COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW

1. Explain compressible and incompressible flow.

Let a cylinder filled with air, if you apply a load on it, volume of air
changes and the density of the air will be changing. We say air is
compressible.
For a compressible fluid, density ≠constant. However if the fluid was a
liquid like water its volume will not change even if we apply a load on it
i.e., we say liquids are incompressible.
For an incompressible fluid flow, density is constant.
2. Derive an expression for the velocity of sound in air?

P = Pressure ρ =Density
a = Velocity h = Enthalpy

Consider a piston cylinder arrangement with an air column. Let the

property of the air be P, ρ, a, h when it is in the initial, stage
Let the piston be given an incremental distance. This will make a
compression shock wave and move forward with velocity of sound.
Enclose one such sound wave in a control volume.
Apply continuity equation towards the left and right of the control
volume.
i.e., mright = mleft
ρAa=( ρ+dρ)A(a-da)
ρa = ρa – ρda + dρa - dρda
dρ da can be neglected, since it is extremely small.
ρ da = dρ a……………………………….. (1)
The steady flow energy equation is given by
2 2
c1 c2
h1 + + g z 1=h2 + + g z 2+Ws+ q
2 2
Let the change in P.E is negligible and the work transfer and heat transfer
is zero.
2 2
c1 c2
h1 + =h2 +
2 2

Apply the energy equation to the left and right of the control volume and
we get

( a−ad )2 a2
dh+ h+ =h+
2 2
2
a2 ( da ) a2
dh+ −ada+ =
2 2 2
2
da
dh−ada+ =0
2
Since da is very small (da) 2 is extremely small and it can be neglected
So, dh-ada=0
dh=ada……………………………(2)
we know that Tds=dh-vdp
The propagation of the sound wave can be considered as an isentropic
process
For an isentropic process ds=0
 dh=vdp……………………………………..(3)
(2) in (3) ada = vdp ……………………………………...(4)
adρ
Using equation (1) we get da=
ρ
a∗adρ
Sub in (4) we get =vdp
ρ
v = specific volume (which is the volume when m=1kg)
2 dρ 1
or a = dp
ρ ρ

a 2=
dp
dρ
∨a= (√ dpdρ ) ……………(5) at constant entropy

a= (√ dpdρ ) When entropy is constant here the propagation of sound wave

is assumed as an isentropic process i.e., entropy is constant

ρ∗dp
Also weknow that K= dρ and K=γP

K = Bulk Modulus

cp
γ=
cv

p= pressure

From the eqn (5) we get

2 dp dp K
a= but =
dρ dρ ρ

2 K γP
Substituting we get a = ρ = ρ

γ
( ρRT ) =γRT
ρ

ie a 2=γRT ∨a= √ γRT

Where γ = the ratio of specific heat

 R= characteristic gas constant

T = absolute temperature

3. State and prove stagnation enthalpy equation?

1 2
h+ c =ho
2

Stagnation enthalpy is represented by ‘ho’. It is the enthalpy of a fluid,

when it is isentropically decelerated to zero velocity at zero head.
Normally the stagnation property are represented with the subscript ‘0’.

Consider a control volume as shown in the figure

When the piston moves downwards at section ‘1-1’, Let the change in volume
across section ‘1-1’ is V1. Similarly the piston can move outwards at section 2,
Let the change in volume occurred at section 2 is V2.
 Apply 1st law of thermodynamics to this control volume then
Q – W =E2-E1 (E – Internal Energy)
1 2 1 2
i.e., Q – W = [U 2 +mg z 2+ 2 m c 2 ¿−[U ¿ ¿1+ mg z 1+ 2 mc 1 ]¿

 total work transfer across the system boundary

 W = -P 1V1+P2V2+ Ws ( negative sign because work is done on
the system)
 Let the entire process is adiabatic, then Q = 0
Now substitute in eqn (1) we get
1 2 1 2
0−¿ (-P1V1+P2V2+ Ws) = [U 2 +mg z 2+ m c 2 ¿−[U ¿ ¿1+ mg z 1+ mc 1 ]¿
2 2

