CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH AND ITS SUBSYSTEMS

Earth is unique in our solar system because it has liquid water on its surface. In fact, most of
Earth’s surface is about 75 percent and covered with water. Water is present in the
atmosphere, ground, freshwater lakes, rivers, streams; and even in the polar ice caps. Water is
also found in all living things. Some plants, for example, are as much as 90–95 percent water
by weight. Adult humans are about 60 percent water by weight. Water is important for the
many life functions carried out by cells, tissues, and organs. It helps dissolve certain nutrients
and carry them throughout an organism. Water is also important for disposing of bodily
wastes. Scientists sometimes speak of Earth as having “Goldilocks” conditions—in other
words, Earth is “just right” for life as we know it. Earth’s place in the solar system as the
third planet from the Sun, places it in an area of space, that is not too hot and not too cold. If
the Sun is closer to Earth, liquid water would not be possible on this planet as all of it would
evaporate and life forms will not exist. If it were a little farther away, it would be colder and
liquid water would always be solid ice. Earth’s temperatures range from about –88˚C to 58˚C.
All organisms on the planet are adapted to temperatures within this range. Earth has enough
gravitational force to keep most gases close to its surface. These gases make up the
atmosphere. The planet’s atmosphere is approximately 21% oxygen, a gas which is produced
mostly by plants needed in respiration. Earth’s atmosphere also traps heat and protects the
Earth from the damaging rays of the Sun. The moon, the only satellite of Earth also plays
important role for life. The moon’s gravitational pull causes tides. In some instances, the
moon also plays a role in the distribution of life forms, like in birds for migration and
navigation. It also has an effect on the planet’s polar shifts.
1. Temperature – This will influence how quickly atoms and molecules move. Most living
things are limited to a temperature range of minus 15˚C to 115˚C. Given this temperature
range, H2O may still exist in liquid form being crucial to life. Among the other planets, only
Earth’s surface has this temperature range.
2. Water – This matter dissolves and transports materials in and out of the cell. Only Earth
has the right chemical materials like liquid water that could support life. Right Atmospheric
Conditions - The earth’s atmosphere is capable of trapping heat and houses the important
atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen which cause the earth to warm. It
shields the surface from harmful radiation through the ozone layer and Earth has the right
size to hold a sufficient-sized atmosphere. Earth’s atmosphere is about 100 miles thick.
3. Energy – Living things use light or chemical energy to run essential life processes. With
the availability of sufficient energy, organisms can perform different metabolic reactions
through the cells. The inner planets such as Earth, get too much sunlight for life. The outer
planets get too little.
4. Right Distance from the Sun – Earth is in the Goldilocks Zone. A region with the just the
right temperature to sustain life – not too cold not too hot.
5. Strong magnetic field - It shields us from the electromagnetic radiation coming from the
Sun. The magnetic field deflects the radiation that may destroy the ozone layer.
6. Nutrients – These are materials that build and maintain an organism’s body. The inner
planets including Earth and moons have the same general chemical components which makes
nutrients easily available in the environment. There are various biogeochemical cycles and
geologic processes that facilitate the transport and replenishment of the chemicals and
nutrients required by the biotic factors. Examples include water cycle and volcanism. The
presence of volcanoes, cycle of water and atmosphere, contribute to the flow of nutrients
within earth’s systems.
7. Greenhouse Gases - Without the greenhouse effect, Earth would be frozen, more than 60º
F colder. As mentioned above, the atmosphere is capable of trapping heat because of
greenhouse gases. Examples of greenhouse gases are water vapor, methane, and carbon
dioxide.
8. It is protected by the plate tectonics from the very hot temperature of the core – The
earth’s core causes the convection currents in the mantle causing the overlaying lithosphere to
move. However, the surface is protected from heat from the core by the lithospheric plates.
SUBSYSTEMS OF THE EARTH
Earth is one of the inner planets in the solar system. According to radiometric dating record, it
is said to be 4.56 billion years old. It is the only planet in the solar system to harbor life. Earth
is a closed system. This means that if it gets what it wants, it does not return it back. It gets
energy from the Sun but returns only some back to space. Biogeochemical cycles drive the
Earth’s subsystems. It is through these cycles that earth materials are recycled and replenish.
The following are the definitions of the subsystems.
1. Atmosphere – A set of layers of gases that blankets the planet held by the planet’s gravity.
It is consisted of 78% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon and 0.04% water vapor
including all other gases. Different layers of the atmosphere include the troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere.
2. Hydrosphere - It is the liquid component of the Earth including oceans, glacial waters,
and freshwater bodies that covers 70% of the earth’s surface; 98% of the water on Earth is
saltwater.
3. Geosphere - It is the solid sphere of the earth. This is where geologic processes such as
volcanism and orogenesis (mountain building) take place. The lithosphere is a part of the
geosphere that is composed of the solid, outermost part of the planet.
4. Biosphere - This is the living sphere of the earth. It is the totality of all the ecosystems in
the whole planet. It compels us to interact with other living organisms with the influence of
the abiotic factors in the system
SUMMARY
Earth is the only planet in the solar system where life of plants, animals, and even
microorganisms is possible. These salient features of Earth include distance from the sun,
right atmospheric conditions, availability of liquid water and even water vapor and solid ice,
influence of the moon, continuous flow of energy and nutrients in the system, strong
magnetic field and a fitting greenhouse effect to warm the planet.
There are four main subsystems of the Earth. The atmosphere is an envelope of gases
protecting the surface of the planet from ultraviolet radiation from the sun. The hydrosphere
all To form on or near r near there are which namely consist of consist of consist of Is a in of
comprised all the bodies of water such as ocean, sea, rivers, lakes and glaciers. The geosphere
is the solid portion of earth which is consist also of the lithosphere where the crust, mantle
and core are found. The biosphere is consisting of all life forms. These systems interact and
are interconnected in sustaining life in varied forms.
MINERALS AND ROCKS
From geologic perspective, a mineral must be naturally occurring crystalline solid.
Minerals found in dietary supplements are human-made inorganic compounds that contain
elements needed to sustain life. These dietary minerals typically contain elements that are
metals- calcium, potassium, phosphorus magnesium, and iron. Although these two types of
“minerals” are different, they are related. The sources of the elements used to make dietary
supplements are in fact the naturally occurring minerals on Earth’s crust. It should also be
noted that vitamins are organic compounds produced by living organisms, not inorganic
compounds, like minerals.
Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. Geologists define minerals as any present inorganic
solids that possess an orderly crystalline structure and a welldefined chemical composition. A
mineral must exhibit the following characteristics:
- Naturally occurring substances
- Orderly crystalline structure
- Inorganic substances (was never alive)
- A solid
- Chemical composition
1. Naturally occurring: Minerals form through natural processes, including volcanic
eruptions, precipitation of a solid out of a liquid, and weathering of pre-existing minerals.
Synthetic diamonds and rubies, and other substances with a specific chemical composition
and structure produced by chemists, engineers, and manufacturers are not considered true
minerals.
2. Solid: A true mineral must be solid at temperatures encountered at the earth’s surface.
Liquids and gases are not considered minerals, they do not have a characteristic crystal
structure. Ice for example ceases to exist as a mineral upon melting into liquid water.
3. Inorganic processes: Any material produced through organic activity – such as leaves,
bones, peat, shell, or soft animal tissue – is not considered a mineral. Most fossils, although
they were once living, have generally had their living tissues completely replaced by
inorganic processes after burial; thus, they are considered to be composed of minerals as well.
4. Chemical composition: Most minerals exist as chemical compounds composed of two or
more elements. The chemical formula of salt, or halite, is NaCl. A few minerals, consist of
only one type of atom such as graphite (carbon, in this case), therefore, the chemical formula
for graphite is written simply as C. All minerals are defined by their chemical composition.
Quartz, for example, has the chemical formula SiO2 .The gemstone amethyst is a form of
quartz that is colored pale to deep purple by the presence of the impurity Iron (Fe).
5. Orderly crystalline structure: Minerals are crystalline substance which means the
chemical composition of a mineral is reflected internally in a regular, repeating arrangement
of atoms, called the crystal structure of the mineral. The crystal structure of halite is shown in
Figure 2a and Figure 2b is cubic shape. The cubic shape of salt crystals very clearly reflects
the right-angle bonds between the Sodium (Na) and Chlorine (Cl) atoms in its atomic
structure. Figure 2a: structure of sodium Figure 2b: The cubic shape of salt chloride crystal
crystals results from the regular the crystal Through organic and inorganic processes,
minerals are formed. A few naturally occurring substances called mineraloids have
characteristic chemical compositions but are amorphous (having no definite shape). Opal is
an example.
Terms to remember:
1. inorganic processes- are found naturally in the ground after the burial of the living
materials e.g. salt or calcium carbonate (from shells and corals reefs).
2. crystal structure – the atoms of a mineral must be arranged in a definite pattern such as
quartz.
3. chemical composition – a mineral is composed of two or more elements
THE COMPOSITION OF MINERALS
There are approximately 4000 known minerals, uniquely defined by their chemical
composition and internal structure. From the previous texts, you are now familiar with
minerals such as quartz, halite (rock salt), gold, and diamond. Many materials found on the
Earth’s surface are not minerals. Water (H2O(l)) is not mineral because it's not a solid though
having the same chemical formula with ice. Coal is not a mineral because it is made up of
plant remains, it lacks a particular composition, and its atoms are not arranged in an orderly
way. Although they are produced by living things, the shells of such marine animals as clams
are composed of minerals. Out of all the elements found on Earth, only eight (8) make up
98.5 percent of the crust’s total mass.
These elements, which are the ones most common in minerals, are listed in the table below.
More than 90 percent of the minerals on the Earth’s crust are compounds containing oxygen
and silicon, the two most abundant elements. Most minerals are compounds. Quartz is a
compound of Silicon and Oxygen. The mineral galena is a compound of Lead and Sulfur. A
few minerals, however, contains single elements and are called native elements, these are
minerals that exists in their purest forms. Some of which include, Silver (Ag), Copper (Cu),
Sulfur (S), and Diamond (C). Often, differing types of minerals (compounds and native
elements) are found mixed together. Such mixtures of minerals are called rocks. The precise
chemical composition and internal atomic structure that defines each mineral also directly
determines its outward appearance and physical properties. Thus, in most cases, general
appearance and a couple of easily determined physical properties are sufficient to spot the
mineral.
THE STRUCTURE OF MINERALS
A mineral is composed of an ordered array of atoms chemically bonded to make a particular
crystalline structure. This orderly packing of atoms is reflected in the regularly shaped objects
we call crystals. Rocks are considered to be a combination of one or more minerals. The
growth of crystals is affected by competition for space. The following are some of the
defining features of a crystal.
 Crystal structure
 Regular, geometric, smooth faces
 Orderly arrangements with repeating structures
 Each mineral always forms the same crystal shape
 Six basic crystal shapes
 Crystallographic axes are used to determine structure
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
Minerals differ from each other in chemical composition and architecture, and these factors
produce distinctive physical properties that enable minerals to be identified Minerals are
solids formed primarily by inorganic processes. Each mineral has an orderly arrangement of
atoms (crystalline structure) and a particular chemical composition, which provides it a
singular set of physical properties. Minerals can be identified by their color, luster, streak,
cleavage, hardness, and even by their chemical composition. Using these properties is one
way a Geologist defines and identifies what kind of mineral a specimen is.
1. Crystal form – The external expression of a mineral that reflects the orderly internal
arrangement of atoms. A crystal may be a solid, homogeneous, displaying an orderly
array of atoms and should be in any size. The shape of a mineral’s crystal is
determined by the arrangement of atoms within it. Some crystals have smooth, planar
and regular geometric shapes. These are what most people think of as crystals. These
crystals rarely occur in nature, however, to develop those beautifully-shaped crystals,
the mineral must have unlimited space for growing. When minerals start to form solid
structure, microscopic crystals form and grow. This results from the cooling of molten
material or through precipitation from a solution. These tiny crystals will continue to
grow until they run out of space. Their shape will simply reflect the form of the void
which they grew. A nicely shaped crystal such as a geode will be formed if the
growing crystal runs out of material before it runs out of space. Examples of which
will include pyrite and quartz
2. Luster – This property describes the appearance of a mineral when light is reflected
from its surface. Is it shiny or dull: does it appear as like a metal or like glass?
Generally, the first thing you notice when identifying an unknown sample is the
mineral’s luster. Minerals that have the appearance of metals, regardless of color, are
said to have a metallic luster, like pyrite crystals. Minerals with a It’s time for you to
 know the different properties of minerals, so that you can easily identify the minerals
found in your surroundings. 9 nonmetallic luster are described by various adjectives.
They may be described as vitreous (glassy -like crystals), pearly, silky, resinous, and
earthy (dull). Some minerals appear somewhat metallic in luster and are said to be
sub-metallic. Minerals with a metallic luster look like metals such as steel or Copper.
They possess characteristics of being shiny and opaque, even when watching through
a skinny edge. Many metallic minerals become dull or earthy when they are exposed
to the elements for a long time (like Silver, they tarnish). To determine whether or not
a mineral exhibits a metallic luster, you may want to check out a recently broken part
of the mineral and exposed it to light. Minerals with an earthy luster exhibits earth or
dirt like features. Like metallic minerals, these are completely opaque, but dull. One
example is rust on Iron or tarnish that forms on metals. Vitreous luster is like that of
a shiny glass which may vary from translucent to transparent. Remember that glass
can be almost any color, including black, so don't be fooled by the color. Also, a dark
piece of glass may appear to be opaque if its thick enough. If you hold a thin edge up
to the light you should be able to see light bleeding through. Minerals with a waxy
luster look like paraffin, typically translucent but dull. Moreover, minerals with
pearly luster have an appearance almost like a pearl or that of an abalone shell –
translucent and glossy. When exposed to sunlight, a rainbow effect is displayed on the
surface (similar to an oil slick).
3. Color – This is the most obvious feature of a mineral but often an unreliable
diagnostic property. Many minerals are found in several colors. This is may be
attributed to the impurities added to the minerals. Some may have extra chemicals in
them that give them an unexpected color. One good example is quartz. Due to
impurities, quartz may have variety of colors including pink, purple (amethyst), milky
white, and even black.
4. Streak – This color of the mineral in its powdered form, which may or may not be the
same color as the outward color of the mineral. Streak is useful for identifying 10
minerals with metallic or earthy luster. Streak is obtained by scratching the mineral on
an unpolished piece of white porcelain called a streak plate. When the mineral is
rubbed across the plate, it produces a powder of that mineral, the reason that the
streak plate is harder than most minerals. When the excess powder is blown away,
what remains is the true color of the mineral. Streaking reveals the internal color of
the mineral thus it is more reliable than color in identifying minerals.
5. Hardness – This refers to a measure of the resistance of a mineral to abrasion or
scratching. Geologists use a standard hardness scale, called the Mohs scale. It consists
of 10 minerals arranged in order from 10 (hardest) to 1 (softest).
6. Cleavage – A mineral that exhibits cleavage consistently breaks, or cleaves, along
parallel flat surfaces called cleavage planes. Some examples are exhibited by the
following: halite, calcite, and fluorite as shown in the table.
7. Fracture – Minerals that don't exhibit cleavage when broken have exhibits fracture
like quartz. Minerals that break into smooth curved surfaces like those seen in broken
glass have a conchoidal fracture. Others break into splinters or fibers, like asbestos,
but most minerals fracture irregularly. Fractures are generally rough or irregular,
instead of flat, and thus appear duller than cleavage surfaces. Some minerals fracture
 in a way that helps spot them. There are other kinds of fracture that exist in nature
such as fibrous, splintery, or irregular.
8. Specific gravity –The specific gravity of a mineral is the weight of that mineral
divided by the weight of an equal volume of water. The specific gravity of water
equals 1.0, by definition. Most silicate, or rock-forming, minerals have specific
gravities of two .6 to 3.4; the ore minerals are usually heavier, with specific gravities
of 5 to eight. If you compare similar-sized samples of two different minerals, the one
with the higher specific gravity will feel the heaviest; it has a greater heft. For most
minerals, relative density isn't a very noteworthy feature, except for some, high
relative density is distinctive (examples are barite and galena). The average specific
gravity for mineral is around 2.7.
9. Other properties
o Taste – The salty taste if halite makes it easy to identify
o Smell – Sulfur smells like rotten-egg.
o Elasticity –A thin sheet of mica will bend and elastically snapback
o Malleability- Gold for example is widely use because of its ability to be
hammered and turn into sheets.
o Feel – Minerals like talc and graphite are easily identified due to the
distinct feeling they give to the observer; talc feels soapy while graphite
feels greasy
o Magnetism – Some minerals with high Iron content like hematite can
easily be identified using a magnetite.
o Double refraction – Some mineral like the transparent calcite exhibits
double refraction when light passes through them. When a printed material
is placed under it, the text will appear double.
o Reaction to hydrochloric acid – Like calcite and other carbonates, some
minerals react rapidly to weak acids. When exposed to acids, these
minerals will effervesce (fizz) indicating the release of Carbon dioxide
(CO2) gas.
MINERAL CLASSES
Approximately 4000 minerals have been named and new ones are identified each year, but
only a few dozen are common. Eight elements make up the bulk of these minerals, and
represent more than 98 percent (by weight) of continental crust. The eight elements that
compose most rock forming minerals, are: Oxygen (O), Silicon (Si), Aluminum (Al), Iron
(Fe), Calcium (Ca), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), and Magnesium (Mg). Oxygen (46.6% by
weight) and Silicon (27.7% by weight) are the most abundant elements in the crust of the
earth. All silicate minerals have the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron as their fundamental building
block. In some silicate minerals the tetrahedra are joined in chains; in others, the tetrahedra
are arranged into sheets, or three-dimensional networks. The term ore is employed to denote
useful metallic minerals, like hematite (mined for iron) and galena (mined for lead) which
will be mined for a profit also as some nonmetallic minerals, like fluor¬ite and sulfur, that
contain useful substances.
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

