineering Department

FIZ233EL - Electronics 1 Laboratory

Electronics Laboratory Booklet

Edited by:
Cem Sanga
Funda Güven
Mert Şulam
Fall 2023
Contents

1 Ohm’s law 5
1.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.1 PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2 Thevenin’s Theorem 13
2.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.1 PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3 Diode 19
3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2 THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4 QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.5 REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4 Rectifier Application with Diode 25

4.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.2 THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.3 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.3.1 PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.4 QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.5 REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5 Zener Diode 31
5.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.2.1 PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

iii
iv CONTENTS

5.3 QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.4 REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

6 BJT Input-Output Characteristics 35

6.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.2.1 PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.3 QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.4 SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.5 REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

7 BJT Switch and Logic Gates 41

7.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
7.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.2.1 PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.3 QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.4 SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.5 REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

8 BJT Amplifier 47
8.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
8.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.3 QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.4 REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

9 JFET 55
9.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
9.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
9.2.1 PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
9.3 QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
9.4 REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
9.4.1 Table for the first part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
9.4.2 Table for the second part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

10 LDR 61
10.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
10.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
10.2.1 Basic Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
10.3 QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
10.4 REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Acknowledgements

This booklet is a collection of the years-long effort of several people in the department,
namely Azize Gömleksiz, Hüseyin T. Şenyaşa, Özgün Girgin and Yıldray Kömürcü. We
would like to thank them all for their contributions to the laboratory and to this work.
Cem, Funda & Mert.
2 CONTENTS
Rules

3
 ELEKTRONİK 1 LABORATUARI GÜVENLİK KURALLARI

1. Acil Durumda Yapacaklar. Yangın söndürücünün yerini öğrenin. Her türlü kaza, yaralanma
gibi durumları laboratuvar sorumlusuna bildiriniz.
2. Deneyleri Gösterildiği Gibi Yapın. Deney prosedürleri dışında herhangi bir uygulama
yapmayınız. Laboratuar sorumlusunun uyarılarına ve yönlendirmelerine uyunuz.
3. Deneyleri Yapmak Üzere Gerektiği Gibi Hazırlıklar Yapın. Laboratuvar kitabınızda
yapacağınız deney ile ilgili yazılan bilgileri okuyup anlamaya çalışın. Deneye başlamadan once
karşılaşabileceğiniz problemler hakkında bilgi sahibi olunuz.
4. Gerekli Olduğu Durumlarda Güvenliğinizi Sağlayacak Ekipmanları Kullanın. Gözlük ve
eldiven gibi gereçleri gerekli olduğu zaman muhakkak kullanınız.
5. Laboratuardaki Güvenliği Sağlayacak Sorumlulukta Hareket Edin. Laboratuvarda gerek
sizin gerekse diğer kişilerin güvenliğini tehlikeye sokacak ani ve sorumsu hareketlerden
kaçınınız.
6. Her Zaman Uygun Kıyafetler Giyin. Sandalet, şort, takı gibi laboratuvarda güvenliğinizi
tehlikeye sokacak giysileri kullanmamaya özen gösteriniz.
7. Laboratuarlarda Sigara İçmek, Laboratuarlara Yiyecek ve İçecekle Girmek Yasaktır.

ELECTRONICS I LABORATORY SAFETY RULES

1. Know What To Do In Case Of An Emergency. Observe the locations of the fire extinguisher. Report all
accidents, injuries, and close calls to the instructor immediately.
2. Perform All Experiments As Directed. Do not do anything which is not part of an approved experimental
procedure. Follow all instructions given by your laboratory instructor.
3. Be Properly Prepared To Do The Experiment. Read all written procedures in advance and understand what
you are going to do. Know the hazards before you do the experiments.
4. If Instructed To Do So, Wear The Appropriate Protective Equipment. This may include eye protection
and/or gloves.
5. Act In A Responsible Manner At All Times. No horseplay will occur in the lab or experimental area.
6. Always Wear Appropriate Clothing To Lab. No sandals, shorts, and limit jewelry. Tie back long hair to
keep it away from moving objects.
7. Smoking, Eating, Drinking In The Lab Or Experimental Work Area Is Prohibited In All Laboratories.

1
Chapter 1

Ohm’s law

5
6 CHAPTER 1. OHM’S LAW

Istanbul Technical University

Physics Engineering Dept.
FIZ233EL - Electronics 1 Lab.

Experiment 1 - Ohm’s Law

Aim: To learn how to use voltmeter, ampere meter(ammeter), ohmmeter and to test
the validity of Ohm’s Law.
Instruments & Materials: Voltmeter, ampere meter, various resistors and power sup-
ply.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Basic Measurements
The most commonly used equipment in the electric laboratories are ammeters, volt-
meters, and ohmmeters. These devices are combined into one instrument called a mul-
timeter or AVOmeter (ampere-volt-ohm meter). Thus, we need some information about
their principles and method of usage.
Amperemeter is used to measure the current flowing through a conductor. To mea-
sure the current we have to connect the amperemeter in series, thus its internal resistance
causes to increase the total resistance of the circuit. Therefore, a good amperemeter
should have a very low internal resistance, ideally zero. A device which has such a low
internal resistance can be easily damaged if it is subjected to a potential difference di-
rectly. Even a very small potential difference will lead to a high current flowing through
the amperemeter which can damage the device.
Voltmeter is used for measuring the potential difference between the two points in any
circuit. It is connected to the circuit in parallel. The internal resistance of a voltmeter
should be very high, ideally infinite, so that no current can flow through it when it is
connected to the circuit.
To make measurement, first we set the device in its largest unit, and then make a
measurement. If the change on the scale is too small to realize, we decrease the unit one
by one until the change is readable. If it is still unreadable in the smallest unit of the
device, we say that the magnitude of the measured unit is out of range of this device.
Ohmmeter is used to directly measure the resistance of a resistor. This equipment
is based on the Ohms Law. No external power source is needed for measuring the
resistance.

Internal Structure of Analog Amperemeter and Voltmeter

These equipments work with the same principle as electrical engines. The needle rotates
due to the interaction of two magnetic fields as seen in the Fig. 2. A coil made of copper
1.1. INTRODUCTION 7

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1.1: a) True connection for current measurement b) False connection for current
measurement, c) True connection for potential measurement , d) False connection for
potential measurement.

is located between the two opposite poles of two regular magnets. This coil frame can
turn around the axis perpendicular to the book plain. Current can be applied to the
frame by stretchable wires.

Figure 1.2: Schematic representation of the internal structure of an amperemeter.

