Organisms

and Populations
POINTSTO
REMEMBER

1, Ecology.
which deals with the interactions among
REMEMBER
POINTSTO
Itisa branchn of science
and its physical (abiotic)environment.
organisms and between the organism
2.Organisational.Levelss of Ecology.
Oreanism: Living component of the environment at individual level is called organism.
Foology at the organismic level is physiological ecology which reveals how different organisms are
adanted to their environments.The organism is the smallest level of ecological hierarchy.
Ponulation: Population is defined as the sum total of all individuals of a species in a specific
geographical area.
Species: The species are the group of individuals of one or more populations which resemble each
other and can interbreed among themselves.
I Bioticcommunity:The assemblage of all the populations of different species present in an area that
interact among themselves are called bioticcommunity. It is of three types:
() Plant community
(i) Animal community
(ii) Microbial community
I Ecosystem: The sum total of the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components ofa particular
nutrients are
ovsapncal area, being integrated through exchange of energy and recycling of
collectively called ecosystem.
I Biome: The large unit of environment consisting of a major vegetation type and its associated fauna
naspecific climatic zone is called a biome.
called biosphere.
Biosphere: All the ecosystems
I Niche: The ecological of the
niche of an organism are collectively
world represents the range of conditions that it cantolerate, the
occupies a distinct
resources it utilises and its functional role in the ecological system. Each species
niche and no two species occupy the same niche.
DPopulation
Population is
Attributes. number of individuals of a species in aspecific
geographical area,
defined asthe total conditionsto produce
which can interbreed under natural
sfertharilieng/ COmpeting for similar resources community.

Populatofionfsprings
and function as a unit of biotic
population genetics and evolution.
ecology links ecologyto
Organisms and Populations 487
REMEMBER
TO
POINTS
Characteristics
() Population of size
apopulation:
or density of a species is the number of individuals of a species per
or volume
Number of individuals in a region (N)
Population Density (PD)= Number of unit area in a region (S)
PD=
(i) Birth or natality rate: It is expressed as the number of births per 1,000)individuals
i
of a
per year.
(iii) Death or mortality rate: It is expressed as
the number of deaths per 1,000 apopulationof
population per year.
(io) Sex ratio: It is expressed as the number of females per 1,000
males of a
population in
ages. When the
indivigvenduas time. a

Apopulation at any giventimeis composed i of individuals of different the age

resultingdiststrirbuutctiuorne
(per centindividuals of a given age or age group)is plotted for the population,
is called age pyramid.
For human population, the age pyramids generally show age distribution of males and
combined diagram.
The shape of the pyramids reflects the growth status of the population and is of three types:
females in a
(a) Expanding (Triangular shaped pyramid): Number of prereproductive
large, reproductive individuals moderate in no. and postreproductive are individuals
is ver
fewer. Population
growing and show rapid increases. is
(6) Stable (Bell shaped pyramid): Population size remains stable, neither growing nor
i.e., all the age group are evenly balanced.
() Declining (Urn shaped pyramid): Population is declining or diminishing population shOwina
diminishing
negative growth.
The pyramids also indicate the ratio of pre-reproductive, reproductive and
individuals in a population.
post-reproductive

Post-reproductive

Reproductive
Pre-reproductive
(A) Expanding (B)Stable (C) Declining
Fig. 11.1 Representation of age pyramids for human population
4. Population Growth_
The size of a population depends on food
size of the population is not a static availability, predation pressure and weatnet.
parameter.
Population Density (N) = Number of individuals or %cover or
The population density depends on few biomass.
basic processes:
() Natality: It is the number of births during a g1ven period of time. It increases the populaion
density. Ifin apond there were 20 lotus plants last year through reproduction, 8new plantsare
added.
So birth rate = 8
20 =0.4 per second
(ii) Mortality: It is the number of deaths in a given time period. It decreases the populationdensity.
e.g., if 4 individuals outof 40
fruit flies died during
So, Death rate = 4 specified time interval.
40 0.1 Individuals per fruitfly per
488 Xam idea Biology-XIl week
 Lmmigration:Itis the number of
increases individuals
ii) time period. It of
same species that have
a given the population come into the habitat in
Emigration:Itis #he number of density.
ip)
giventimeperiod. It decreases the population density. REMEMBER
POINTSTO
individuals of same species that move to a different habitat in a
Immigration
(0)