ROCK CYCLE
1. To conveniently discuss the rock cycle let us begin with the formation of igneous
rocks. Igneous rocks are formed by solidification and cooling of molten materials.
This process called crystallization may occur either beneath the earth’s surface or
following volcanic eruption at the surface.
2. When igneous rocks make their way to the surface, they will be pick up, transported
and deposited by any number of erosional agents such as running water, glaciers,
wind and waves. Due to these agents, the rocks will turn into sediments, which will be
deposited, usually as horizontal beds in the ocean and will undergo lithification. This
process where rocks experience cementation and compaction of converting the
sediments into solid rock (sedimentary rocks
3. If the resulting sedimentary is buried deep within the earth or involved in the dynamic
of mountain building, it will be subjected to great heat and pressure. The sedimentary
 rock will react to changing environment turn into the third type, metamorphic rock.
When metamorphic rock is subjected to still greater heat and pressure, it will melt to
create magma, which will eventually solidify as igneous rock
The path shown in Figure 1 is only the basic cycle; this is not the only possible path. For
example, if the igneous rock did not reach the surface instead is subjected to heat and
pressure beneath, it will turn into a metamorphic rock. Metamorphic rocks may be exposed to
the surface and be subjected to the agents that will turn them into sediments and eventually
through lithification turn them into sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks may be get buried
and melt turning into magma which will turn into igneous rocks. Rocks can transform from
one form to another. When magma pours out on Earth's surface, magma is called lava. Lava
is the same liquid rock matter that you see coming out of volcanoes.