 Let the shaft work Ws = 0

1 2 1 2
Then P1V1+U1+mg z 1+ 2 m c 1 = P2V2 +U2+mg z 2+ 2 m c 2

 But the total enthalpy (H) =U+PV, Where U is the internal Energy
1 2 1 2
 H1 + mgz2+ 2 m c2 = H1 + mgz1+ 2 m c1

 Let mass be 1Kg

1 2 1 2
i.e. h2 + g z 2+ 2 c2 =h1 + g z 1 + 2 c 1

Normally in the compressible flow problems, the change in potential head

is negligible small and it is neglected
1 2 1 2
h2 + c 2=h 1+ c1
2 2
 Let the final velocity = 0
i.e., c2 =0
Since the fluid is isentropically decelerated to zero velocity at zero head,
the above eqn at c2=0 reduces to
1 2 1 2
h o=h1 + c 1∨generally ho =h+ c
2 2

4. Discuss various regions of flow.

The region of flow close to the a- axis is the incompressible flow

region. Here fluid velocity (c) is much smaller than the velocity of the sound (a)
i.e, the Mach number is very low
1. The subsonic flow region is on the right of the incompressible
flow up to a Mach number value of a little less than unity. The
Mach number in this region is always less than unity.(M less
than 0.3)
2. The subsonic flow region is on the right of the incompressible
flow up to a Mach number value of a little less than unity. The
Mach number in this region is always less than unity. (M,
between 0.2 to 0.8)
3. A small region extending on the both sides of the sonic point
(M=1) has Mach number which are either slightly lower or
higher than unity. This region is called transonic region. (M
between 0.8 and 1.1)
4. The supersonic region is on the right is on the transonic region;
the Mach number in this region is always greater than unity. ( M
between 1.1 and 5)
5. The region to the c- axis is called hypersonic region; in this
region Mach number is very high and the flow velocity is
considerably greater than the velocity of sound.( M greater than
5)
 5. What are the four reference velocities.

Compressible flow analysis it is often convenient to express

fluid velocities in the non-dimensional forms. This done by divides the flow
velocity by some reference or standard velocity. The reference velocities which
can be used are :

1. Local velocity of sound, a

2. Stagnation velocity of sound, ao
3. maximum velocity of fluid, cmax
4. critical velocity of fluid/sound, c*=a*
6. Define Crocco Number (Cr).
c
Cr =c max
7. What do you mean by pressure coefficient? (Or Compressibility factor)
p 0− p
The term,
1 2 is known as pressure coefficient. For an incompressible flow, pressure
ρc
2
coefficient is unity

8. Derive an expression for effect of Mach Number on compressibility.

( )
ɣ
p0 ɣ −1 2 ɣ−1
= 1+ M -----------------(1)
p 2
Also we know that

( )
3
n−1 2 n ( n−1 ) ( n−2 ) x
( 1+ x )n = 1+nx+n x + +……………….
2! 3!

Expand the equation (1) using the expression for ( 1+ x )n

ɣ −1 2 ɣ
Put x = M and n =
2 ɣ −1

p0 ɣ ɣ ɣ ( 2−ɣ ) 6
= 1+ M 2+ M 4 + M +…………………
p 2 8 48
p0 ɣ ɣ ɣ ( 2−ɣ ) 6
– 1 = M 2+ M 4 + M +…………………
p 2 8 48
p0 ɣ 2
–1= M ¿
p 2
 p 0− p
M (2−ɣ ) 4
2
ɣ 2 = 1+ + M +¿---------------.(2)
p M 4 24
2
2
2 c
But p = ρRT and M = 2 and a 2=ɣRT
a
ɣ 2 1 2
Then p M = ρc
2 2
Sub in equation(2) we get
p 0− p
M (2−ɣ ) 4
2
1 2 = 1+ + M +¿---------------
ρc 4 24
2
When M<<1, pressure coefficient approaches unity.
9. Explain Mach angle. What do you mean by zone of action and zone of silence.

Mach Cone / Mach Angle

Case 1. When the source is moving with very small velocity

Consider a source of disturbance is moving from right to left with a negligibly small
velocity or Mach number, M≈ 0.
Let the velocity of the sound be “a” and the velocity of source of disturbance be “c”.
Let the present position of the source be “s”.
3 sec before the position of the source of disturbance was at 3. The present position
of the sound wave produced when the source was at 3 is a circle with radius 3a.
Sound wave move forward in the form of spherical wave, distance travelled by the
sound wave in 3 Sec = velocity (a) × Time = 3a
 Similarly the present position of the sound wave, produce disturbance when it was 2 sec
and 1 sec is represented with circle having radius 2a and 1a respectively.