+
Natality (B) Population
Density (N) Mortality (D)

Emigration
(E)
The population density is given by the following equation:
N, =No +[(B +) - (D +E)]
where N, =population density at time t, B = birth rate, I = immigration, D =
E= death rate,
emigration, and N = population in the beginning.
This equation shows that the population density will increase, if the number of births plus the
of immigrants (B+I) is more than the number of deaths plus the number of number
otherwise it will decrease.
emigrants, i.e., (D+E),

SPopulation Growth Models

IThere are two models of population growth:
0) The exponential growth (i) Logistic growth
) Exponential Growth
.eponential
I Each
or geometricgrowth is common wherethe resources (food + space) are unlimited.
L The
1species has the ability to realise fully its innate potential to grow in number.
equation for exponential growth can be derived as follows:
dN
d-(b- d) xN,
Let
(b-d)= r, then idN - rN
dN uonedod
sep-(N) dt
dtN a
K
Integral
equaion is form of exponential growth
N, = Noet
where, N=population size, dN
dt
N,9= population density after time t,
population density at time zero,
intrinsic rate of natural increase, Time (t)
e= the base of
natural logarithms Flg. 11.2 Population growth curve:
(2.71828),
b= birth
rate (per capita births)
a) When resources are notlimiting the growth, plotis exponential.
(6) When resources are limiting the growth, plot
is logistic. Kis
d= death rate (per capita death rates).
carrying capacity.

Organisms and Populations 489

REMEMBER
TO
POINTS factors on
parameter assessing
impacts of biotic and abiotic populationwasgTOWth.
population in India
'r' is an important 0.015 and for human 0.0205
0.12, for Norway rat was
'r for flour beetle was
in 1981. plotted on graph, the curve becomes Jshaped.
in relation to timeis
In exponential growth, when N
(ii) Logistic growth time, so no population
can grow
exponentially.
certain point of
limited at
The resources become
realistic.
Thisgrowth model is more limited resources to support a particular
Every ecosystenm or environment or habitat has maximum
carrying capacity (K).
number of individuals called its the logistic growth show sigmoid curve and is also called
relation to time t,
When N is plotted in by the following equation:
Verhulst-Pearl logistic growth. It is given
dN
dt
timet
where N = population density at increase
r=intrinsic rate of natural
K= carrying capacity.
and deceleration and finally an asvmptote
Graph shows lag phase,followed by phases of acceleration
when population density reaches the carrying capacity.
6.Life History Variation
fitness.
Darwinian fitness refers to the populations where they evolve to maximise their reproductive
i.e., high'r value.
Under selection pressures, organisms evolve towards the most efficient reproductive strategy.
The rate of breeding varies from species to species, as some organisms breed once in their lifetime
(Pacificsalmon fish, bamboo), while others breed many times during their lifetime (most birds and
mammals).
Some organisms produce a large number of small-sized offsprings (oysters, pelagic fishes), whle
others produce a small number of large-sized offsprings (birds, mammals).
Ecologists suggest that life history traits of organisms have evolved in relation to the constrants,
imposed by the abiotic and biotic components of the habitat, in which they live.
7. Population Interaction
Interspecificinteractions are interactions of populations of two different species.
The interactions may be
beneficial/positive effect indicated by +.
harmful/ detrimental/negative effect indicated by-.
" neutral interaction/no effect on the species
indicated by 0.
Table 11.1 Population Interactions
Species A Nameof Interaction
Species B
Mutualism