Classification of Rocks
1. Igneous rock form from magma that cools and solidifies in a process called crystallization.
Crystal size depends on the rate of cooling. The faster the rate of cooling is, the smaller the
crystal; this is because, there is less time for crystals of the same chemical composition to
group together. On the other hand, the slower the rate of cooling, the bigger the crystal sizes
are; this is because the longer time for cooling is, the more the time for crystals of the same
chemical composition to group together. The texture of igneous rocks is classified into four
(4): 1) fine-grained, 2) coarse-grained, 3) porphyritic, and 4) glassy. Texture among minerals
refers to the size and arrangement of crystals.
Type of Texture
Igneous rocks can be categorized based on their texture and mineral composition. Felsic
rocks are usually made up of the light-colored silicate minerals like Potassium feldspar and
quartz. More examples of this are granite and rhyolite. Rocks of intermediate composition
contain plagioclase feldspar and amphibole such as andesite. Mafic rocks (e.g. basalt) contain
abundant olivine, pyroxene, and calcium feldspar
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
There are two groups of sedimentary rocks based on the source of the material.
[Link] sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation of materials that originated
from pre-existing rocks and was transported in the form of sediments as a result of
mechanical and chemical weathering. Common examples of this rock classification include
shale (most abundant), siltstone, sandstone, conglomerate or breccia.
Classification of detrital sedimentary rock name.
2. Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed when the dissolved substances from preexisting
rocks are precipitated by either inorganic or organic processes. Precipitation may occur
directly as the result of inorganic processes or indirectly as the result of life processes by
water dwelling organism like snails and clams that produce Calcium carbonate and is said to
have a biochemical origin. processes by water dwelling organisms and is said to have a
biochemical origin.

Common sedimentary rocks

1. Limestone is the most abundant chemical sedimentary rock. It is made up of Calcium
carbonate and forms either by inorganic means or as the result of biochemical processes.
“Identified Biochemical Limestone”
a. Coquina is a coarse rock composed of poorly cemented shells and shell fragments.
b. Chalk is a rock made up almost entirely of hard parts of microscopic organisms that are
not longer than the head of a pin.
c. Travertine is a form of limestone (CaCO3) that is deposited by hot springs or as a cave
deposit. This type of limestone is commonly seen decorated in caverns or as a deposit when
groundwater containing Calcium carbonate evaporates.
2. Microcrystalline quartz (precipitated quartz) are very small crystals which cannot be seen
by the naked eye. Examples include chert (light color), flint (dark), jasper(red) and
agate(banded)
3. Evaporites form eventually when the water saturated with salt evaporates but leaves the
deposit behind such as rock salt and gypsum.
4. Coal is made up mostly of organic matter, it is the end-product of the burial of large
amounts of plant material over extended periods. Lignite and bituminous coals are
sedimentary rocks, but anthracite is a metamorphic rock. Anthracite is formed when
bituminous coal undergoes metamorphism, and although it burns more cleanly, it is not as
widespread and is more expensive to mine.
3. Metamorphic rocks (“changed form" rocks) are formed from igneous rocks, sedimentary
rocks or even from other metamorphic rocks. Metamorphism is the change in the mineral’s
composition and texture of the rock when subjected to high temperature and pressure within
the earth; there is transformation of pre-existing rocks. The degree of metamorphism is
shown in the rock's texture and mineralogy.
Types:
1. Low-grade (slight changes) e.g., shale becomes slate
2. High-grade (substantial changes) causes the original features to be obliterated.
Metamorphic settings
1. Contact or thermal metamorphism takes place when the rock is intruded by magma. Here,
change is driven by the rise in temperature within the host rock surrounding a molten igneous
body.
2. Regional metamorphism occurs when a large area is affected due to large-scale heat and
pressure such as mountain building. When this happens, metamorphism produces a great
volume of metamorphic rocks.
Agents of Metamorphism
In this module, we identify three (3) agents of metamorphism, these are: (1) heat, (2) pressure
or stress due to confining pressure and differential stress during mountain building, and (3)
chemically active fluids (mainly water and other volatiles) which promote recrystallization by
enhancing ion migration.
Metamorphic textures
When rocks are subjected to low-grade metamorphism, they become more compact and thus
denser. A common example is the metamorphic slate. Here some types of metamorphic
textures:
[Link] texture results in the mineral alignment perpendicular to the compressional force
and usually gives the rock a layered or banded appearance.
Common foliated metamorphic rock:
a. Slate is a finely grained rock composed mostly of mica and produced through the
low-grade metamorphism of shale.
b. Schist (pronounce “shists”) is a strongly foliated rock and described as platy
meaning, the rock’s crystals are thin and leaf-like". Its types are based on
composition. c. Gneiss (pronounced “nice”) is a strong segregation of silicate
minerals and exhibits a "banded" texture (alternating layers of light and dark minerals
like granite.
2. Non-foliated texture contains equidimensional crystals and resembles a coarse- grained
igneous rock. Examples of non-foliated rocks are the following:
[Link] results when limestone (parent rock) is metamorphosed. There are large,
interlocking crystals of calcite and is used as a building stone and has variety of colors.
[Link] forms from quartz sandstone (parent rock); quartz grains are fused

HOW ORE MINERALS ARE FOUND, MINED AND PROCESSED FOR HUMAN
USE
Ores are natural rocks or sediments that hold one or more valuable minerals, mostly metals,
that can be mined, processed and sold at a great price (Thalhammer 2008, 10). They are
contained inside the Earth in a limited quantity because its creation and deposition would
take millions of years. Ore genesis, the process by which a deposit of ore is created has three
major types: internal processes, hydrothermal processes, and surficial processes. Internal
processes include geologic activity such as when volcanoes bring ore from deep in the planet
to the surface. Hydrothermal process happens when seawater circulates through cracks in
Earth’s crust and deposits minerals in the areas around hydrothermal vents. Hydrothermal
vents are cracks on the seafloor where seawater meets magma. Finally, ore can accumulate
through processes that happen on the surface of Earth, like erosion. This type of ore genesis is
referred to as surficial process (Evans 1993, 403)
Aside from ore genesis, ore minerals can also be deposited to the Earth because of the rocky
fragments or debris from the solar system that fall. These pieces of fragments, that enter the
Earth’s atmosphere are called meteorites or what we known as “shooting stars”. Countless
meteorites contain large amounts of iron ore where we could extract metallic iron for industry
and infrastructure purposes.
Moreover, ore minerals can be found in the Earth's surface or to its crust and at the ocean
floor. Quarts, mica and olivine are some of the silicate rocks that are frequently found on the
surface of the Earth. Likewise, igneous rocks (granite, gabbro and basalt), metamorphic rocks
(gneiss, schist and amphibolite) and sedimentary rocks (sandstone, shale, and limestone) can
also be found on the Earth’s crust (Williams 2013, 3). In the ocean floor or the “seabed”, the
presence of various ore minerals can also be found since the ocean floor itself is made up of
crystallized matter from silicate magma known as mafic rocks. Moreover, numerous Volcanic
Massive Sulfide (VMS) deposits can be observed in the ocean floor which are rich in ore that
can be mined for its resources. Minerals found under the seabed include gabbro, basalt,
serpentine, peridotite, olivine and ore minerals from Volcanic Massive Sulfide deposits.
Franklin, J.M.; Sangster, D.M.; Lydon, J.W.; 1981,485-627)

Ore is a nonrenewable resource and since modern societies rely so much on its use in
infrastructure and industry, miners need to find new ore deposits to withstand its increasing
demand. With this, mining enthusiasts have trekked every part of the world and even explore
the ocean’s depth, in search for these ores.
Mining is the process of extracting the valuable materials from the Earth. In the Philippines,
mining is a growing and promising industry. According to the Mines and Geosciences
Bureau’s (MGB) Mining Facts and Figures, our country is acknowledged as the largest
copper-gold deposits of the world and the fifth mineral-rich country of the world for gold,
copper, nickel and chromite. In 2018, our country was the world’s second-largest producer of
nickel ore and sold most of its output to its top buyer China. The Northern Central and
Southern part of Mindanao were identified as rich in chromium, copper and gold deposits.
Also, there are about 40 metallic mines and 62 non-metallic mines operating in the
Philippines, however, only 1.4% of these were covered by mining permits according to the
2016 record of the bureau. These mining companies have used the two main mining methods;
surface mining and underground mining.
In surface mining, minerals are extracted near the Earth’s surface. This includes six (6)
processes; strip mining, placer mining, mountain top, hydraulic mining, dredging and open
pit. In an underground mining, ores are taken out from the ground by digging. This includes
five (5) processes; slope mining, hard-rock, drift mining, shaft and bore-hole process.
These mining techniques have unearthed a lot of mineral deposits from the Earth and have
given man countless benefits. A fact that an ore is always mixed with unwanted rocks and
minerals known as gangue, these two can still be separated by mechanical or manual
processes (Hassan 2010,2).
Metallurgy is a process used to extract metals in their pure form. A substance called flux is
added to remove the gangue (impurities). There are classifications under the metallurgical
process. The first process in metallurgy is crushing and grinding of ores into a fine powder
(pulverization) in a crusher or ball mill. Second process is called ore dressing or the process
of removing impurities from ore. Third is doing the hydrolytic method wherein ores are
poured over a sloping, vibrating corrugated table with grooves of which a jet water flowed
over the surface. This allows the denser particles to settle in the grooves and washed away the
impurities. Fourth is to do magnetic separation in which the crushed ore is placed on a
conveyor belt with two wheels. One of the wheels is magnetic and therefore attracts magnetic
particles and those non-magnetic particles just fall apart. The fifth classification is called
froth floatation in which the crushed ore are placed in a large tank that contains oil and
water, then a current of compressed air will passed through to wet the ore and separates the
impurities in the form of froth. Because the ore is lighter, it floats and left the impurities
behind. Roasting and calcination is the last method in which a concentrated ore is heated 22
in the presence of oxygen (roasting) and is usually applied to sulfide ores. For ores containing
carbonate or hydrated oxides, heating is done in the absence of air to melt the ores, and this
process is known as calcination. Chalcocite, galena and sphalerite and other metals combined
with sulfur were exposed to this process to yield copper, zinc and iron (Gill 2018, 1-5) After
all these processes utilization follows. Man, further purified or mixed these metals with other
metals like what happened in a copper refinery or steel mill. Others are utilized by people in
jewellery business using the gold ores. Majority of these gold ores were converted into
jewelry and only small percentages were processed into electronic equipment, coins and
dental fillings. Likewise, since these ore minerals generate valuable metals, they were
considered a big help in infrastructure, trade and industry that in turn have boosted the
country’s economic health status in the world