If we consider that the current is in the direction shown in the figure, the pole on
the upper side of the field is going to be N. The frame coil is forced to rotate clockwise
by the external field. A spring spiral in shape applies a reverse-force to the motion of
the frame. Thus, the angle of motion gently depends on the properties of the spring but
mainly on the current flowing through the coil frame which results in a precise sensing
system.
For example if an amperemeter is designed so that its needle will make a full turn
(90◦ with 50 divisions) when 50 µA current flows on the frame coil, it is not possible
8 CHAPTER 1. OHM’S LAW

to measure the current less than 1 µA which corresponds to one division. In order to
measure the current less than 1 µA, the position of the main knob should be decreased
so that the sensitivity is increased. Reversely, to measure the current more than 50 µA,
for example 25 mA, the position of the main knob should be increased. This requires
various parallel resistors to be connected to the measurement coil. When the knob is
turned to 25 mA division, 1/500 of the total current flows on the frame and the rest
flows on this resistor. If the measuring current is 5 mA, the current on the frame will be
10 µA and the pointer of the scale will have a 18◦ -turn. If the knob is in this position,
amperemeter runs like a milliamperemeter. The maximum of the measurable value is
called range. The range of the milliamperemeter in this example is 25 mA.
To use a multimeter as a voltmeter, the position of the central knob must be relocated
to the proper position for voltage measurement. To provide proper current to the frame
coil, serial resistors are connected to the frame coil. For instance, when the measured
voltage is 2.5 V and the range is 2.5 V, 50 µA current flows through the frame coil and
scale will make a full turn. It is possible to read another voltage with a simple proportion
calculation.
In order to use a multi meter as an ohmmeter the central knob must be relocated
to the resistance measurement division. With the help of the internal battery of the
ohmmeter, a current flows through the resistance. Since the potential of the battery
is known, the flowing current will be reversely proportional to the resistance measured.
The scale is calibrated according to Ohms law, i.e., for high resistance the current will
be small and vice versa. To have the correct value of the resistor, the value read and the
multiplication factor of the knob should be multiplied. The most accurate measurement
can be obtained by using maximum scale without overflow. Every time the scale is
changed, the probes of the multimeter are connected to each other (short circuit) and
new zero onset correction should be made.
Digital Avometer Structure

(a) (b)

Figure 1.3: Properties of the digital AVOmeter. (The information was taken from the
Users Guide of Uni-T 33A)
1.2. EXPERIMENT 9

Ohm’s Law
If a potential difference V is applied to the terminals of a metallic conductor, a current
I passes through it. The ratio of potential difference to current is defined as resistance,
R. The unit for R is ohms, [Ω].

V
R= Ohm’s Law (1.1)
I
The amount of current passing through the resistance depends on the potential dif-
ference applied to two terminals of the resistance. The value of the resistance depends
on temperature as,

R = R0 [1 + α(T − T0 )] (1.2)
R0 : The value of resistance at temperature T0 .
T0 : Is a temperature chosen in the range in which the resistance changes linearly
with temperature.
α : Temperature dependence coefficient.

1.2 EXPERIMENT
1.2.1 PROCEDURE
Basic Measurements
1. Measure the resistors on the board for the different ranges, determine which range
is the most proper for each resistor, and fill in the Table 1.1

Table 1.1: Basic measurements

Resistor Measured value Error in Measurements
1K
4.7K
10K

Ohm’s Law

2. Current-voltage behavior of the resistance

(a) Set up the circuit shown in the Figure 1.4.
(b) By changing the value of voltage applied, measure the potential difference on,
and current passing through the resistance and fill in the Table 1.2.
(c) Plot I=f(V) graph. Obtain the value of resistance from the slope of graph.
10 CHAPTER 1. OHM’S LAW

Table 1.2: Ohm’s Law

Voltage (V) VR1 (V)
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5

Figure 1.4: Circuit for measuring I-V characteristic of the resistor.

1.3 QUESTIONS
1. Can a 492 ohm resistor be used for a 470 ohm 5% resistor?

2. How is a voltmeter connected for voltage measurements?

3. How is a current meter connected to read circuit current?

4. Write a formula for finding the equivalent resistance of EQUAL value parallel
resistors.

5. There will be (more or less) current in a parallel circuit than in a series circuit
using the same resistors.

6. What is the law for voltage behavior in parallel circuit?

1.4. REPORT 11

1.4 REPORT
12 CHAPTER 1. OHM’S LAW
Chapter 2

Thevenin’s Theorem

13
14 CHAPTER 2. THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Istanbul Technical University

Physics Engineering Dept.
FIZ233EL - Electronics 1 Lab.

Experiment 2 - Thevenin’s Theorem

Aim: To learn Thevenin’s theorem and its application in circuit analysis.

Instruments & Materials: Voltmeter, amperemeter, various resistors and power sup-
ply.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
There are several theorems which allow you to calculate circuit parameters (volts, amps,
ohms, etc.) in complex circuit where Ohms law cannot be used. Thevenins theorem is
simple and perhaps the most popular. It will give you a good background into theorem
use and allow you to make most any calculation you will ever need.

Theory
Thévenins Theorem for DC circuits states that any two-port linear network may be
replaced by a single voltage source with an appropriate internal resistance. The single
voltage source is called the Thevenin voltage source (VT H ) and VT H is equal to the open
circuit voltage (VOC ) at the terminals of the original network. The single resistor is called
the Thevenin resistance (RT H ) and it is by replacing all voltage sources with a short
circuit and all current sources with an open in the original network and determining the
equivalent resistance.
A simple example of a Thevenin simplification is seen in Figure 1. In this circuit it
should be determined the voltage which will appear across the load. The source voltage
is divided by a series voltage divider to drive a load represented RL. To thevenize this
circuit the following steps are necessary:

• Remove the load resistor RL and calculate the voltage across R2 . The result is
what is called VT H .

• Remove the source and place a short where the source was. Now, looking back
into the circuit from the resistor RL , calculate the resistance between terminals A
and B. In this case, R1 and R2 are in parallel and must be calculated. This is the
Thevenin Resistance RT H .
2.2. EXPERIMENT 15

(a) (b)
Figure 2.1: Thevenin circuit Step 1

Figure 2.2: Thevenin circuit Step 2

• Now that both VTH and RTH have been calculated, redraw the circuit showing
VT H and RT H to be in series. This is the thevenin equivalent circuit.

• Put the load resistor back into the circuit and calculate the voltage drops across
the two resistors.
The VT H will not change with changes in RL because it was calculated with RL out
of the circuit. Likewise, RT H will not change since it, too, was calculated without
RL in the circuit.

2.2 EXPERIMENT
2.2.1 PROCEDURE
1. By connecting two switches in series, build the AND gate. Connect the circuit
which is shown in Figure 2.5.
16 CHAPTER 2. THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Figure 2.3: Thevenin circuit Step 3

Figure 2.4: Thevenin circuit Step 4

Figure 2.5: Experimental circuit with two sources

2.3. QUESTIONS 17

2. Keep RL out of the circuit.

3. Short V1 (10V-source). Replace V2 (5V-source).

4. Find the value of Thevenin resistance RT H . To do this, short both V1 (10V-source)

and V2 (5V-source).