+
Competition
Predation
+
Parasitism
+
Commensalism

0 Amensalism
490 Xam idea
Biology-Xl
 ) Predation

weaker
arnimal called prey. REMEMBER
POINTSTO
IIisaninterspecific interaction, where an animal, called predator, kills and consumes the other
Predationis nature's way of transferring energy to higher trophic levels, e.g., atiger (predator) eating
a sparrow (predator)) eating fruit or seed (prey), etc.
adeer(prey),,a
predatos:
The role of
Predators keep prey population under control. This is called biological control.
Poodators also help in maintaining species diversity in a community, by reducing the intensity
of competition among prey species.
Besides acting as 'conduits for energy transfer across trophic levels, predators play other
important roles. In absence of predator species, prey species could achieve very high population
densities and lead to ecosystem instability.
When certain exoticspecies are introduced into a geographical area, they become invasive and start
roading fast because the invaded land does not have its natural predatorS, e.g. Prickly pear cactus
inoduced in 1920's into Australia created havocby spreading to millions of hectares and thus was
hroucht under controlonly after a cactus feeding predator (a moth) was introduced into the country
from its natural habitat.
Éapredator is too efficient and over-exploits its prey, then the prey might become extinct and
following it, the predator will also become extinct due to the lack of food.
I They also help in maintaining species diversity in a community by reducing intensity of competition
star fish
among competing prey species, e.g., In rocky intertidal communities of American Pacific Coast,
from an intertidal
Pisaster is important predator. In the beginning when all starfishes were removed
area more than 10species of invertebrates became extinct in a year because of interspecific competition.
I The prey defence mechanisms
(a) To avoid being detected easily by the predators, some species of insects arnd frogs are cryptically
coloured (camouflaged).
specialchemical
(0) The Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful toits predator (birds) because of a
poisonous weed in its
present in its body which is acquired by the butterfly by feeding on a
caterpillar stage.
oOr nsects are phytophagous, i.e., feed on plant sap and other parts of plants. So, some
Acacia, cactus.
Pants have thorns or spines for defence mechanism, e.g.,
ooine plants produce highly poisonous chemicalsplantslike cardiac glycosides, nicotine, caffeine,
by actually as defences against grazers
Te, strychnine, opium, etc., are produced
and browsers e.g Calotropis grows in abandoned fields.
ij Competition
species sufter. lt may exist between some species
Compet ition is
(inteCompetition
The
a type
rspecific coompetition)
of interaction where both the
between individuals of sanme species
(intraspecitic
occurs due orto limited resources between closely related species.
competition).
South
resorce, e.g., n some shallow
Some totally unrelated species could also compete for the same
their common tood, zooplanktons.
American lakes, COmpetition,
visiting flamingoes and resident fishes compete for
one species might be reduced due to
the

iFornterifnertienrgs%peciandfic inhibitory
the feeding efficiency of abundant.
other species, although the resources are
presence of the became
Islands, the Abingdon tortise
extinctexampl
withine, after of goats in Galapagos
the introduction goats.
a decade due to greater browsing efficiency of the presence of
gre geographical area because of
Species whose distribution is restricted to small
distributional range when competing
species

competi vely
0S removed. Connell's
superior Elegant isfield
species experiment
found to expend its
showed on rocky sea coasts of Scotland, larger and
intertidal area and excludes
smnaller bamacle