Case : 2

( Tips for drawing the above diagram)

Distance travelled Distance travelled by

Time interval
by source ( ct ) sound ( at )

3c, 1.5cm (distance

3s 3a, 3cm
3-s)

2c, 1cm5cm
2s 2a, 2cm
(distance 2-s)

1c,0.5cm5cm
1s 1a,1cm
(distance 1-s)

When, M = 0.5,
1
M = 0.5 =
2
a
M = c/a, C =
2
a
Velocity of source =
2
 Velocity of sound = a
a
Distance travelled by sound wave in 3 seconds = × 3.
2
= 1.5a
(We can draw the diagram using the above explanation)

Case : 3. When the source is moving with sonic velocity

Tips for the above diagram, a = 1cm

 When,
M = 1,
c
M= a = 1.
Therefore, c = a.
Velocity of source = Velocity of sound.

 When M = 1, both the source and sound wave move

together
Case : 4. When, M = 2

Scale for drawing the diagram

Distance
Distance travelled
Time interval travelled by
by Sound ( at )
source ( ct )

3s 3c, 6cm 3a, 3cm

2s 2c, 4cm 2a, 2cm

1s 1c,2cm 1a,1cm

Consider a source of disturbance is moving from right to left with supersonic velocity .
Let Mach number, M¿2.
Let the velocity of the sound be “a” and the velocity of source of disturbance be “c”.
Let the present position of the source be “s”.
c
M = = 2 , OR c = 2a. 3 sec before the position of the source of disturbance
a
was at 3. The present position of the sound wave produced when the source was at “3”
is a circle with radius 3a. Also the time required for the source to travel from “3” to S is
3c. But 3c = 3X2a = 6a
Sound wave move forward in the form of spherical wave, distance travelled by the
sound wave in 3 Sec = velocity (a) × Time = 3a
 Similarly the present position of the sound wave, produce disturbance when it was 2 sec
and 1 sec is represented with circle having radius 2a and 1a respectively. The distance
travelled by the source in 2second and 1second are 4a and 2a respectively.
Draw a tangent from source ‘s’ to the circles. Consider the triangle ‘S3T’
at a 1
Sinα = ct = =
c M

OR
Mach angle, α = sin
−1
( M1 )

Zone of action and Zone of scilence

Draw the Diagram for Mach Cone
It is the region where sound waves are experienced. It lies inside the Mach cone. Sound
waves cannot be experienced outside the Mach cone. This region is known as the zone
of silence.

10. Derive the variation of area with respect to Mach number.

From continuity equation,
ṁ=ρAc

Take logs on both sides

lnṁ=¿ lnρ + lnA + lnc.
Differentiating
dρ dA dc
0= ρ +A +c.
dc
c
= -( dAA + dρρ )

dc = -c ( A + ρ ) --------------------- (1)
dA dρ

From adiabatic energy equation we get

dp = -cρdc ------------------------ (2)
 Multiply equation (1) with ρc we get
ρcdc = -ρc2( A + ρ ) -------------- (3)
dA dρ

dp = ρc2( A + ρ )
dA dρ

dA dp dρ
A = ρc
2 - ρ

dp
( )
2
dρ ρc
= ρc
2 1−
ρ dp

dA dp
A = ρc
2 ( 1−M )
2

11. Discuss the shape of nozzle and diffusers for subsonic and super sonic flow.

(a) Shape of the Nozzle for subsonic flow

dA dp
The governing equation is =
A ρc2
( 1−M 2 ) . Nozzle is used to increase the velocity
by reducing the pressure. So dp is negative.For subsonic flow M<1. So 1-M 2 is positive. So
the RHS of the equation is negative. So the passage have dA negative . ie shape of the
subsonic nozzle is convergent.