5. Find the value of Thevenin voltage VT H .

2.3 QUESTIONS
1. Do the values obtained by your measurements match those obtained in the calcu-
lations? Explain any differences.

2. What effect would increasing RL have on VL ?

3. What effect would increasing RL have on VR1 and VR2 ?

18 CHAPTER 2. THEVENIN’S THEOREM

2.4 REPORT
Chapter 3

Diode

19
20 CHAPTER 3. DIODE

Istanbul Technical University

Physics Engineering Dept.
FIZ233EL - Electronics 1 Lab.

Experiment 3 - Diodes

Aim: To learn what a diode is and how to use it on a basic circuit.

Instruments & Materials: Breadboard, Voltmeter, amperemeter, various resistors,
diodes and power supply.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Diode is a two-terminal electrical component that conducts electricity only in one direc-
tion. This current flow is from anode to cathode direction. In terms of design, it consists
of two doped semiconductor pieces. They have a wide range of application areas such
as sensing temperature, filtering electrical signals or building basic logic gates.

3.2 THEORY
In an electrical circuit, diodes can be connected in two ways depending on the current
flow on the circuit. If the current flow is from anode to cathode as described above (or
moving towards the pointy end at the diodes circuit element symbol) diode is said to be
forward biased. If it is the other way around, it is called reverse biased. Forward
biasing allows current the pass easily with minor voltage drops. Reverse biasing blocks
the current, but only until a certain voltage is reached on the diode. This specific reverse
voltage is called the breakdown voltage.
The real behavior of the diode is modeled using many distinct approximations. The
crudest one is the ideal diode model. Another model, called constant voltage drop
(CVD) model adds the energy dissipated by the diode with a voltage drop. The most
realistic case combines all the best sides of both models; adds a leakage current in the
reverse bias region and states a linear characteristic between current and voltage in the
forward biased region.

3.3 EXPERIMENT
The circuit to be used in the experiment is given in Figure 1. The voltage source V will
be varied between values of -5 and 10 volts. The increments will be as given in the table
1 below. The potential difference on the resistor can be measured with a multimeter and
with this voltage known, the voltage drop on the diodes can be calculated easily with a
simple subtraction. Once the voltage on the resistor found, the current flowing on the
circuit can be also found. When the reverse voltage is applied by the voltage source,
3.3. EXPERIMENT 21

we dont expect to see any current flow on the circuit if the total reverse voltage is less
than total breakdown voltage of the diodes. After we fill the table 1, we need to find
the voltage drop of a single diode and we need to find the I-V characteristics of diode
by plotting our calculated ID over all range of source voltage V.

Figure 3.1
22 CHAPTER 3. DIODE

V(V) VA (V) VD (V) ID (A)

−5
−4
−3
−2
−1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
6
7
8
9
10

Table 3.1: Table 1: Table of measurements

3.4. QUESTIONS 23

3.4 QUESTIONS
1. Explain how a diode works in terms of the underlying doped semiconductor ma-
terials. Draw a simple scheme showing the regions of a diode and use at most 5-6
sentences. Your work should include keywords such as; n-doped region, p-doped
region, depletion layer, built-in voltage (barrier voltage) and charge carriers.

2. Explain what a Zener diode is. Why do we need a different type of diode? What
are its use cases?

3. The current in the diode can be calculated using some knowledge of statistical
physics. It is given as; ( )
ID = IS eqVD /N kT − 1

where IS is the saturation current, q is the charge of electron (1.6×10−19 coulombs),

VD is voltage across diode, N is nonideality or emission coefficient (typically be-
tween 1 and 2), k is the Boltzmanns constant and T is junction temperature. If
you examined an experimental I-V curve (hopefully yours from the experiment),
you might have noticed that it looks like an exponential curve with sharp edges.
How can you find the temperature of the environment if we assume you have the
real I-V curve data and the values of q,VD ,N and k?
24 CHAPTER 3. DIODE

3.5 REPORT
Chapter 4

Rectifier Application with Diode

25
26 CHAPTER 4. RECTIFIER APPLICATION WITH DIODE

Istanbul Technical University

Physics Engineering Dept.
FIZ233EL - Electronics 1 Lab.

Experiment 4 - Rectifier Application with Diode

Aim: To build circuits with diodes that modifies electrical signals.

Instruments & Materials: Voltmeter, amperemeter, various resistors, diodes, oscil-
loscope, signal generator and power supply.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Diodes can be used to alter the signals going through the circuit. These applications
can serve many diverse fields such as; signal processing, power delivery, and circuit
protection. In this experiment, we will focus on signal applications. So far, we have only
worked with direct voltages and currents (DC). In almost every part of our life we use
alternating currents (AC) from the grid. We use it to deliver power across miles of lands
and light up our entire civilization. Still, we might need DC to use our batteries or our
brand-new electric cars. Here we will see the basics of this conversion from AC to DC.

4.2 THEORY
As we all know, an alternating signal is generally in the form of a sine wave and its
value changes in time. Lets say that our voltage is in this form. What will happen when
this signal encounters with a diode? In its positive voltage region, nothing interesting
happens, just some changing voltage and some changing current depending on that
voltage. But as we have learned, diode will not let pass the other negative part of the
signal. So, if the waveform of the original signal is examined at the output of the diode,
half of the signal will not be there. It is said that this signal is chopped or rectified.

4.3 EXPERIMENT
The circuit we are going to use is given in figure 1.
4.3. EXPERIMENT 27

Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2

For this experiment we will use the oscilloscope for the first time. Instructions for
the oscilloscope will be given in the laboratory session. After the circuit is ready and
the oscilloscope is set; the procedure is as follows;

4.3.1 PROCEDURE
• You will use two channels, one to observe the original signal and the other one to
examine the output. Use two probes and do not forget the ground the probes you
use using their black cable.

• Carefully examine the voltage/div and time/div sections on the oscilloscope. You
might be supplying a wrong signal. Do not forget to calculate the Hz seconds
transition.
28 CHAPTER 4. RECTIFIER APPLICATION WITH DIODE

• Make sure that you are in the AC mode of the DC/GND/AC switch with silver
color.

• To see both signals on the screen toggle the dual mode under section VERT MODE.

• From the CADET kit you use, you can supply a signal from the function generator
section on the left side. From here you can change the frequency and the amplitude
of signal. Frequency of 1kHz and amplitude of 4 Volts peak-to-peak will
be sufficient for the experiment.

The aim of the experiment is to successfully observe the original signal

and the rectified signal on the screen at the same time.

4.4 QUESTIONS
1. What are the other types of the rectifier circuits used in signal processing?

2. The rectified signal is nowhere near similar to a real DC signal. How can we make
it closer to a stable, constant-valued signal?