CoChamthpaemtailuvsely from
superior barnacle Balanus
that zone.
dominates

Organisms and Populations 491

POINTS
TO
REMEMBER
Competitive release refers to the phenomenon of a species whose distribution is restricted to asmall
geographical area because of the presence of a competitively superior species, is tound to expand its
distributional range dramatically when the competing species is experimentally removed.
Gause's competitive exclusion principle states that two closely related species competing for the same
resource cannot coexist indefinitely and the competitively inferior one will be eliminated eventually
by the superior one.
Resource partitioning: It refers to the phenomenon in which species facing competition might evolve
mechanisms that promote coexistence rather than exclusion. MacArthur showed that five closely
related species of warblers living on the same tree were able to avoid competition and coexist due to
behavioural differences in their foraging activities.
Herbivores are more adversely affected by competition than carnivores.
(iii) Parasitism
It is the mode of interaction between two species in which one species (parasite) depends on the other
species (host) for food and shelter, and in this process damages the host. In this process one organism
is benefited (parasite) while the other is being harmed (host).
Adaptation of parasite:
(a) The parasite have evolved to be host-specific in such a manner that both host and parasite tend
to co-evolve.
external environment
(b) Loss of unnecessary sense organs as they do not interact with
light.)
|For example, eyes as they are found in an environment that lacks
(c) Presence of adhesive organs or suckers to cling to host.
of survival.
(a) Loss of digestive system to absorb digested food from increase chances
(e) High reproductive capacity.
() Presence of adhesive.
(g) Loss of chlorophyll and leaves (e.g. cuscuta), to derive its nutrition from the host plant which it
parasitises.
(h) Presence of more than one host to facilitate parasitisation of its primary host.
bird
(i) Eggs resemble the host egg (e.g., crow) in size and colour to reduce the chances of host
(i.e., Koel) detecting them.
The life cycles of some parasites are complex, where one or more intermediate host or vectors to
facilitate parasitisation are present.
(a) The human liver fluke depends on two intermediate hosts, a snail and a fish, to complete its life
cycle.
(b) Malarial parasite (Plasmodium) needs avector (mosquito) to complete its life cycle.
Majority of parasites harm the host by reducing the survival, growth and reproduction of the host.
They reduce its population density by making it physically weak.
Parasites may be of two types: ectoparasites and endoparasites.
Table 11.2 Differences between endoparasite and ectoparasite
S. No. Endoparasite Ectoparasite
() These are the parasites which live inside the These are the parasiteshostwhich feed on
organism for to0d
host's body at different sites like liver, kidney, external surface of the
lungs, etc., for food and shelter. and shelter.
(ii) Example, tapeworm, liver fluke, Plasmodium. Example, lice on humans, ticks on dog
copepods, Cuscuta.
organismis
The phenomenon in which one organisnm (parasite) lays its eggs in the nest of another
called brood parasitism. Eggs of parasitic birds have evolved to resemble host's eggs sn .
from nest. egu
colour to reduce the chance of host bird detecting foreign eggs and remove them
Cuckoo lays eggs in Crow's nest.
492 Xam idea Biology-XI
 )Commensalism
Commensalisnis
referrcd to as the
the,
and other is neither harmed nor interaction
benefited. between two species where one species is benefited
Fewexamples of commensalism:
(a)An orchid growing as an
epiphyte on a mango tree. The orchid gets
REMEMBER
ONTS TO
mangotree while the mango tree is
neither shelter and nutrition from
() Barnacles growing on the back of benefited nor harmed.
shelter while the whales arewhale. Barnacles are benefited to
well assh
neither benefited nor
move to location for food as
) The egrets are in close association of harmed.
detectinsects because cattle stir up grazing cattle. The cattle egrets are benefited by the
the bushes and insects are flushed out cattle
to
o be detected by cattle egrets. from the vegetation,
(d) Commensalism is also found between sea
Eoh The fish is
protected trom predators and anemones (that has stinging tentacles) and the clown
sea anemones are neither
()Amensalism benefited nor harmed.
Tnealism is referred to as the interaction between two
harmed and the other is neither benefited nor harmed differernt species, in which one species is
. Eor example, the mould
Penicillium secretes penicillin which kills bacteria but the mould is
unaffected.
(1) Mutualism
, Mutyalism is referred to as the
interspecific interaction in which both the interacting species are benefited.
ISome examples of mutualism
() Lichens represent close association between
fungus and photosynthetic algae or Cyanobacteria,
where the fungus helps in the absorption of nutrients and
provides protection while algae or
Cyanobacterium prepares the food.
(b) Mycorrhizae are close mutual association between
fungi and the roots of higher plants, where
fungi helps the plant for absorption of nutrients while the plant provides food, &
the fungus. protection for
(() Mutualism are found in plant-animal relationships. Plants take the
help of animals for
pollination and dispersal of their seeds and animals are rewarded in the form of nectar or edible
pollen or oviposition (site for laying egg).
4) Orchids have evolved to attract right pollinator insect (bees and bumble bees). Mediterranean
Orchid. Ophrys muscifera employs sexual deceit to get pollinated by bee species. One petal
O lower resembles female bee in size, color and markings and male bee is attracted and
Peldocopulates with it. During this process of pseudocopulation, the pollen grains are dusted
ne
of the
body of male bees. With such polen dusts, male bee pseudocopulates to another lower
same species and pollination takes place. Here we see co-evolution, ie, it temale bee's
colour patterns change during evolution, orchid flower also co-evolves to maintain resemblance
of petal to
(e)
female bee.
ofCo-evol
wasp.utFemale
ion is alsowaspseenusesIn fruit
many species of fig trees which are pollinated by specific species
for oviposition and also uses developing seeds within fruit
for
nourishing its larvae. Wasp pollinates the fig inflorescence while searching for suitable egg
laying sites. In return, the fig offers the wasp some of its developing seeds as food for the
developing wasp larvae.
Organisms and Populations 493