There are five (5) existing mining sites in Region X as published by Mindanao Journal of
Science and Technology (Vol.13,2015). These mining places are situated at Gango, Libona,
in Bukidnon, Barangay Tumpagon and Barangay Pigsag-an in Cagayan de Oro City,
Nangcaon, Opol, in Misamis Oriental, and Rogongon, Iligan City. The miners in these
sites have use various methods in mining. Tunneling, panning /gold washing, flushing,
panning and flushing were used.
In the tunneling method, underground excavations are made to get the mineral ore. Panning,
in mining, is a simple method of separating gold from soil or gravels by washing in a pan
with water. In flushing method, crushed rocks are exposed to a high velocity water to
removed impurities and obtained the valuable element. Other miners used combination
methods with the hope of increasing yield. Miners from Gango, Libona in Bukidnon have
practiced the tunneling method since the mining location is not near the river system and the
area’s geography ranges from flat to very steep hills. Mining site that are located along the
river system have practiced gold panning methods like Barangay Nangcaon, Pigsag-an,
Tumpagon, and Rogongon Veteran gold miners and the local folks generally used gold
panning method as a manual technique of separating gold from other materials. With this
technique, the ground materials continue to pollute the river system specially the Iponan
River ecosystem with depositions of high loads of sediments that have shallow the river beds
and poses threat to other aquatic life since siltation lessen sunlight dispersion, water
temperature and water habitat productivity. Also, majority of the miner-respondents practiced
indigenous ways in their purification method. Fifty-seven percent (57%) of the miners in
Gango, Libona have used leaves (tuog), soap, water and vinegar. The use of mercury in their
mining activities is strictly forbidden yet there are few miners who opted to use mercury in
their mining activities. For the other mining sites (other than Gang, Libona, Bukidnono), the
use of water and bilingan or panning were commonly used as strainer to removed impurities
(Palmes et al. 2015,75-98). Moreover, other mining companies in Mindanao are using
extensively the leaching process because they believed that it is more convenient to do,
needs less energy and less harmful because there are no gaseous emissions involved in the
process. In this process, the ore is treated with chemicals (cyanide, ammonia, alkali and acid)
to convert the valuable metals within into soluble salts while impurity remain insoluble.
Then, it can then be washed out and processed to get the pure metal and leave the tailings
(material left over). However, excessive leaching releases harmful chemicals to the water
sources that may affect the communities’ drinking water. There are four types of leaching:
cyanide leaching (gold ore), ammonia leaching (crushed ore), alkali leaching (bauxite ore)
and acid leaching (sulfide ore). Additionally, a method called electrolysis uses electricity and
acid to separate metal from the ore. A metal like aluminum is extracted from bauxite by
electrolysis. In this manner, bauxite is placed in a pool of acid and run through it an electrical
current leaving aluminum in the process. Since mining industry is a promising business in the
Philippines, the government has imposed laws and stipulated in the Republic Act (R.A.) No.
7942, generally acknowledged as the "Philippine Mining Act of 1995. This act has given
benefit to both the government and the contractor. Health and safety measures for everyone
have been given priorities for the success of the mining industry relies to this protocol.
Moreover, mining knowhow and safety habits have been advanced by innovative companies
and were encouraged by governmental legislation (Glover and Morse 2000, 18).
In connection with this, biomining was introduced in the mining business wherein special
bacteria, prokaryotes and fungi are used to mine valuable metals from ore minerals without
drilling and blasting of rocks (Aggangan 2018, 1).
FOSSIL FUEL
Fossil fuels are source of energy derived from the fossilized remains of once living
plants and animals million years ago. Those remains of dead plants and animals long time
ago were buried and fossilized in the earth’s crust, thus this fuels are found beneath the
earth’s surface. Since this fuel originated from the remains of once living organisms, fossil
fuels composed mainly of high content of carbon and hydrogen, called hydrocarbons. Fossil
fuels includes coal, oil (includes petroleum or crude oil) and natural gas.
Coal is a type of fossil fuel that is non-renewable source of energy. It is a solid rock
form of fossil fuel that originated from the dead plant and animal matter that piled up in
layers for over million years ago. Its material is highly composed of carbon content. Coal can
be extracted using two methods: surface mining and underground mining. Surface mining,
also known as strip mining, involves the removal of the entire layer of rock and soil to access
the coal deposit beneath the surface. Underground mining involves the usage of heavy
machinery to cut coal from deep underground deposits.
Oil / Crude oil or also known as Petroleum is another type of fossil fuel that is non-
renewable. It is a liquid type of fossil fuel composed mostly of hydrocarbons. Like coal,
petroleum originates from the remains of living organisms. Petroleum comes from ancient
marine organisms like marine plants, algae and bacteria. This can be extracted by drilling on
land or at sea. It can also be extracted through strip mining in the case of tar sands oil and oil
shale. Once extracted, this oil will be transported to refineries to transform oil into usable
fuels like propane, kerosene, gasoline and other fuel products. Also it is used in making
plastic and paint products. Natural gas is a type of fossil fuel that is odorless, colorless
hydrocarbon gas. It made up of hydrocarbon that is mostly methane (CH4).
Natural gas, like other types of fossil fuels, is originated from the remains of plants,
animals, microorganisms that once lived millions of years ago. If a natural gas is found in
porous and permeable rock beds or mixed into oil reservoirs which can be extracted through
drilling, this is called conventional natural gas. On the other hand, unconventional natural
gas are those that are too difficult or expensive to extract and require a special stimulation
technique like fracking.
Process of formation of the different types of fossil fuels is almost the same. They
both originated from the remains of living organisms that lived millions of years ago.
However, coal formed from vegetation while oil came from marine organisms. Over millions
of years, the remains of these organisms were buried deeper beneath the earth’s surface as
time passes by. As the remains buried deeper, it will experienced extreme heat and pressure
beneath. Due to high pressure and temperature, this will result to the formation of fossil fuels.
Nowadays, these fossil fuels are drilled and extracted for human used. Coals are
fuelled in power plants to generate electricity. Oils are refined and transformed into usable
fuel like gasoline that fuels your engine. Natural gas is now used for fuel and a source of
energy for electricity.

Summary
1. Fossil fuels are source of energy derived from the fossilized remains of once living plants
and animals million years ago.
2. Fossil Fuels are non-renewable type of energy resource.
3. Fossil fuels are composed of hydrocarbons.
4. There are three types of fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas.
5. Coal is a solid rock form of fossil fuel that originated from the dead plant and animal
matter that piled up in layers for over million years ago.
6. Oil also known as petroleum, is a liquid type of fossil fuel composed mostly of
hydrocarbons.
7. Natural gas is a type of fossil fuel that is odorless, colorless hydrocarbon gas. And is made
mostly of methane (CH4).
8. Fossil fuels are commonly used as energy to power engines and other materials at home
and industries for these to work.
9. Fossil fuels as non-renewable source of energy have disadvantages and could impact
negatively to the environment especially during its combustion since it produces carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases.
Energy Resources- These are any source or supply that can be used to generate electricity.
There are two types of energy resources, renewable and non-renewable. Renewable
energy resources are natural source of energy that can be replenished over time, thus it does
not deplete. It is often called clean energy. Those energy resources that deplete and will not
be replenished are called non-renewable energy resources.
Various Earth’s resources can be tapped and used as source of energy. Table 1 below
shows several energy sources that are used in power plants to produce electricity in the
Philippines. Electricity powers our gadgets and appliances at home, machines and equipment
in industries. Almost all technologies are powered by electricity, even the economy.
Name Type of Power Plant Source
Calaca Thermal Plant Thermal Coal
Bohol Diesel plant Diesel-power Fossil fuel
Tiwi Plant Geothermal Earth’s interior
Agus 1 Hydroelectric water
Bataan Plant nuclear Nuclear fuel