3. What happens if you forget to ground the probes of the oscilloscope?

4.5. REPORT 29

4.5 REPORT
30 CHAPTER 4. RECTIFIER APPLICATION WITH DIODE
Chapter 5

Zener Diode

31
32 CHAPTER 5. ZENER DIODE

Istanbul Technical University

Physics Engineering Dept.
FIZ233EL - Electronics 1 Lab.

Experiment 5 - Zener Diode

Aim: Learn what a Zener diode is and observe a basic voltage reference application.
Instruments & Materials: CADET electronic experimentation set, breadboard, mul-
timeter, Zener diode(BZX 85C 5V1), 1kΩ resistor

5.1 INTRODUCTION
A Zener diode is a specialized semiconductor device that operates in reverse-biased mode
and is designed to maintain a constant voltage across its terminals, even when subjected
to varying levels of current. This unique behavior is known as the Zener effect, where the
diode can regulate voltage by allowing controlled reverse current to flow at a specified
voltage, called the Zener voltage. Zener diodes are commonly used in electronic circuits
as voltage regulators, surge protectors, and voltage reference sources due to their ability
to maintain a stable voltage output despite fluctuations in input voltage.

5.2 EXPERIMENT
Start by building the circuit in Figure-5.1. Ask for approval from your instructor to turn
on the power and follow the procedure given below.

Figure 5.1: Circuit Scheme for the Experiment.

5.2.1 PROCEDURE
Fill the Table-5.1 given in the report section at the end. Use your lab notebook for filling
and redrawing the table. Column label explanations are as follows;

• VDiode is the potential difference on the diode.

5.3. QUESTIONS 33

• VResistor is the potential difference on the resistor.

• VDC is the applied voltage from the power source to the circuit.

• IDiode is the current passing through the diode.

5.3 QUESTIONS
1. What is the purpose of using a Zener diode in circuits?

2. Draw the voltage drop on diode VDiode (horizontal) vs current I (vertical) graph
using the data in Table 1 (only first and fourth column). Do not fit any curve, just
interpret the graph at the reverse biased region. Estimate the Zener Voltage via
graph and compare it with the value at the datasheet of the BZX 85C 5V1 zener
diode. Do not forget that the following equation should hold.

VDC = VDiode + VResistor .

3. Simulation (Optional assignment to be done outside the lab hours)

Simulate the same circuit given above using 1N4728A Zener diode (can be found
in the Library section) from Vin = -15 to 15 V in 30 steps and plot the graph of
input voltage vs current. (Use DC Simulation and Parameter Sweep, if you are
using another simulation program which is not Qucs, and if this diode is not in
library, you can use a random zener diode).
34 CHAPTER 5. ZENER DIODE

5.4 REPORT

Table 5.1: Experimental data collected during lab. session

VDiode [V ] VResistor [V ] VDC [V ] IDiode [mA]

Chapter 6

BJT Input-Output
Characteristics

35
36 CHAPTER 6. BJT INPUT-OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

Istanbul Technical University

Physics Engineering Dept.
FIZ233EL - Electronics 1 Lab.

Experiment 6 - BJT INPUT-OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

Aim: To observe input and output characteristics of an NPN-type transistor

Instruments & Materials: Breadboard, Power supply, NPN-type transistor (2N2222),
Resistor, Avo-meter

6.1 INTRODUCTION
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three terminal device, composed of two p-n
junctions. There are two types of BJTs, one is NPN and the other is PNP. An NPN
transistor is constructed by a p-type semiconductor layer sandwiched between two n-type
layers and a PNP transistor is constructed by an n-type semiconductor layer sandwiched
between two p-type layers. BJTs use both electrons and holes as charge carriers, hence
the name bipolar. Charge flows through diffusion due to the concentration gradient
between different regions. The regions of a BJT are called base, collector and emitter.
The circuit diagram symbols of NPN and PNP transistors are shown below.

Figure 6.1

There are different modes of operations of BJTs. These are called active, reverse-
active, saturation and cut-off. The mode of operation of a BJT is determined according
to p-n junctions being forward or reverse biased. These modes of operations are sum-
marized in the following table.
BJTs are commonly used in amplifier and switch applications. In amplifier appli-
cations, BJTs are used in active mode while in switch applications they are used in
saturation and cut-off modes.

6.2 EXPERIMENT
The bipolar junction transistor circuit, which was set up in the experiment, is shown
below. Our aim is to observe input and output characteristics of this configuration.
6.2. EXPERIMENT 37

Figure 6.2: Table 1: Modes of operation in BJTs

Figure 6.3: Figure 1: Circuit diagram

6.2.1 PROCEDURE
Input Characteristics

In the input characteristics of bipolar junction transistor, the collector is connected to

power supply (VCC ) with a fixed voltage (5V), while the base supply voltage (VBB ) is
varied. Fill in the following tables.

Figure 6.4: Table 2: Resistors used in the experiment

After filling the tables, plot IB vs. VBE . Here IB = |VBB − VB |/RB and IC =
|VCC − VC |/RC .

Output Characteristics

In the output characteristics of bipolar junction transistor, the base supply voltage is
fixed (5V), while the collector is connected to a variable power supply. Fill in the
following table. After filling the table, plot IC vs. VCE .
38 CHAPTER 6. BJT INPUT-OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

Figure 6.5: Table 3: Measured voltages and calculated currents for the input character-
istics

6.3 QUESTIONS
1. Explain the usage and mechanism of NPN-type bipolar junction transistor in elec-
tronic circuits verbally and schematically.

2. In which configuration did you use NPN-type transistor in the experiment, common-
base, common-emitter or common-collector?

6.4 SOURCES
1. Wikipedia

2. Sedra/Smith Microelectronic Circuits

3. Boylestad, Nashelsky Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory

6.5. REPORT 39

Figure 6.6: Table 4: Measured voltages and calculated currents for the output charac-
teristics

6.5 REPORT
40 CHAPTER 6. BJT INPUT-OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
Chapter 7

BJT Switch and Logic Gates

41
42 CHAPTER 7. BJT SWITCH AND LOGIC GATES

Istanbul Technical University

Physics Engineering Dept.
FIZ233EL - Electronics 1 Lab.

