Water Sources International Hydrographic Organization (2000)

• Water exists in the hydrosphere, geosphere, o Southern Ocean

atmosphere, and biosphere, and are connected o It is the body of water surrounding Antarctica
together by processes in the hydrologic cycle and is connected to the Pacific, Atlantic, and
Indian Oceans.
Hydrosphere
• The part of the Earth’s subsystem containing the Total Volume: 1340 million cubic kilometers
oceans, lakes, streams, underground water, and
snow/ice. Salinity
• Movement of water around Earth’s surface and its o saltiness of water
subsystems o Sodium and chlorine ions
• Cycle consists of interconnected pathways and o 33-37 ppt
reservoirs. o Sources are weathering and volcanic
• There is a mass balance in the cycle. eruptions

Evaporation Major Zones

•80% of water vapor in the atmosphere evaporates • Surface layer
from the oceans o warm, low-density, surface to a depth of 100
Transpiration m
•10% of the water vapor comes from leaves and o 2 % of the water in the ocean
stem of plants o Home of most marine plants and animals
• Thermocline
FUTURE CAREER o Temp. of water decreases rapidly with depth
•Hydrogeology is the field of geology that deals o At high latitudes, from surface and extends
with the distribution, availability, and flow of up to 1500 m
groundwater in aquifers. • Deep zone
•Hydrogeologist also study groundwater o Temp is uniformly low
contamination and how it affects other subsystems. o 80% of water in the ocean

The UN World Water Development

• Ocean 97.5 %
• Freshwater 2.5%
o Glaciers 68.7%
o Groundwater 30.1%
o Permafrost 0.8%
• Surface and atmospheric water 0.4 %

Residence Time
•The average length of time spent by water
molecule in a reservoir

RESIDENCE TIME FOR SPECIFIC RESERVIOR

Reservoir Residence Time Surface Ocean Currents
Ocean and ice sheets Thousands of years • Air blowing drags water forward
o Clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
groundwater Tens to hundreds of
o Counter clockwise in the Southern
years
Hemisphere
Streams and rivers Few weeks
atmosphere Few days
organisms Few hours

WATER RESERVOIRS
o SALTWATER RESERVOIRS
o Covers 71% of Earth
o Geographically divided into five distinct
regions and into numerous seas, gulfs, bays,
and straits. • Thermohaline Circulation- driven by density
Four Recognized Oceans differences, controlled by temp and salinity
• Atlantic Ocean • Circulation is propelled by the sinking of cold,
• Pacific Ocean salty, and dense water in the Polar Regions, and
• Indian Ocean rising of the warm, less salty water of the Tropics
• Arctic Ocean
 • The world’s water resources should be properly o It has clearly-defined passageways called channels
managed because based on UN reports in 2015, 700 o Tributaries- smaller streams
million people in 43 countries were affected by Components of a Stream Network
scarcity of water. • Drainage basin or watershed
• This is projected to increase to 1.8 billion by 2025 - the land area in which the water flow into a
if the problem is not addressed. particular stream
• The reasons behind water scarcity are both • Drainage divide
natural and human made. - the line that separates individual drainage basin
• There is enough freshwater on the planet for • Interfluve
seven billion people but it is distributed unevenly, - narrow, elongated landform separating individual
and there is too much that is wasted, polluted, and streams within a basin
unsustainably managed.

Ocean
• Regulating the climate through its interaction with
the atmosphere
• Most valuable resources on the planet
o Voluminous marine food sources
o Transportation
o Recreation

o FRESHWATER RESERVOIRS
o Most of the Earth’s freshwater is stored in
glaciers situated in accessible areas such as
the Polar regions and high mountains Surface runoff
o The readily available freshwater sources: •Overland flow- process when water moves
▪ surface water reservoir downhill during heavy rain
▪ groundwater reservoir •Stream flow- when water enters the channels