(b) Shape of the Diffuser for subsonic flow.

dA dp
The governing equation is =
A ρc2
( 1−M 2 ) . Diffuser is used to increase the
Pressure by reducing the velocity. So dp is positive. For subsonic flow M<1. So 1-M 2
is positive. So the RHS of the equation is Positive. So the passage have dA Positive . ie
shape of the subsonic nozzle is divergent.
(c) Shape of the Nozzle for supersonic flow.
 Nozzle is used to increase the velocity by reducing the pressure. So dp is
negative. For supersonic flow M>1. So 1-M2 is negative. So the RHS of the equation
is positive. So the passage have dA positive . ie shape of the supersonic nozzle is
divergent.
(d) Shape of the Diffuser for supersonic flow.
Diffuser is used to increase the pressure by reducing the velocity. So dp is
positive. For supersonic flow M>1. So 1-M2 is negative. So the RHS of the equation is
Negative. So the passage have dA negative . ie shape of the supersonic diffuser is
convergent.

12. Discuss Impulse Function or Wall Force Function.

By momentum equation, Thrust is given by

τ = ( p 2 A2 + ρ2 A 2 c 22) −¿----------(1)
p 2 ɣp 2
ρc = c = c =ɣp M .
2 2
RT ɣRT
The Impulse Function is given by
F = pA+ɣpA M 2
F = pA( 1+ ɣ M 2 ) −−−−−−−−−− ( 2 )

(2) in (1) gives

τ = F 2−F1
 τ = p2 A 2 ( 1+ ɣ M 22 )- p1 A 1 ( 1+ ɣ M 21 )
When M=1 equation(1) becomes
¿ ¿ ¿
F = p A ( 1+ ɣ ) -------------(3)

(2)/(3) gives
2
F p A 1+ ɣ M
F
¿ = ¿ ¿
p A 1+ ɣ
( ɣ +1)
But, ( A
¿=
1 2
+
ɣ −1 2
A M ɣ +1 ɣ +1
M ) 2 ( ɣ−1 )

= (1+ M )
ɣ
p0 ɣ −1 2 ɣ−1

p 2

( )
¿ ɣ
p 2 ɣ−1 2
= + M ɣ−1
p ɣ +1 ɣ +1

Substituting the values of Area ratio and pressure ratio we get

2
F 1+ ɣ M
¿=

√
F
M 2 ( 1+ ɣ ) 1+ ( ɣ−1 2
2
M )

¿ c c
M = ¿= ¿
c a
2 2
2
¿ c c a a 2
m = 2
¿
= 2. ¿ = ¿ M 2 2

a a a a

Sometimes it is more convenient to use Minstead of M because

i at high fluid velocities M approaches infinity

(i) M is not proportional to the fluid velocity alone.

It should be pointed out here that M does not mean M= 1. This is only another type

Mach number defined by Equations (2.48) and (2.49). Equation (2.47) is

VARIATION OF PRESSURE RATIO ALONG THE LENGTH OF CONVERGING
NOZZLE
Consider a convergent nozzle as shown in figure. Let one end of the nozzle be
connected to a reservoir where the stagnation pressure, stagnation
temperature and stagnation enthalpy of the fluid be represented by P o, To and
ho respectively. The other end of this nozzle is connected to a vacuum chamber
and the opening of the nozzle to the vacuum chamber is controlled by a valve.
Let us consider the pressure at any point along the length of the nozzle be
represented by P.

Let us consider that the valve is initially closed. When the valve is closed, there
is no flow taking place through the nozzle and the pressure at any point inside
the nozzle is equal to the stagnation pressure P o. This means that the ratio
Po/P is equal to 1 and the plot showing the variation of P/P o along the length
of the nozzle will be a straight line.
Now when we begin to open the valve slightly, fluid flow occurs through the
nozzle since it is connected to a vacuum chamber and the back pressure (Pb)
decreases. Since the area of the nozzle is decreasing, the velocity of the fluid
increases and the pressure of the fluid decreases along the length of the
nozzle. The P/Po ratio decreases as shown by curve a and ‘a’ and ‘b’.
As we go on opening the valve the back pressure and exit pressure decreases
and the fluid flow increases. Thus the drop in the pressure ratio increases and
we reach a point where the mach number at the exit is equal to one. In such a
condition the mass flow rate through the nozzle is maximum and the flow is
said to be choked. In this condition the variation of the pressure ratio along the
length of the nozzle is shown by curve ‘c’. In the choked condition the pressure
ratio P/Po is equal to P*/Po and it is known as critical pressure ratio.
If we further reduce the back pressure, the exit pressure of the nozzle does not
decrease and there is no further increase in the flow rate through the nozzle.
On reducing the back pressure further a shock will be experienced which
adjusts the exit pressure and back pressure to be equal. This is represented by
curves ‘d’ and ‘e’.