Experiment 7 - BJT SWITCH AND LOGIC GATES

Aim: To understand the usage of BJT as a switch and to construct simple logic gates
Instruments & Materials: Breadboard, Power supply, two NPN-type transistors,
LED, Resistor, Avo-meter

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Bipolar junction transistors can be used in switch applications and thanks to that, cir-
cuits which make logic operations can be constructed using BJTs. In this experiment
we will construct two different logic gates, namely AND gate and OR gate. Before dis-
cussing the logic gates, let us first try to understand how BJTs can behave as switches.
In switch applications BJTs operate either in saturation mode or in cut-off mode. Con-
sider the circuit shown in Figure 1. If we apply vi = 0V to the input, the transistor
will be in cut-off region, which corresponds to the case in which both p-n junctions are
reverse biased. Then no current flows through the circuit and the transistor behaves as
an open switch. In this case there is no light coming out of the LED. On the other hand,
if we apply vi = 5V , then the transistor will be in saturation mode, which corresponds
to the case in which the base-emitter junction is forward biased while the base-collector
junction is reverse biased. Then the collector current takes its maximum value and VCE
becomes approximately zero. Therefore the transistor in this case behaves as a short
circuit like a closed switch and the LED glows.
Using the circuit shown in Figure 1 as a building block, one can construct simple
circuits which make logical operations such as AND and OR. For example, an AND gate
can be constructed by taking two of this circuit and connecting them in series as shown
in Figure 2. If 0V and 5V are applied to the two inputs in all possible combinations,
one can see that the output voltage is nonzero only if 5V is applied to both inputs.
OR gate can also be constructed by connecting the two of the circuits shown in
Figure 1 in parallel as shown in Figure 3. In this case one can see that it is enough to
apply 5V only to the one of the inputs for the output voltage to be nonzero.
7.1. INTRODUCTION 43

VCC = 10V

RC
4.7k

vi Q1
RB
22k

Figure 7.1: Figure 1: BJT as a switch

VCC = 10V

R2C
4.7k

vi2 Q2
R2B
22k

vi1 Q1
R1B
vout
22k
R1E
4.7k

Figure 7.2: Figure 2: AND Gate

44 CHAPTER 7. BJT SWITCH AND LOGIC GATES

VCC = 10V

R1C R2C
4.7k 4.7k

vi1 Q1 Q2 vi2
R1B R2B
22k vout 22k
RE
4.7k

Figure 7.3: Figure 3: OR Gate

7.2 EXPERIMENT
This experiment consists of two parts. In the first part, you will observe how a BJT acts
as a switch. In the second part, you will construct AND and OR gates.

7.2.1 PROCEDURE
BJT Switch
1. Setup the circuit shown in Figure 1.
2. Apply 0V and 5V to the input respectively.
3. In each case, observe whether the LED glows or not.

BJT Logic Gates

1. Setup the circuit shown in Figure 2.
2. Apply 0V and 5V to the two inputs in all possible combinations and measeure the
output voltage in each case.
3. Make a truth table for this configuration by considering 0V corresponds to 0 and
5V corresponds to 1.
4. Repeat the same steps for the circuit shown in Figure 3.
7.3. QUESTIONS 45

7.3 QUESTIONS
1. Analyse the circuits shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3 theoretically and convince
yourself that they make the indicated logical operations.

2. How can we construct NAND and NOR gates using BJTs. Draw the circuit dia-
grams and analyse them.

7.4 SOURCES
1. Wikipedia

2. Sedra/Smith Microelectronic Circuits

3. Boylestad, Nashelsky Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory

46 CHAPTER 7. BJT SWITCH AND LOGIC GATES

7.5 REPORT
Chapter 8

BJT Amplifier

47
48 CHAPTER 8. BJT AMPLIFIER

Istanbul Technical University

Physics Engineering Dept.
FIZ233EL - Electronics 1 Lab.

Experiment 8 - BJT AMPLIFIER

Aim: Define the proper biasing required for the common emitter amplifier and show the
input-output phase relationship of the common emitter amplifier.
Instruments & Materials: C.A.D.E.T, Oscilloscope, Transistor 2N2222, Capacitors(3-
100nF), Resistors (1-22k, 1-3.9k, 1-1k, 1-200 ohm, 1-10k), DMM

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Transistor amplifiers are found connected in three configurations: common emitter (CE),
common base (CB), and common collector (CC), sometimes referred to as "emitter
follower". Of these CE is the most common. The amplifier type is determined by
which terminal is common to both input and output circuits. The CE amplifier has the
emitter common to both the input and the output as seen in Figure 1. The reason for
CE popularity is that it exhibits both high voltage gain and high current gains.
The CE amplifier works because a relatively small amount of current flowing in
the emitter-base junction can control a large amount of current between the emitter
and collector. Any amplifier must have accurately set operating voltages and currents
applied to the transistor elements. These operating voltages and currents are called the
"bias". The emitter-base junction must always be forward biased. If it is reversed biased,
the junction ceases to conduct and so does the transistor. The transistor is said to be
in "cut-off".
With the base-emitter junction conducting, any current entering the base can be
attracted to the collector by the higher potential there. In fact, about 99% of the emitter
current will go on through the base into the collector. The other one percent goes into
the base circuit. That one percent is caused to be varied by adding to it and subtracting
from it (by an applied signal). This increasing and decreasing base current causes the
collector current to likewise increase and decrease. You can see that a small base current
is causing a large current change in the collector. This is known as amplification (to
make bigger). The transistor is said to have "gain" because its output signal is greater
than its input signal.
Phase reversal of the signal is accomplished like this: When a negative going signal is
applied to the base the base-emitter is reverse biased. In most cases it is not enough to
turn the transistor off, it just causes the collector current to decrease. As the collector
current decreases, the voltage drop across the transistor goes up. By applying Ohm’s law
we can see that if the transistor current decreases, its resistance must have increased.
The voltage drop across a resistance (the transistor) increases when its resistance in-
8.2. EXPERIMENT 49

creases. Thus, a less positive (more negative) input signal causes a more positive output
signal. These signals are opposites or 180 degrees out of phase.
Because the output impedance of the CE connected transistor is greater than its
input impedance, and its output current is greater than its input current, the output
voltage will also be greater. As a result of this, the CE amplifier has a voltage gain.
Voltage gain, A, is defined by a simple formula:

VOut
A= (8.1)
Vin
where A is the amount of voltage gain, Vout is the amount of peak-to-peak output
signal, and Vin is the peak-to-peak input signal.
Current gain is represented by the symbol (beta), and is defined by the formula:

Ic
β= (8.2)
Ib
where Ic is the collector current and Ib is the base current.

8.2 EXPERIMENT
PROCEDURE
1. We will use the configuration shown in Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1: Configuration of an amplifier.

2. The AC sinusoidal input signal with varying peak voltages is applied to the input of
the amplifier. Both applied input and corresponding output voltages are observed
on the screen of the oscilloscope (Oscilloscope is a device for the observation of
signals. You can measure the period and amplitude of any signal via oscilloscope,
but you cannot generate a signal using this device.). In Table 8.1, you see the peak
voltages of the sinusoidal input signals. By generating the input signals, fill the
second column with the corresponding peak voltages of the output signals. Peak
50 CHAPTER 8. BJT AMPLIFIER

voltage is illustrated as in Figure 8.2. You are expected to draw the graph of Vin
(horizontal axis) versus Vout (vertical axis), and interpret the graph that you draw.
That graph will give you an idea of the amplification capacity of the amplifier.
What is the behavior of that graph, is it linear, nonlinear or a combination of
them, if there is saturation in that graph what is the reason behind it?