Geothermal Energy, this comes from the Greek word “geo” means earth and
“therme” means heat. To define simply, geothermal energy is energy from the heat within the
earth. In your previous grade level, you have learned the structure of the earth. Earth is made
up of four layers namely: crust, mantle, outer core and inner core. As you go below the
surface of the earth, the temperature rises. This is because the earth’s core is very hot. The
outer core is a semi-liquid while the inner in solid. The core is made up mostly of minerals
mostly Iron (Fe) and Nickel (Ni).
Due to the hotness of the core, materials in the mantle, near the core are molten which
results to the formation of magma. Magma can push through holes and cracks in the crust
that could result to volcanic eruption and hot springs.
This is the reason why mostly of the geothermal power plants are located near these areas.
Hydroelectric Energy. From the Greek word “hydro” meaning water. Hydroelectric Energy
is an energy due to the flow of water.
In your previous grade level, you have encountered Kinetic Energy. This is the
energy in motion or moving objects. Since water can flow, it possesses kinetic energy. Much
kinetic energy is present in waters that moves and flows rapidly just like waterfalls. The
kinetic energy possess by the movement of the water is used to convert this energy to
electricity.
 We will dig deeper on the process on harvesting geothermal and hydroelectric energy
in power plants to generate electricity for human use. Stay tune for our next activities.
The Earth’s interior is said to be hot. The heat that comes from the Earth’s core can
melt the materials in the mantle resulting to magma. This magma warms up water which is
trapped in rock formation beneath the surface of the Earth. This becomes steam that powers
in the generation of electricity in geothermal power plants.
Geothermal energy can be generated either in through geothermal power plants or
geothermal heat pumps. The two differs in the depth of heat source to produce energy.
Geothermal power plants use the heat from deep within the Earth’s surface to produce
steam to generate electricity. On the other hand, geothermal heat pumps use heat just
beneath the earth’s surface in order to heat water or provide heat for buildings.
Geothermal power plant, how does it work?
In geothermal power plants, wells are drilled for about 1 to 2 miles deep beneath the
Earth’s surface to pump steam or hot water to the surface. As the hot water rises towards the
surface, the pressure drops causing the hot water to turn into steam. The kinetic energy of the
steam powers the turbine to spin. This converts kinetic energy (steam) to mechanical energy
(turbine). The turbine is connected to a generator that converts mechanical energy to
electricity. The electricity that produced in generator will flow to step up transformers raising
the voltage so it can travel long distances. The electricity will then flow to pole transformers
to power lines until it reaches your home.
The steam that is used to spin the turbine will undergo cooling in the cooling tower to
condense the steam back to water. The water will be injected back to the Earth’s surface in an
injection well. The process continues to sustain the supply of electricity.
Hydroelectric power plants use the energy of a falling or a moving water to generate
electricity.
Hydroelectric power plants, how does it work?
A dam raises the level of a source of water to create a drop of water. It also controls
the storing of water in a reservoir. The higher the level of the water, the greater the potential
energy. As the water flows or drops down, the potential energy is converted to kinetic
energy. This kinetic energy in water powers the blade of the turbine to spin, converting
kinetic energy to mechanical energy. The turbine is connected to a generator which converts
mechanical energy to electrical energy. The electricity generated in the generator is in AC.
Transformer will then takes the AC and increase its voltage (step-up) to ensure that the
electricity can flow to longer distances to your homes. High voltage electricity transmitted by
the transformer will step down in power lines sufficient enough to supply the needed voltage
in a community. It will continue to step-down until it reaches your homes and other business
establishments.

EARTH’S WATER RESOURCES

Water is very important to humans. We cannot live without water since our body is of
water. Human adult body is composed of 60% water. Our brain and heart is made up of 73%
water. Our lungs is about 83% water. The human skin is 64% water while our muscles and
kidneys are about 79% of water. Our bones are made up of 31% water. With this, we can say
”Water is Life!” because we are almost made up of water (Mitchell, H. H., [Link]; 1945).
Water has many uses to humans. Some household uses of water include cooking,
washing (dishes, clothes, cars, etc.), watering the plants, flushing toilets and cleaning.
Personal uses of water include drinking, washing teeth, taking a bath and bathroom purposes.
Water is also used by humans for recreational activities like going and swimming in the beach
or pool, fishing in lakes or rivers, water rafting, falls hopping and other adventurous activities
in water.
Water is not just important to humans but also in agriculture. Without water, crops and
agricultural plants will be withered and die. Like humans, plants are made up of water. That is
why irrigation is very important in agricultural lands to ensure enough supply water. What
would happen if agriculture collapses due to lack of water?
Water is also used in manufacturing and other industries. According to the United
States Geological Survey (USGS), water is used in industries for washing, cooling, diluting
fabricating, processing, and transporting products. Huge amount of water is consumed in the
production of food, paper and chemicals. Moreover, water is also used in petroleum refineries
and smelting facilities.
We have learned that 71% of our planet’s surface is covered with water. In activity 2,
you have identified several sources of water. Indeed, Earth is blessed with the abundance of
water supply. The question is, will all this water be available for us to use? Definitely not.
Earth’s water supply is mostly saltwater, for about 97.50%. Saltwater contains high
amount of salt which our body cannot contain. This could be toxic to us, too much salt in our
body causes shrinkage of our cells. Our body needs freshwater to dilute and release excess
salt in our body; this is the work of our kidney. Our kidney will collapse if there will be too
much salt. It is freshwater that human consumes everyday from household to personal use.
Freshwater is mostly needed in agriculture, manufacturing companies and industries. But
then there is only 2.5% supply of freshwater. Where are this 2.5% freshwater supply be
access?
Mostly of the freshwater supply, for about 68.90%, are locked up in icecaps and
glaciers and are not accessible to humans. For only about 31.10% of freshwater supply or
about 1% of the Earth’s entire water supply can easily be accessed by humans in underground
aquifers, rivers, streams and lakes. With this data, can you say there is enough water for
everyone?
Water is a renewable resource. It can be replenished over time. The next activity
would give us the idea of how water can be replenished in the process called Water Cycle.
Summary
1. Two various energy resources that are used in the Philippines: Geothermal and
Hydroelectric Energy.
2. Geothermal Energy comes from the Greek word “geo” means earth and “therme” means
heat. To define simply, geothermal energy is energy from the heat within the earth.
3. Geothermal energy can be tapped through geothermal power plants and geothermal
heat pumps.
4. Hydroelectric Energy from the Greek word “hydro” meaning water. Hydroelectric
Energy is energy due to the flow of water.
5. Hydroelectric Energy can be tapped through hydroelectric power plants.
6. Both geothermal and hydroelectric energy are renewable energy resources unlike fossil
fuels.
7. Geothermal and Hydroelectric Energies are tapped to supply electricity in order to power
our appliances and gadgets.
8. Water is essential to life. Several water resources include ocean, river, lake, gulf, stream,
swamp and spring.
9. About 97.50% of Earth’s water supply is mostly saltwater and only 2.5% is freshwater.
10. Out of 2.5% freshwater supply, 68.90%, are locked up in icecaps and glaciers and are
not accessible to humans.
11. Only about 31.10% of freshwater supply or about 1% of the Earth’s entire water supply
can easily be accessed by humans in underground aquifers, rivers, streams and lakes.
12. Water cycle replenishes the supply of water on Earth.
13. Three major process in water cycle: evaporation, condensation, precipitation.

Fossil Fuel Formation

What are fossil fuels?
Fossil fuels are basically remains of plants and animals that died millions of years
ago. They are the world’s primary energy source that provide most of the energy support in
transportation, electricity, and industries. They are natural and finite resources that are very
abundant and has a cheaper cost production compared to other resources present on Earth.
They are considered as non-renewable energy source as they take millions of years to form.
What are the major types of fossil fuels and where are they usually found?
There are three types of fossil fuels formation: coal, oil, and natural gas
1. Coal - is an important and primary fossil fuel present on Earth. Coal resources are found
predominantly where forest trees, plants and marshes existed before being buried and
compressed millions of years ago. Philippines uses approximately 50% coal resource to
produce energy and electricity. There are four major ranks of coal. First is anthracite, which
is the highest rank of coal. It is a hard, brittle, and black lustrous coal, often referred to as
hard coal, containing a high percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentage of volatile
matter. Second is the bituminous coal. It usually has a high heating value and is the most
common type of coal used in electricity generation. It appears shiny and smooth at first
glance, but when you look closely, you will see that it has layers. The third one is
subbituminous coal, which is black in color and dull, and has a higher heating value than
lignite. The last in rank is lignite, which is also known as brown coal. It is the lowest grade
coal with the least concentration of carbon.
2. Oil - Most of the oil that we are using today started forming millions of years ago. Oil is an
organic material, mostly algae, which was buried in mud at the bottom of the sea and lakes. It
is used mainly to produce transportation fuels and petroleum-based products. Philippines
imports crude oil and petroleum from Saudi Arabia and Russia. The majority of the market
are Petron Corporation, Pilipinas Shell, and Chevron Philippines.
3. Natural gas - is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas with the mixture of methane. It is
the Earth’s cleanest fossil fuel and is odorless and colorless in its natural state. Natural gas is
produced from sedimentary rock formation by forcing chemicals, water, and sand down a
well under high pressure. The Philippines’ main domestic source of energy is the Malampaya
natural gas field which is located at Palawan Island.
How are fossil fuels formed?
Millions of years ago the remains of prehistoric plants and animals are buried beneath
the Earth’s surface. These remains were covered by mud. The mud sediment was buried by
more sediments, and it started to change into rock as the temperature and pressure increase.
In that case fossil fuels are formed in a low oxygen environment. The plant and animal
remains were altered chemically by this process, and slowly changed into crude oil and
natural gas.
Through the spaces of permeable rock, the oils move upwards and will be trapped if it
reached impermeable rock. Oil companies can drill down through the impermeable rocks to
get it out. They are then able to turn it into products we can use, such as petrol and diesel. On
the other hand, coal can be extracted from the Earth through underground mining. Once it has
been extracted, it can be used to fuel power plants for electricity.