EFFECT OF BACK PRESSURE ON FLOW RATE IN A COVERGENT NOZZLE

The figure shows the variation of flow rate with back pressure. When the valve
is initially closed the pressure ratio is P/P o is equal to 1 and no flow takes place
i.e. flow rate is 0 as shown by point ‘o’ on the curve. As we open the valve the
back pressure Pb reduces and the pressure ratio P/P o also reduces and the flow
rate increases which is represented by point ‘a’ on the curve.
On reducing the back pressure further we reach a point where the exit mach
number becomes unity and the flow is choked. Here the pressure ratio P/P o is
equal to the critical pressure ratio P */Po which has a value of 0.528.
(Represented by ‘c’) The flow rate in the choked condition is maximum and has
a value of 0.0404 and the mass flow rate of fluid flowing through the nozzle
can be found out using the Flinchers equation
(m√To)/(A*Po)=0.0404
On further decreasing the back pressure the flow rate remains constant.
EFFECT OF BACK PRESSURE ON PRESSURE RATIO IN CONVERGING NOZZLE
Let us consider that the pressure of the fluid in the chamber is equal to the
stagnation pressure i.e. Pb = Po. In such a condition the pressure of the fluid at
the exit of the nozzle is will be the same as the stagnation pressure and the
ratio P/Po will be equal to 1 and it is represented by the point ‘1’ on the curve.
As we decrease the back pressure the exit pressure reduces and the ratio P/P o
also reduces as is shown by ‘2’ on the curve. On reducing the back pressure to
P* the ratio P/Po becomes equal to the critical pressure ratio P */Po and it is
represented by point ‘3’. At this point the Mach number at the exit of the
nozzle is 1.
As we go on further reducing the back pressure there will not be any change in
the pressure ratio.