Figure 8.2: Peak voltage of a signal (The figure is taken from this URL) .
8.2. EXPERIMENT 51

Table 8.1: Peak voltages of sinusoidal input (applied to amplifier) and sinusoidal output
(taken happily from the amplifier). The frequency value was constant and equal to 1
kHz.

Vin (mV) Vout (mV)

10
50
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1200
1400
1500
1600
1800
2000
2200
2500

3. The voltage gain of the amplifier is as following;

Vout
A= (8.3)
Vin
As you see, the voltage gain A is an unitless quantity, but still conventionally, its
unit is taken as V/V. You can find the frequency of the input signal, and the peak
voltage of the output signal in Table 8.2. When you apply a signal with certain
amount of frequency to the input of the amplifier you will obtain an amplified
signal at the output with the same amount of frequency as in input. In short,
the frequency of the signal depends only on the power source (namely function
generator), amplifiers cannot cause any change at the frequency.
You are expected to draw the graph of frequency (horizontal axis) versus voltage
gain (vertical axis). This graph will give you an idea about how the amplifica-
tion depends on the frequency. (Hint: Interpret the graph in terms of capacitive
52 CHAPTER 8. BJT AMPLIFIER

reactance.)

Table 8.2: Frequency of the input signal and peak voltage of the output signal. The
peak voltage of the input signal was constant and equal to 1000 mV.

f (kHz) Vout (mV)

1
2
4
6
8
10
8.3. QUESTIONS 53

8.3 QUESTIONS
1. What is the change an inverting amplifier makes at the output voltage relative to
the input voltage? To be more precise, what is inverted?

2. Simulate the circuit given in the lecture video. Plot (Vin -Vout ) vs time graph. Plot
Gain vs frequency for (1 kHz to 1MHz). (HINT: DC simulation, Transient Simula-
tion, AC Simulation, Equation-> Gain= dB(Vout /Vin ) Equation parameters must
be renamed according to dependent versions of the parameters generated by the
corresponding simulator. For instance, Transient Simulation will generate Vin .vt,
AC simulation will generate Vin .v etc.)
54 CHAPTER 8. BJT AMPLIFIER

8.4 REPORT
Chapter 9

JFET

55
56 CHAPTER 9. JFET

Istanbul Technical University

Physics Engineering Dept.
FIZ233EL - Electronics 1 Lab.

Experiment 9 - Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET)

Aim: Learn to build circuits using JFET, to observe the switching behavior of JFET.
Instruments & Materials: BF 246A JFET, Resistors(100Ω, 3.9kΩ), CADET, Bread-
board

9.1 INTRODUCTION
A Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET) is a type of semiconductor device that con-
trols the flow of current between its source and drain terminals using an electric field
applied to its junction region. It comes in two flavors: N-channel and P-channel. In an
N-channel JFET, applying a voltage between the gate and source terminals creates an
electric field that modulates the flow of electrons between the source and drain, acting
like a variable resistor. In a P-channel JFET, the process is similar, but with positive
charge carriers (holes) instead of electrons. JFETs find applications in various fields,
such as electronic amplifiers, where they provide high input impedance and low noise,
making them useful in audio equipment and signal processing circuits. They are also
employed as voltage-controlled resistors, voltage regulators, and in switching circuits
due to their fast response times and simple design. Furthermore, JFETs have proven
valuable in sensors and instrumentation, demonstrating their versatility in converting
physical quantities into electrical signals.

9.2 EXPERIMENT
Build the circuit given in Figure-9.1.

9.2.1 PROCEDURE
There are two parts of the experiment. For the first part; set VDD to 4.98V ≈ 5V and
keep it constant for this part. By changing the VGS , measure the voltage on the D leg
of the transistor. Fill Table-9.1 with corresponding values. VGS here, is defined
as VGS = VG − VS . Obviously, when VS is set to zero voltage (VS = 0) the definition
simplifies and becomes VGS = VG . For the second part, you will keep VGS constant for
three different values and observe the change in VD while changing VDD . Fill Table-9.2
in this manner.
9.3. QUESTIONS 57

VDD

RDD
100Ω

G
VG
RG S
3.9kΩ

Figure 9.1: JFET circuit

9.3 QUESTIONS
1. After you fill Table-9.1,try to determine the VD value(s) the transistor is in cutoff.
(Hint: When transistor is in cutoff, the drain current ID = 0). Use the following
equation,

VDD − VD
ID = . (9.1)
RD

2. Draw and interpret the graph of VDS (on x-axis) versus ID (on y-axis) at different
values of VGS , according to the data in Table-9.2. You need to calculate ID , using
Equation-9.1. Also VDS can be found as VDS = VD − VS . Again, if VS is equal to
zero, VDS = VD .
58 CHAPTER 9. JFET

9.4 REPORT
9.4.1 Table for the first part

Table 9.1: VD values for different values of VGS .

VGS [V ] VD [V ]
-0.5
-1.0
-1,5
-2.0
-2.5
-3.0
9.4. REPORT 59

9.4.2 Table for the second part

Table 9.2: VDD and corresponding VD values for three different constant values of VGS
VGS = −2V VGS = −1V VGS = −0.5V
VDD [V ] VD [V ] VDD [V ] VD [V ] VDD [V ] VD [V ]
0.5 0.5 0.5
1.0 1.0 1.0
1.5 1.5 1.5
2.0 2.0 2.0
2.5 2.5 2.5
3.0 3.0 3.0
3.5 3.5 3.5
4.0 4.0 4.0
4.5 4.5 4.5
5.0 5.0 5.0
5.5 5.5 5.5
6.0 6.0 6.0
7.0 7.0 7.0
8.0 8.0 8.0
9.0 9.0 9.0
10.0 10.0 10.0
60 CHAPTER 9. JFET
Chapter 10

LDR

61
62 CHAPTER 10. LDR

Istanbul Technical University

Physics Engineering Dept.
FIZ233EL - Electronics 1 Lab.

Experiment 10 - Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

Aim: The investigation of LDRs with regard to their operating principles.
Instruments & Materials: Voltmeter, ammeter, Resistors (120 kΩ, 470Ω), Transistor
BC547, LDR, 5V LED and power supply.

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Light dependent resistors or in other words photoresistors are very useful especially in
light /dark sensor circuits. They can also be referred to as photoconductors. Normally
the resistance of an LDR is very high, but when they are illuminated with light resistance
drops dramatically. A LDRs can have a variety of resistance and functions. For example,
it can be used to turn on a light when the LDR is in darkness or to turn o a light when
the LDR is in light. It can also work the other way around so when the LDR is in light
it turns on the circuit and when its in darkness the resistance increases and disrupts the
circuit.