Hot and Cold

Heat is one of the types of energy that is dynamic, transferable and can be converted into
useful forms. It is the product of random motion of particles that are continuously colliding
and vibrating. Heat results to certain level of temperature (hotness or coldness) of a given
body. Observing the earth, as you go down, tremendous heat will be experienced. This is a
result of radioactivity at its interior. The heat generated beneath the ground is called
geothermal energy, that when harnessed can generate electrical energy for community use.
This is possible when a geothermal power plant is established equipped with technology that
runs the process of energy conversion.
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is not only used by a power plant for electricity generation. Another way
of using the energy is through heat pumps that can be installed at home. Heat pump works
depending on the season using water or a refrigerant and obtaining the Earth’s constant
temperature (50 – 60 oF) below the ground.
Types of Geothermal Power Plant
Dry Stream Plants-It sips directly hot steam beneath the ground through pipes to mobilize
generator turbines.
Flash Steam Plants- It pipes high pressure hot water from geothermal reservoir and convert it
into steam that turn generator turbines to produce electricity
Binary cycle Plants- It has a system that transfers heat from hot water sipped miles deep to
other liquid. Exceedingly high temperature from geothermal water changes the other liquid
into steam to drive the generator turbines.\
Thousand years ago, ancient people like Romans, Chinese and Native Americans have used
geothermal energy for daily activities such as cooking and bathing. At present, among the
different countries around the world, geothermal energy is commonly used by people who are
living in Iceland in heating water and building.
1. The country’s potentiality to harness non-renewable energy resources is dependent on
its geologic processes and features. For instance, the presence of geologic features
such as volcanoes and fumaroles, hot springs, and geysers are indicators that there are
available passages for geothermal energy to reach the surface of the earth. For
hydropower, the process of hydrologic cycle is important for the replenishment of
water in rivers and dams. The volume (density) and the steepness of the slope
(gravity) affects the efficiency of the power plant to generate electricity.
2. Geothermal energy is the heat from the earth’s core due to the slow decay of
radioactive substances. Different layers of the earth possess different temperatures as
the core found to be the hottest. This energy comes out to the surface through the
tectonic plate boundaries and edges where most formation of volcanoes occurs. When
molten materials (magma) come out through the spaces in between the plates, they
heat up the ground water suspended in the porous rocks. The process produces steam
(hydrothermal) that builds pressure needed to be emitted to the surface through
volcanoes. In this case, Philippines, being one of the countries within the Ring of Fire
that encircles the Pacific Ocean, is rich in renewable geothermal energy and has high
potential to harness it into electricity.
3. To test the capability of the area, geologists apply several methods to determine
whether an area has potentiality for geothermal reservoir. For instance, drilling a well
and measuring the temperature (300 – 700 oF) is the most reliable method before
putting up a power plant. If the obtained temperature is 50 – 60 oF, then, it can be
used for household purposes only like warming a house and building during winter
4. Applications of geothermal energy can be attained through either getting the surface
heat for heating purposes or drilling miles beneath the ground for electricity
generation. There are three main types of geothermal energy systems: 1) direct use
and district heating, 2) geothermal power plants and 3) geothermal heat pumps.
5. Direct use and district heating systems use hot water from springs or reservoirs
located near the surface of the earth. Ancient Roman, Chinese, and Native American
cultures used hot mineral springs for bathing, cooking, and heating. Today, many hot
 springs are still used for bathing, and many people believe the hot, mineral-rich
waters have health benefits. Geothermal energy is also used to directly heat individual
buildings and to heat multiple buildings with district heating systems. Hot water near
the earth's surface is piped into buildings for heat. A district heating system provides
heat for most of the buildings in Reykjavik, Iceland. Industrial applications of
geothermal energy include food dehydration (drying), gold mining, and milk
pasteurizing.
6. Geothermal power plants are generally constructed where geothermal reservoirs are
located, within a mile or two from the earth's surface. Geothermal power plants apply
hydrothermal resources that have both water (hydro) and heat (thermal). People utilize
these resources by drilling wells into the earth and then piping steam or hot water to
the surface. The hot water or steam powers a turbine that generates electricity. Some
geothermal wells are as much as two miles deep depending on the availability of
sufficient geothermal source. There are three basic types of geothermal power plants:
1) dry steam plants, 2) flash steam plants and 3) binary cycle power plants.
7. Geothermal heat pumps apply the constant temperatures near the surface of the earth
to increase and decrease the temperature of buildings or houses. Geothermal heat
pumps transfer heat from the ground (or water) into buildings during the winter and
reverse the process in the summer with the use of refrigerant
8. The environmental effects of geothermal energy depend on how geothermal energy is
consumed or how it is transformed into useful energy. Direct use applications and
geothermal heat pumps have almost no negative effects on the environment. In fact,
they reduce the use of energy sources that may have harmful effects the environment
due to emission of greenhouse gases. Geothermal power plants do not burn fuel to
generate electricity, so the levels of air pollutants they exhaust are low. Geothermal
power plants emit 97% less acid rain-causing sulfur compounds and about 99% less
carbon dioxide than fossil fuel power plants of similar size. Geothermal power plants
use scrubbers to remove the hydrogen sulfide naturally found in geothermal
reservoirs. Most geothermal power plants inject the geothermal steam and water that
they use back into the earth. This recycling helps to renew the geothermal resource.
Hydroelectric Power Resource
1. Hydropower or hydroelectricity is the conversion of flowing water (mechanical
energy) into electrical energy. Using this renewable (can be replaced within human
life span) energy resource, water (hydrologic) cycle that requires solar energy dictates
precipitation that can be collected by streams and rivers when falls in the form of rain
or snow. The amount of water in the area determines the efficiency in generating
electrical energy. Thus, irregularities in seasons and climate change that may result to
droughts directly affects the hydropower production. In terms of actual production,
the volume of water and the height of the source determines the rate of power
generation.
2. There are three main types of hydro plants. 1) Impoundment facilities are the most
common technology which uses a dam to create a large reservoir of water. Electricity
is made when water passes through turbines in the dam. 2) Pumped storage facilities
are similar but have a second reservoir below the dam. Water can be pumped from the
lower reservoir to the upper reservoir, storing energy for use later. 3) Run-of-river
 facilities rely more on natural water flow rates, diverting just a portion of river water
through turbines, sometimes without the use of a dam or reservoirs. Since run-of-river
hydro is subject to natural water variability, it is more intermittent than dammed
hydro.
3. However, there are many concerns with hydropower, particularly large dam facilities.
Damming a river has a significant impact on the regional ecosystem, by flooding
upstream landscapes, disrupting habitats for wildlife, blocking fish passages, and
often displacing local communities. In addition, dam failures can be catastrophic,
further disrupting landscapes and claiming the lives of those living downstream.
Finally, hydro plants are not completely free of greenhouse gas emissions. As with
most forms of energy, carbon dioxide emissions occur during construction,
particularly because of the large quantities of cement used, and loss of vegetation in
flooded areas creates methane, another greenhouse gas, as its matter decays
underwater.
The power generation of the country can be measured through gross power generation and
installed capacity. Gross power generation is the total generation of electricity by an electric
power plant while installed capacity is the maximum amount of electricity that the power
plant can produce. According to DOE, the country is still largely dependent on coal as
primary energy source with 52.05% share in gross power generation (GWh) as of December
2018. This is followed by renewable energy sources such as geothermal, hydro, solar, and
wind with a 22.27% share. In terms of installed capacity, coal still constitutes the highest
share (with 39.2%) followed by renewable energy (29.3%).

Hydroelectric Energy (a renewable source of energy)

Energy sources
 Various means by which energy can be generated.
 Essential for driving the economy and sustaining societies.
Renewable Source of Energy
o Natural Resource that causes no impact on the environment
o Can be naturally refilled
 o Unlimited
Non- renewable Source of energy
o Can have an environmental impact
o Limited
Hydroelectric Energy
 Hydroelectric energy refers to the generation of electricity using the energy of moving
water.
 A renewable source of energy.
Uses of Hydroelectric Energy
 Generates electricity for homes, industries, and businesses.
 Enabling irrigation for agriculture by supplying water.
Hydropower plant

THE PROCESS OF HYDROPOWER PLANT INVOLVES THE FOLLOWING

STEPS:
1. Water flows through a pipe, or penstock.
2. The water pushes against and turns blades in a turbine.
3. The turbine spins to power a generator to produce electricity.
4. The electricity is conducted from the hydropower plant to homes and businesses
through transmission lines.
Hydropower plant
 KALAYAAN THE KALAYAAN is a 736MW hydro power project located in
Calabarzon, Philippines.
  Hydro San Roque – Agno is a 435MW hydro power project. It is located on Agno
river/basin in Ilocos, Philippines.

 Magat is a 388MW hydro power project located in Cagayan Valley, Philippines.