VARIATION OF PRESSURE RATIO ALONG THE LENGTH OF CONVERGENT-

DIVERGENT NOZZLE
Consider a convergent-divergent nozzle as shown in figure. Let one end of the
nozzle be connected to a reservoir where the stagnation pressure, stagnation
temperature and stagnation enthalpy of the fluid be represented by P o, To and
ho respectively. The other end of this nozzle is connected to a vacuum chamber
and the opening of the nozzle to the vacuum chamber is controlled by a valve.
Let us consider the pressure at any point along the length of the nozzle be
represented by P.
Let us consider that the valve is initially closed. When the valve is closed, there
is no flow taking place through the nozzle and the pressure at any point inside
the nozzle is equal to the stagnation pressure P o. This means that the ratio
Po/P is equal to 1 and the plot showing the variation of P/P o along the length
of the nozzle will be a horizontal line (Not shown in diagram).
Now when we begin to open the valve slightly, fluid flow occurs through the
nozzle since it is connected to a vacuum chamber and the back pressure (Pb)
decreases and the exit pressure of the nozzle decreases. For a subsonic flow
the convergent path will act as a nozzle while the divergent path will act as a
diffuser. Thus, the velocity of the fluid will increase and the pressure will
decrease in the convergent path while the velocity of the fluid decreases and
the pressure increases in the divergent path. The P/P o ratio decreases in the
convergent path and increases in the divergent path as shown by curve ‘a’ and
‘b’.
As we go on opening the valve the back pressure and exit pressure decreases
and the fluid flow increases. By further decreasing the back pressure we reach
a point where the Mach number at the throat is equal to one. In such a
condition the flow at the throat is said to be choked. In this condition, the
convergent part acts as a nozzle and the divergent part can act as either a
nozzle or a diffuser and the variation of the pressure ratio along the length of
the nozzle is shown by curve ‘c’. In the choked condition the pressure ratio
P/Po is equal to P*/Po and it is known as critical pressure ratio.
If we further reduce the back pressure, the divergent part of the will also act as
a nozzle and the pressure ratio decreases along the length of the divergent
portion as shown by curve ‘d’. On reducing the back pressure further a normal
shock will be experienced in the divergent section and the flow immediately
after the shock becomes subsonic. The portion of the divergent path
immediately to the right of the shock acts as a diffuser. Further reduction in
the back pressure results in the shifting of the normal shock towards the exit of
the divergent part and the back pressure is reduced to such a point where the
shock exits at the end of the divergent section.
Under expansion and Over expansion in Nozzles
Under expansion is the condition that prevails in nozzles when the back
pressure is lower than the design pressure of the nozzle. This situation
corresponds to curve ‘d’ of the diagram shown above. Here the expansion up to
the surrounding pressure is not taking place in the nozzle. This situation is
known as under expansion. Such situation can occur in propulsion devices and
rocket engines when they operate at high altitudes.( Please give the sketch also).
Over expansion of nozzles occur when a nozzle design for operation in a
lower pressure is operated in a higher pressure environment ie Pb is greater than
design pressure. Such a situation occurs when a high altitude nozzle is operated
at sea level or low altitudes. In such case the back pressure acailable is higher
atmospheric pressure wheras the design pressure of the nozzle is the altitude
pressure which is much lower.
Reynolds Transport Theorem
OR
Law of conservation of mass for Control Volume
Reynolds Transport Theorm gives the Link between Control volume and
System.
For convenience of the analysis, consider three regions in space I, II, and III as
shown in figure. The control volume which is fixed in space is represented by
region II (1-1-1-1). The system which is moving occupies regions I and II at
time t whereas at time t+⸹t, it occupies regions II(Shaded area) and III (3-3-3-
3). Since the mass of the system is conserved, the mass of the system at time t is
equal to the mass of the system at time t+⸹t. Mathematically we can write,
(mI)t + (mII)t = (mII)t+⸹t + (mIII)t+⸹t
Where (mI)t is the mass of the fluid in region I at time t and so on. A simple
rearrangement then gives
(mII)t+⸹t - (mII)t = (mI)t –(mIII)t+⸹t
Dividing the equation by the infinitesimal period of time ⸹t and by taking the
limit as ⸹t tends to 0 we get,
(mII )t +δt +( mII )t (mI )t (mIII )t +δt
lim =lim − lim – (1)
δ →0 δt δt → 0 δt δt → 0 δt

In the above equation as ⸹t tends to 0, the left hand side represents the time rate
of change of mass within the region II. Also, in the limit, the region II coincides
with the control volume. Hence, the left hand side of the above equation
becomes
(mcv )t + δt −(mcv )t ∂
lim = (mcv ) – (2)
δt → 0 δt ∂t

Where mcv denotes the instantaneous mass of fluid within the control volume.
The second term on the right hand side of equation (1) can be written in terms
of elementary masses in region III.
 (mIII )t +δt (δmIII )t +δt
lim =∑
δt → 0 δt δt

Where (δm III )t +δt represents the amount of mass crossing the elementary surface
are ⸹Aout of the control surface during the time interval ⸹t. summing over the
elemental control surface, we get the rate of mass outflow from the control
volume through the control surface. Thus,
(mIII )t +δt (δmIII )t +δt
lim =∑ =∫ d ṁout =ṁout - (3)
δt → 0 δt δt

where the integral is taken over the control surface and ṁout is the rate of mass
outflow from the control volume through the control surface. Similar to the
above the first term in the right hand side of Eq. (1) can be written as
(mI )t ( δmI )t
lim =∑ =∫ d ṁ¿ =ṁ¿ – (4)
δt → 0 δt δt

Where ṁ¿ is the rate of mass inflow to the control volume through the control
surface. Substituting eq. (2),(3) and (4) in (1) we get,
∂
(m )=∫ d ṁout −∫ d ṁ¿= ṁ out −ṁ¿ – (5)
∂ t cv

Thus, the law of conservation of mass when applied to the control volume states
that the rate of accumulation of mass within the control volume is equal to the
excess of the incoming rate of flow over the outgoing rate of flow.