Figure 10.1: Light Dependent Resistor

Light dependent resistors are a vital component in any electric circuit which is to be
turned on and off automatically according to the level of ambient light - for example,
solar powered garden lights, and night security lighting. When the light level is low, the
resistance of the LDR is high as shown in Figure-10.2. In this case, the current does not
flow from A to B due to high resistance.
The light photons falling on LDR surface excite electrons in the valence band. The
electrons move to the conduction band by absorbing energy. This movement decreases
the resistance of the material. In the presence of external battery current flows through
the LDR. The current increases with the light intensity. As the light intensity is in-
creased, more and more electrons move to the conduction band increasing the current
or decreasing LDR resistance.
10.2. EXPERIMENT 63

Figure 10.2: Resistance of a LDR

10.2 EXPERIMENT
10.2.1 Basic Measurements
1. Connect the LDR as shown in Figure-10.3

2. Measure the resistance of LDR in daylight, shadowy and dark. Write these values
to Table-10.1 at reports section at the end.

3. Construct the circuit below in Figure-10.4 on your breadboard. Observe the Led
by checking the light on the LDR.

Figure 10.3: Measurement Circuit for LDR

64 CHAPTER 10. LDR

Figure 10.4: Experiment Circuit

10.3 QUESTIONS
1. Briefly explain how the circuit works.

2. When the light is on or the room is bright, block a part of the light coming into the
LDR with a piece of paper. Is there a change in the intensity of the light emitted
by the LED?

3. This circuit can automatically turn on / off the street lamps according to the
intensity of light day or night. In that case, in order to turn on the LED in the
desired light intensity, what resistor must be adjustable resistor (trimpot) in the
circuit.?

4. Re-setup the circuit using a trimpot and note your observations.

10.4. REPORT 65

10.4 REPORT

Table 10.1: Measured Values

Resistance Value [Ω]

Daylight
Shadowy
Dark
66 CHAPTER 10. LDR
Appendices

67
APPENDIX A.
Breadboard

A breadboard which is a blank board with holes drilled temporary circuit board for
testing and prototyping circuits. Thanks to the breadboard, prototype circuits can be
obtained faster and easier.

Most breadboards have some numbers, letters, and plus and minus signs written on
them. These labels help you locate certain holes on the breadboard so you can follow
directions when building a circuit. If you have ever used a spreadsheet program like
Microsoft Excel® or Google Sheets™, the concept is exactly the same. Row numbers
and column letters help you identify individual holes in the breadboard, just like cells
in a spreadsheet. For example, all of the highlighted holes are in "column C."

Each set of five holes forming a half-row (columns A–E or columns F–J) is electrically
connected. For example, that means hole A1 is electrically connected to holes B1, C1,
D1, and E1. It is not connected to hole A2, because that hole is in a different row, with
a separate set of metal clips. It is also not connected to holes F1, G1, H1, I1, or J1,
because they are on the other "half" of the breadboard—the clips are not connected
across the gap in the middle. The red and blue lines, with plus (+) and minus (-) signs,
respectively. They are called the buses, also referred to as rails, and are typically used
to supply electrical power to your circuit when you connect them to a battery pack or
other external power supply. People can use the buses referred to by different names;
for example, power bus, positive bus, and voltage bus all refer to the one next to the
red line with the plus (+) sign. Similarly, negative bus and ground bus both refer to
one next to the blue (or black) line with the minus (-) sign.

19
Many electronic components have long metal legs called leads. Sometimes, shorter
metal legs are referred to as pins instead. Almost all components with leads will work
with a breadboard.

*www.sciencebuddies.org.

20
APPENDIX B.
Oscilloscope and Sıgnal Generator

Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is one of the most versatile electronic test equipment. It is capable of
displaying a graph of amplitude versus time and many other properties such as phase,
voltage, and frequency. The oscilloscope consists of a cathode tube, fluorescent display,
horizontal and vertical deflection plates, electronic control unit, input terminals and lots of
control buttons, switches and potentiometers.

Figure 1. Principle of an oscilloscope

It is possible to apply the potential to the horizontal deflection plates, either externally
or internally where the sweep rate can be adjusted from the controls on the oscilloscope. The
potential applied to the vertical deflection plate is applied externally. The internal circuit of
the oscilloscope and the control on the panels can arrange the screen, so that we will be able
to see the applied waveform even if their amplitudes change in many orders of magnitude.
If the potential to the horizontal deflection plates is applied externally, the oscilloscope
works at X-Y MODE. Otherwise it works at VERTICAL MODE.
In the vertical mode, Channel 1 and Channel 2 can be handled for two different signals
meanwhile. There are also Oscilloscopes available which have more than 2 channels.

21
 Figure 2: Oscilloscope

Figure 3: Oscilloscope probe

CONTROLS AND INDICATORS ON THE OSCILLOSCOPE

General Controls
1 ON indicator: Lights when oscilloscope is on.
3 POWER Pushbutton: Turns the oscilloscope on and off.
4 INTENSITY control: Adjusts the brightness of trace.
5 TRACE ROTATION Control: Adjusts to maintain trace at the horizontal plane.
6 FOCUS Control: Adjusts trace focus.
9 GND Terminal: Oscilloscope chassis ground jack, and earth ground via three-wire AC power
cord.
10 CAL Terminal: Terminal provides 2V p-p, 1KHz (nominal) square wave signal.

22
Vertical Controls
12 VERtical MODE Switch: Selects vertical display mode. Four position lever switch with
the following positions:
CH1: Displays the channel 1 by itself.
CH2/X-Y: CH2: Displays the channel 2 by itself, or X-Y: control and Trigger SOURCE switch
to enable X-Y display mode.
DUAL: displays the channel 1 and channel 2 signals simultaneously.
ADD: The inputs from channel 1 and channel 2 are summed and displayed as a single signal.
If the channel POSition/PULL INVert control is pulled out, the input from channel 2 is
subtracted from channel 1 and the difference is displayed as a single signal.
13 CH1 AC-GND-DC Switch:
AC: Channel 1input signal is coactively coupled; dc component is blocked.
GND: Opens signal path and grounds input to vertical amplifier. This provides a zero-volt base
line.
DC: Direct coupling of channel 1 input signal; both ac and dc component of signal produce
vertical deflection.
14 CH1 (X) Input Jack: Vertical input for channel 1, X-axis input for X-Y operation.
15 CH1 (X) VOLTS/DIV Control: Vertical attenuator for channel 1. Provides step adjustment
of vertical sensitivity.
16 CH 1 VARiable/PULL X5 control:
VARiable: Rotation provides vernier adjustment of channel 1 vertical sensitivity.
PULL X5: When pulled out, increases vertical sensitivity by a factor of five.
17 CH1 POSition/PULL ALT TRIGger Control:
POSition: Adjusts vertical position of channel 1 trace.
PULL ALT: Used in conjunction with the Trigger SOURCE switch to activate alternate
triggering.
18 CH2 POSition/PULL INVert Control:
POSition: Adjusts vertical position of channel 2 trace. In X-Y operation, rotation adjusts
vertical position of X-Y display.
PULL INVert: When pushed in, the polarity of the channel 2 is normal. When pushed out, the
polarity of the channel 2 is reversed, thus inverting the waveform.
19 CH2 (X) VOLTS/DIV Control: Vertical attenuator for channel 2. Provides step adjustment
of vertical sensitivity.
20 CH2 VARiable/PULL X5 Control:
VARiable: Rotation provides vernier adjustment of channel 2 vertical sensitivity.
PULL X5: When pulled out, increases vertical sensitivity by a factor of five.
21 CH2 (Y) Input Jack: Vertical input for channel 2, Y-axis input for X-Y operation.