Wind power plant

Wind power plants, also known as wind farms, are facilities that use wind turbines to
convert the kinetic energy of the wind into electrical energy. Wind generates enough kinetic
energy to produce roughly 35 times more electricity than humanity uses each day every 24
hrs.
Wind power plants are an important source of renewable energy, utilizing wind
turbines to convert kinetic energy from the wind into electrical power. Wind power plants are
a crucial component of the renewable energy landscape, offering a sustainable solution for
electricity generation. Their expansion and development play a vital role in the global pursuit
of carbon neutrality and sustainable energy systems.
Uses of wind Power Plants
 1. Electricity generation
- Wind power plants are primarily used to generate electricity. The kinetic energy of the
wind is converted into mechanical energy by the rotation of wind turbine blades. This
mechanical energy is then transformed into electrical energy using a generator, which
can be fed into the power grid or used on-site.
2. Sustainable energy source
- Wind power plants contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on
fossil fuels. They play a crucial role in achieving renewable energy targets and
combating climate change.
3. Diverse applications
- Besides electricity generation, wind power can be harnessed to pump water, grind grain,
or even power small-scale industrial and agricultural processes.
Basic principle of wind energy
- a series of sails or blades mounted around a rotor catch the wind and translate its kinetic
energy into rotational energy.
- the wind acts as a source of primary enegry and by spinning its blades, it produces
kinetic energy and a generator then converts this kinetic energy into electrical energy.
Benefits of wind power
Role in combating climate change - exploiting wind power means reducing the use
of fossil fuels, thereby cutting emissions of carbon dioxide, fine particles and other climate
altering substances responsible for the greenhouse effect.
Wind power can also help enegry self sufficiency, because it is essentially free once the wind
thus offering undeniable economic benefits.
Major applications of wind energy
Land based
- The majority of turbines are installed on land. And land-based wind energy is one of
the lowest-cost sources of electricity generation.
Distributed
- Distributed wind energy is a distributed energy resource, meaning it produces a smaller-
scale unit of power. In this case, it comprises one or more wind turbines, which range
from a kilowatt to several megawatts in capacity.
Offshore
- These behemoths depend on strong sea breezes to spin turbines that are either anchored
to the seafloor (called fixed-bottom wind turbines) or installed on platforms that float
(called floating wind turbines). Offshore wind turbines can provide electricity to power
ocean-based research and equipment, such as unmanned robots used for marine
exploration; remote or island communities disconnected from the grid; or entire cities
back on land.
Process of electricity generation in wind power plants
 Wind capture- Wind turbines are strategically placed in areas with high wind speeds,
typically on open plains, hilly terrains, or coastal regions. Modern turbines are designed to
capture wind from various directions, thanks to their ability to rotate automatically to face
the wind.
Mechanical energy conversion- As the wind blows, it causes the turbine blades to rotate.
This rotation converts wind's kinetic energy into mechanical energy.
Electrical energy conversion- The mechanical energy is transferred to a generator through a
shaft, which converts it into electrical energy through electromagnetic induction. The
electricity is generated in the form of alternating current (AC).
Transmission and distribution- The generated electricity is transmitted through power lines
to homes, businesses, or industrial facilities, where it can be used to power various devices or
stored for future use.
Grid integration- Wind power plants are typically connected to the power grid, allowing
surplus electricity to be supplied to consumers when demand is high and drawing from the
grid during low wind periods.
ADVANTAGE OF WIND POWER PLANTS
 The development of wind energy in the Philippines is a positive step towards a more
sustainable future. It can help to reduce the country's reliance on fossil fuels, improve
air quality, and create jobs.
 It's a clean and sustainable energy source, emitting no harmful gases or pollutants,
contributing to a healthier environment.
 The consistent wind patterns in many Philippine regions make wind energy a reliable
electricity generator.
 Wind power proves cost-effective in comparison to fossil fuels and offers employment
opportunities, supporting the economy.
 wind energy improves energy security while protecting the environment. Wind energy
can help to protect the environment by reducing air pollution and greenhouse gas
emissions.
DISADVANTAGE OF WIND POWER PLANTS
 Wind turbines can be fatal to wildlife. Birds and bats collide with them and turbines
interfere with bat sonar navigation. Certain species with low reproductive rates are
more impacted, as are migratory birds, but researchers are investigating innovative
ways to reduce the danger to wildlife.
 Wind turbines create both aerodynamic noise of the blades slicing through the air and
mechanical noise of the power generating machinery in them. The noise can affect
wildlife but is generally not a factor unless you are standing nearby.
 Wind power is limited by location. Wind power does not work everywhere. You need
areas where wind blows strong and steady to make the investment worthwhile. Even
with ideal locations in coastal areas, hills, and open fields where the wind is especially
strong, it doesn’t blow all the time. Energy generation slows or stops when the wind
slows or stops, a concept known as “intermittency.”
Location of Wind power plants in the Philippines
1. Bangui Ilocos Norte- This is the country's pioneer wind farm. This farm uses 20 units
of 70m high vestas V82 1.65 MW wind turbines, arranged in a single row.
2. Burgos Ilocos Norte- It is currently the largest wind farm in the Philippines. It
consists of 50 V90 wind turbines each with a capacity of 3MW making it a 150MW
wind farm.
3. Pilla Rizal- Situated in the Sierra Madre Mountain range, Pililla hosts the first wind
farm in Luzon with 27 wind turbines grouped into three clusters with an aggregate
capacity of 54 MW.
4. San Lorenzo wind Farm- Off the coast of Iloilo, Guimaras Island is known for its
wind farm consisting of 27 wind turbines, each generating 2 MW of power. It is the
first wind energy project that can consistenly deliver 100% of capacity to the Visayas
Grid.
5. Kidapawan City Mindanao- Wind power plants are also present in Mindanao, with
Kidapawan City being a notable location with several turbines.
6. Caparispisan wind farm- Also known as the North Luzon Renewables Wind Farm.
This wind farm has 27 individual wind turbines occupying a 625-hectare land area.
SOLAR
- the radiation emitted from the sun which can be used to form energy without the use of
electricity. It has a battery like that is called the solar panel
- Solar panels are an increasingly important tool in our efforts to transition to clean,
renewable energy sources. They harness the power of the sun and convert it into
electricity, reducing our dependence on fossil fuels and lowering greenhouse gas
emissions.
- One of the main benefits of solar panels is their ability to generate electricity without
producing any harmful emissions. This makes them a clean and sustainable energy
option that helps combat climate change.
- Solar panels also help reduce air pollution,water polution, and dependence on imported
fuels
- Another advantage of solar panels is their long-term cost savings. While the initial
installation cost may be higher compared to traditional energy sources, solar panels can
significantly reduce or even eliminate your monthly electricity bills over time. They
require minimal maintenance and have a lifespan of 25-30 years, providing a reliable
source of energy for decades
- Solar panels can also provide energy independence and resilience. By generating your
own electricity, you become less reliant on the grid and are protected from power
outages. Additionally, with advancements in energy storage technology, excess energy
produced during the day can be stored and used at night or during cloudy days
- Furthermore, solar panels have a positive impact on job creation and economic growth.
The solar industry has experienced significant growth in recent years, creating numerous
job opportunities in manufacturing, installation, and maintenance. This not only boosts
the economy but also enhances local job markets
- Overall, solar panels play a vital role in mitigating climate change, reducing pollution,
and promoting sustainable development. Their importance lies in their ability to provide
clean, renewable energy while offering longterm cost savings and energy independence
Uses
• Energy Security: Harnessing solar power decreases the Philippines' dependence on fossil
fuels, reducing exposure to external risks and lessening reliance on costly foreign oil,
ultimately contributing to a more energy-secure nation.
• Clean Electricity: Solar panels generate clean energy from sunlight.
• Rural Electrification: Bring electricity to remote areas.
• Agriculture/Irrigation: Power water pumps for farming.
• Street Lighting: Illuminate streets with solar-powered lights.
• Cost Savings: Lower electricity bills for homes and businesses.
• Disaster Resilience: Provide backup power during outages.
Process
1. Solar Absorption: Solar panels contains Photovoltaic cells that absorb sunlight.
2. Electron Excitation: Sunlight excites electrons, creating an electric current.
3. Direct Current (DC) Generation:The generated current is in the form of DC electricity.
4. Inverter Conversion: An inverter converts DC to usable Alternating Current (AC)
electricity.
5. Power Usage: The AC electricity is used to power homes, businesses, or devices.
6. Excess Energy Handling: Extra electricity can be stored or returned to the grid.
7. Monitoring & Optimization: Systems track performance for efficiency and maintenance.

Where Can We Find Solars?

1. Bangui Wind Farm: This iconic wind farm in Ilocos Norte incorporates both wind
turbines and solar panels for renewable energy generation.
2. Residential Areas: Many homes have solar panels on their rooftops to generate electricity
for their own use. Especially in Urban and Suburban areas.
3. Solar-Powered Street Lights: Urban and Rural places uses solarpowered street lights to
illuminate roads and public areas.
4. Off-Grid Communities: Solar panels are used in remote and offgrid areas to provide
electricity to improve the quality of life.
5. Agricultural Areas: Solar panels are employed in agriculture to power water pumps for
irrigation and other farming activities.
6. Commercial and Industrial Facilities: Many businesses and industrial facilities have
installed solar panels to reduce energy costs and promote sustainability.
7. Eco-Tourism: Solar installations are often used in eco-tourism projects, resorts, and
remote lodges to support sustainable energy practices
Solar panels, also known as photovoltaic (PV) panels, are devices that convert sunlight into
electricity. They are made up of multiple solar cells, which are typically made from silicon,
and each cell consists of two layers of semiconductors. When sunlight hits these cells, it
creates and electric field across the layers, thus producing direct current (DC) electricity. This
DC electricity then passes through an inverter, which convert it into alternating current (AC)
electricity that can be used to power homes, businesses, and other electrical devices. Solar
panels are designed to capture as much sunlight as possible and generate as much electricity
as they can in a given area.
Geothermal Energy
1904
Prince Piero Ginori Conti invents the first geothermal power plant at the Larderello dry steam
field in Tuscany, Italy.
- (Geo means Earth and thermal means Heat)
- a thermal energy in the Earth's crust. It combines energy from the formation of the
planet and from radioactive decay. Geothermal energy has been exploited as a source of
heat and/or electric power for millennia.