22 CH2 AC-GND-DC Switch:

AC: Channel 2 input signal is coactively coupled; dc component is blocked.
GND: Opens signal path and grounds input to vertical amplifier. This provides a zero-volt base
line.
DC: Direct coupling of channel 2 input signal; both ac and dc component of signal produce
vertical deflection.

Horizontal Controls
23 A min Time Base TIME/DIV Control: Provides step selection of sweep rate for the main
time base.
26 VARiable Sweep Control: Rotation of control is vernier adjustment for sweep rate.
27 POSition/PULL X10 Control: POSition: horizontal (x) position control. PULL X10: Selects
ten times magnification when pulled.
29 X-Y Switch: Used with the VERTical MODE switch and Trigger SOURCE switch to select

23
X-Y operation mode. The channel 1 input becomes the x-axis and the channel 2 input becomes
the y-axis.

Triggering Controls
30 HOLDOFF/PULL CHOP control:
HOLDOFF: Rotation adjusts hold off time.
PULL CHOP: when this switch is pulled out in the dual-trace mode,, the channel 1 and channel
2sweeps are chopped and displayed simultaneously. When it is pushed in , the two sweeps are
alternately displayed, one after the other.
31 Trigger SOURCE Switch: Selects source of sweep trigger. Four-position lever switch with
the following positions:
CH1/X-Y/ALT: Causes the channel 1 input signal to become the sweep trigger, regardless of the
VERTical MODE switch setting.
X-Y: Used with two other switches to enable the X-Y mode.
ALT: Used with the channel 1 POSition/PULL ALTernate TRIGger control to enable alternate
trigger.
CH2: The channel 2 signal becomes the sweep trigger regardless of the VERTical MODE switch
setting.
LINE: Signal derived from the input line voltage (50/60 Hz) becomes trigger.
EXT: Signal from EXTernal TRIGger jack become sweep trigger.
32 Trigger COUPLING Switch: Selects trigger coupling. Four-position lever switch with the
following positions:
AUTO: Selects automatic trigger mode.
NORM: Selects normal triggered sweep operation.
TV-V: Used for triggering from vertical sync pulses (lo-pass dc).
TV-H: Used for triggering from horizontal sync pulses (hi-pass dc).
33 TRIGGER LEVEL/PULL(-) SLOPE Control:
TRIGger LEVEL: Trigger level adjustment; determines the point on the trigger waveform where
the sweep is triggered.
PULL(-) SLOPE: Two-position push-pull switch. The “in” position selects a positive-going slope
and the “out” position selects a negative-going slope as trigger point for main sweep.
34 EXTernal TRIGger Jack: External Trigger input for single and dual trace operation.

24
 Figure 4: Signal Generator

Controls And Indicators on the Signal Generator

1 Power Switch: The power switch applies to the function generator.

2 Power On Indicator: A Led is used to indicate when power is applied to the function
generator.
3 RANGE Switch: Seven fixed decades of frequency are provided by the RANGE pushbutton
switch.
4 FUNCTION Switch: Pushbutton switches provide selection of square, triangle, or sine
waveforms.
5 MULTIPLIER: The MULTIPLIER is a variable potentiometer allowing frequency setting
between fixed ranges.
6 DUTY CONTROL: time symmetry of the OUTPUT waveforms, as well as the TTL PULSE
output, is controlled by the DUTY potentiometer.
7 RAMP/ PULSE INVERTER: A pushbutton switch is provided to invert the time symmetry
set by the DUTY control.
8 DC OFFSET: A DC OFFSET control is provided to allow the DC level of the OUTPUT
waveforms to be set as desired.
9 AMPLITUDE: the AMPLITUDE control provides 20db of attenuation of the output
waveform selected by the FUNCTION switch.
10 ATT: When the switch is push, in addition to 20db provided by amplitude control, a
maximum of 40 db of attenuation, at the output.
11 OUTPUT: Square, triangle, sine, ramp and pulse waveforms are provided at up to 20V p-p
amplitude ( open circuit) at the OUTPUT.
12 VCF INPUT: A VCF (voltage controlled frequency) input is provided for externally
sweeping the frequency.
13 pulse OUTPUT: The PLSE OUTPUT is a TTL output signal suitable for driven TTL logic.

25
APPENDIX B.
Some important points on drawing a graph

Names and units of axes:

The names and units of the axes must be written

on the axes clearly.

Scaling the axes:

mb&g It is very important to scale the axes of a graph

according to data obtained in the experiment.
This is because the slope of the graph will be
more precise, when the data is spread on a larger
area of the milimetric paper. After placing the
axis so that the whole paper is being used, the
coordinates of the starting point is named (Vsmall,
msm msmall). The mass axis is scaled equally between
Vs Vb& msmall and mbig values. Similarly, the volume axis
all is scaled equally between Vsmall and Vbig values.
g The scales of the axes should not be expected to
mall
be the same.

Marking data obtained in the experiment:

The data obtained in the experiment must be

marked on the graph clearly.
Never write and mark the values of the data on
the axes.
Don’t write the values around the data points
which you marked on the graph.
Don’t draw line between the data points on the
graph.
(Volt)

wrong
U

I
(Amp
er)

26
 FÄt Fitting:
lÄne
U (Volt) After marking the data obtained during the
experiment on the graph, you must fit the data to
an appropriate function. For example, since the
relation between the potential difference and the
current is known to be linear, a line is drawn using
the data points. In constructing a graph, the least
square method is used in order to minimize the
error. The method of least squares says that the
line drawn between data points should be such
that the sum of the squares of perpendicular
I distances from the data points to the line is
minimum.
(Amper The slope of the line is calculated using the
coordinates of any two points on the line. It
) should be noted that data points should not be
used in determining the slope because, otherwise,
one would be skipping error reduction. Another
important point that should be kept in mind is that
the coordinates of the points are determined by
reading the corresponding values in the axes.

If you have huge or very small numbers, you can

multiply the axes with the powers of 10.

27
APPENDIX D
THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS*

*University Physics, Young and Freedman, 12th ed.Addision-Wesley.

28
APPENDIX E
UNIT CONVERSION FACTORS*

*University Physics, Young and Freedman, 12th ed.Addision-Wesley.

29
APPENDIX F
FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL CONSTANTS and PREFIXES for POWERS of 10 *

*University Physics, Young and Freedman, 12th ed.Addision-Wesley.

30
80 CHAPTER 10. LDR