Geothermal Power Plants

1. Heat water is pumped from deep underground through a well under high pressure.
2. When the water reaches the surface, the pressure id dropped, which causes the water
to turn into steam.
3. The steam spins a turbine, which is connected to a generator that produces electricity.
4. The steam cools off in a cooling tower and condenses back to water.
 5. The cooled water is pumped back into the Earth to begin the process again.
Geothermal Heat Pumps

1. Heat from the Earth’s crust creates steam

2. Steam rotates turbine once the geothermal water is converted to steam above the
Earth’s surface, the steam rotates a turbine.
3. Generator Produces Electricity
4. Water is injected back into the ground
The major uses of Geothermal energy
• Production of electricity
• Heating and cooling purposes
• In agriculture
• Steam process for fishing
• In road construction
• In plate tectonics
• Room heating
• Snow melting
• Desalination
• In climate change
• In timber mills
• In oil production
Advantages of Geothermal Energy
 • Room heating
• Snow melting
• Desalination
• In climate change
• In timber mills
• In oil production
Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy
1. Environmental issues
2. Surface instability (earthquakes)
3. Expensive
4. Location- specific
5. Sustainability issues
Geothermal power plants in the Philippines
1. Makban Geothermal Power Complex
2. Tiwi Geothermal Power Plant (Tiwi a Albay)
3. Bac- Man Geothermal Power Plant (Bacon Sorsogon)
4. Maibarara Geothermal Power Plant (Sto. Tomas in Batangas)
Fossil Fuel
Different types of fossil fuels:
• Natural Gas
• Coal
• Oil
Process of Fossil Fuels
1. Exploration and Extraction: The first step is to locate areas with potential fossil fuel
deposits, such as coal mines or oil fields. Geologists and experts use various methods,
including seismic surveys, drilling, and aerial exploration, to identify and confirm the
presence of fossil fuel reserves.
2. Drilling: Once a potential reserve is identified, drilling rigs are used to extract the
fossil fuels fromthe ground. For oil and natural gas, drilling is typically done
vertically or horizontally, reaching deep into the Earth's crust. For coal, open-pit or
underground mining methods are used to extract
3. Extraction and Refinement: After extraction, the fossil fuels are transported to
processing facilities. For crude oil and natural gas, they undergo a refining process to
separate different components such as gasoline, diesel, and petrochemicals. Coal, on
 the other hand, undergoes a cleaning process to remove impurities before it is used for
energy production.
4. Energy Generation: The refined fossil fuels are then used for energy generation. They
are burned in power plants or engines to produce heat, which is then converted into
mechanical energy or electricity. In the case of coal, it is often burned in large boilers
to produce steam, which drives turbines connected to generators. Oil and natural gas
can be burned directly in engines or used as fuel in power plants hips.
5. Distribution and Consumption: The produced energy is transmitted and distributed
through a network of power lines or pipelines to reach consumers. It can be used to
power homes, businesses, industries, and transportation systems. In transportation,
fossil fuels are commonly used as fuel for cars, trucks, airplanes, and ships.
Uses of Fossil Fuel
Agriculture. Fossil fuels are crucial in AGRICULTURE for powering farm machinery,
producing fertilizers and pesticides, and transporting agricultural products from farms to
markets. They are essential for producing enough food to feed the growing global population.
However, there are concerns about the environmental impact of fossil fuel use in agriculture,
and efforts are being made to find alternative sources of [Link] to produce energy, which
contributes to climate change. Furthermore, the extraction and transportation of fossil fuels
may have detrimental effects on the environment, such as habitat destruction and
contamination of the air and water. Alternative energy sources including wind, solar, and
hydropower are being investigated as cleaner substitutes in order to lessen the negative
impacts of using electricity produced from fossil fuels.
Factories. Fossil fuels are extensively used in FACTORIES to generate electricity, power
machinery and equipment, and provide heat for industrial processes. However, the burning of
fossil fuels in factories releases large amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere,
contributing to climate change and causing negative environmental impacts. To reduce their
reliance on fossil fuels, factories are adopting energy-efficient technologies, exploring the use
of renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and hydropower, and considering alternative
fuels such as biomass and biofuels. These efforts are crucial to mitigate the negative effects of
fossil fuel usage in factories on the environment.
Electricity. Fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas are burned in power plants to
produce electricity. These fuels are burned to produce heat, which is then utilized to produce
steam, which powers a turbine that produces electricity. Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases are released into the atmosphere during the burning of fossil fuels to produce energy,
which contributes to climate change. Furthermore, the extraction and transportation of fossil
fuels may have detrimental effects on the environment, such as habitat destruction and
contamination of the air and water. Alternative energy sources including wind, solar, and
hydropower are being investigated as cleaner substitutes in order to lessen the negative
impacts of using electricity produced from fossil fuels.
Transportation. Fossil Fuels power the majority of vehicles worldwide. Gasoline and diesel,
derived from oil, are use in cars, trucks, airplanes, and ships for transportation.
Area of Fossil Fuel
- The Philippines has limited fossil fuel reserves compared to other countries, but there are a
few areas where deposits have been found. Here are some notable regions in the Philippines
known for their fossil fuel reserves:
1. Northwest Palawan Basin: Located off the northwest coast of Palawan Island, the
Northwest Palawan Basin is known for its oil and natural gas reserves. It is considered one of
the most promising areas for offshore exploration in the country.
2. Sulu Sea: The Sulu Sea, particularly the waters surrounding the island of Mindanao, has
potential oil and natural gas reserves. Exploration activities have been conducted in this
region, but commercial production has not yet been established.
3. Cebu and Leyte Basins: The Cebu and Leyte Basins, located in the Visayas region, have
shown indications of oil and natural gas deposits. However, further exploration is needed to
determine the extent of these reserves.
4. Isabela Basin: Found in the northeastern part of Luzon Island, the Isabela Basin has shown
potential for oil and natural gas deposits. Exploration efforts are ongoing to assess their
commercial viability.
5. Cotabato Basin: This basin, located in Mindanao, has potential natural gas reserves.
However, exploration and development activities are still in their early stages.

OF RIPPLES AND REFLECTIONS: HUMAN IMPACTS ON FRESHWATER

Water Facts
In the previous module, you have learned about the various water resources on Earth. Recall
that we live on a blue planet where water circulates through the water cycle in its different
states, as water vapour, liquid water and ice. The freshwater in our world is found in three
main places:
 Atmospheric water in the air either as a solid (hail, snow), liquid (fog, mist, rain) or
gas (invisible water vapour)
 Surface water as runoff and base-flow into and from the catchment areas like lakes
 Groundwater in the cracks and spaces of soil, sand, and rocks underground, generally
adequate and of high quality that does not require treatment for human use.
But despite the seeming abundance of water on Earth, freshwater availability is less than 2.5
percent of the world‟s water supply. Of this percentage, less than one third is easily
accessible from surface water bodies like lakes and rivers and from the underground stored in
aquifers. This leaves us with less than 1% available for water, sanitation and hygiene needs.
Of Direct and Indirect Water Uses
There are two categories of water use: direct and indirect. You directly use water in
different activities like hand washing, drinking, cooking, bathing, cleaning and many more.
You also used water indirectly through the food you eat, the things you buy, and even the
energy you use. The water used to produce or process a commodity, commercial goods or
service is referred to us virtual water. The measurement of virtual water along the full
production - consumption chain is referred to as a water footprint. Let‟s say you drank one
liter of tap water last night. Due to this action, you directly consumed one liter of actual tap
water. If today, you will buy a 1-L bottled water and drink all of it, you would have directly
consumed one liter of bottled water. But you also indirectly used the many liters of virtual
water needed (and some amount possibly got wasted) to produce and supply the water bottle
itself. Depending on where and how the bottle was produced, you just added five liters or
more of freshwater to your water footprint because of that action. Your personal water
footprint is the total volume of water required in the production of the services and goods you
patronize and use. So in which type of water use did you consume more water? Drinking tap
water or drinking bottled water? What can you do minimize your total water consumption
even if you still prefer bottled water to tap? How did you estimate which water use is larger?
Within this week you will make a simple water audit of your direct water use for 24 hours. To
help you prepare for it, analyze Table 2 for direct and indirect water uses and the total volume
per use.
The global average water footprint for this paper alone is estimated to be between 2-13 liters.
The exact amount depends on the type and origin of the paper materials used. If recycled
paper is used instead of raw paper materials, then an estimated 40% of virtual water is saved.

Generally, water is required in the different paper production stages – from growing wood to
processing pulp into paper products. But most of the water is required in growing the tree,
where water consumption refers to the forest evapotranspiration. Then, there‟s the additional
water used during the manufacturing processes in the industrial stage, mostly due to the
evaporation and contamination of groundwater and surface water.

Of water Footprints
When you compare how much water is used to make a variety of products, you can
be guided on how to reduce your virtual water consumption or your „water footprint‟. Virtual
water applies to products only, while water footprint as introduced by Hoekstra in 2002
applies not only to products but also to a process, a producer, a consumer or a nation. It has
three components:
 The green water footprint refers to consumption of green water resources like
rainwater that is stored as soil moisture in the root zone. Green water also
evaporates from plants by evapotranspiration and is important for agriculture, forestry
and horticulture.
5
 The blue water footprint refers to consumption of blue water resources like surface
water and groundwater. This can evaporate, naturally flow or become part of the
product. Domestic, industry and irrigated agriculture uses blue water.
 The grey water footprint refers to polluted water or water used to dilute pollutants to
satisfy water quality standards. This is what goes into bathroom floor drains, sinks
and sewage facilities.
The Philippines has abundant water resources with an annual average rainfall of
about 2,400 millimeters. The surface water potential is 125,790 million cubic meter (MCM)
while the groundwater potential is 20,200 MCM.
By 2025, the estimated water demand in the country is 85,401 MCM per year but the
estimated available water by then is only 60,586 MCM/yr. Supply cannot meet demand.
More often, water tends to be available in the wrong place, at the wrong time with the wrong
quality (National Action Plan to Combat Desertification, Land Degradation and Drought,
2010-2020).
On the average, 70%, 20% and 10% of global water consumption was used in the
agricultural, industrial and municipal sectors respectively (Shiklomanov, 1999). During 1996
to 2005, 89.7%, 5.8% and 4.5% of the Philippine water footprint was used in the
agricultural, industrial and municipal sectors. Of the blue water resources, 63% was used
for rice production, while grey water (contaminated water) volume came mostly from
industrial use at 44% and from domestic use at 33%. So water pollution was mostly
generated by industrial and domestic activities. Indeed, water footprint assessments
reveal patterns of indirect water use of individuals, businesses and nations just as water
audits do for direct water use.