GLACIER RIVER
o is a permanent body of ice, which consists o It is a stream with considerable volume and well-
largely of recrystallized snow. defined channel
o 1.6% of the total surface and atmospheric water
o Total volume of water stored in streams is
ICE SHEET
o is a mass of glacial land ice extending more estimated to be about 2120 𝑘𝑚3
o Ex. Amazon River Basin, Nile River Basin, Cagayan
than 50000 𝑘𝑚2
o Greenland and Antarctica, North America and River Basin (27280 km2)
Scandinavia
▪ Greenland LAKES
o Large inland bodies of fresh or saline water
▪ Global sea level rise up to 6 m
o Ponds- are small shallow lakes
▪ Antarctica
o 67% of the total and atmospheric water
▪ Global sea level rise up to 60 m
• 24 million 𝑘𝑚3 - freshwater in glaciers and ice
sheets WETLANDS
o land areas where water covers the surface for
• 90% is concentrated in Antarctica then the rest in
Greenland significant periods
o 8.5% of total surface and atmospheric water
o Ex. Ligwasan Marsh/Liguasan Marsh
PERMAFROST
o A soil, rock, or sediment that is frozen for • Maguindanao, North Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat
more than two consecutive years. • 2200 𝑘𝑚2
o Few meters to 150 meters Types of Wetlands
o Total water: 300 000 𝑘𝑚3 o Marsh
o 0.8% of the total freshwater source - shallow wetland around lakes, streams and oceans
o Wetland in Candaba, Pampanga
o o Swamp
SURFACE WATER RESERVOIRS
o Where water from rainfall, melting snow and ice, - wetland with lush trees and vegetation in low-
and groundwater flows lying areas beside slow-moving rivers
o 0.3 % of earth’s total water resource 3. Estuary
o Harnessed for irrigation, recreation, transport, - partly enclosed coastal body of water where
fishing, drinking, and hydropower freshwater from stream meets saltwater
Ex. Pampanga River in Manila Bay
STREAM • Trap pollutants
o Moving body of surface water that flows downslope • Trap water and replenish ground water
toward sea level because of gravity • Harbors great biological diversity
 • Trap water that slows down stream flow and Soil and Soil Formation
minimizes flood and erosion o Soil Conservation
▪ One component of soil conservation is the
FLOOD enhancement of organics in soil.
o It is a natural event wherein area that is usually dry
submerged under water. o Vermicomposting
o Occurs when the rate of precipitation is higher than ▪ It is a process that uses earthworms such as
the rate it could be absorbed by the ground or African night crawlers (Eudrilus eugeniae) to
carried by streams. turn organic wastes into high quality
composts.
FLUVIAL/RIVERINE FLOOD
o Occurs when a stream’s discharge is greater than o Pedosphere
the capacity of the channel causing the stream to ▪ The foundation terrestrial life on this planet.
overflow ▪ Derived from the Greek words pedon - soil
and sfaira - sphere
SURFACE WATER FLOOD ▪ It is the living skin of the Earth, which is the
o Occurs when heavy rainfall creates a flood event sum total of all the organisms, soils, water,
independent of an overflowing stream and air.

• GROUNDWATER THE COMPONENT OF PEDOSPHERE

o freshwater found in the rock and soil layers beneath
the surface
o 30.1% of the total freshwater on the planet
o aquifers- water-bearing rock layers

Porosity
o Total amount of empty pore spaces in the rock
o Determines amount of groundwater an aquifer can
hold
o Sand, gravel have high porosity
o Basalt, diorite have low porosity

Permeability
o Ability of the rock or sediments to allow water to
pass through it.
o Clay and mud are porous but have low permeability THE COMPONENT OF SOIL
o sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, loose sand,
and highly fracture rocks have moderate to high
permeability

Groundwater Profile
• Zone of Aeration or Unsaturated Zone
- layer beneath the surface in which spaces
between particles are filled mainly with air
•Zone of Saturation
- layer beneath the zone of aeration in which spaces
between particles filled with water Soil Formation
• Water table o Soil forms when rock weathers.
- boundary between the zone of aeration and zone • Five factors that affect soil formation:
of saturation o Parent Material or Source Material
•Capillary Fringe
- layer directly above water table

Aquifers, Artesian Wells, and Springs

• Unconfined aquifer
- when water is free to rise to its natural level
• Confined aquifer
- water is trapped and held down by pressure
between impermeable rock rocks called aquiclude

Groundwater-Stream Relationship
• Losing or Influent Stream o Climate
• Gaining or Effluent Stream o Topography
o Biological Factors
 o Time
▪ On average, for every 1cm thickness of SOIL ORDERS
soil, it takes 200 to 400 years to form

Soil Texture
o It is defined as the relative proportion of the
particle sizes in the soil-sand, silt, and clay.
o It affects porosity and water retention 12 Types of Soil Order
SOIL TEXTURE TRIANGLE o Gelisols
o frozen soils found in the coldest region on
Earth
o Histosols
o High organic content and wet
o Spodosols
o Sandy and acidic soils found in moist climates
that often support dense forests
o Andisols
o Composed of volcanic ash
o Oxisols
o Very weathered and common in tropical
climates
o Vertisols
o Claylike soils that shrink and swell
o Aridosols
o Very dry soils in arid regions
o Ultisols
o Weathered soils
LOAM o Mollisols
o is considered the ideal soil for agriculture use. o Deep and fertile soils
o provides good aeration and drainage o Alfisols
properties of large particles with nutrient- o Moderately weathered productive soils found
retention and water- holding abilities of clay in temperature and humid regions
particles o Inceptisols
o Slightly developed, young soils found on
Nicholas L. Galvez steep slopes and mountain ranges
o is considered the "Dean of Filipino Soil o Entisols
Scientists". o Newly-formed soils found in steep rocky
o He is recognized internationally with his lands
scientific papers on soil chemistry, soil
mineralogy, and other aspects of soil science. Bureau of Soil and Water Management
o The Philippines' BSWM recognizes only 9 soil
SOIL PROFILE orders:
▪ Alfisol
▪ Histosol
▪ Andisol
▪ Inceptisol
▪ Entisol
▪ Mollisol
▪ Oxisol
▪ Ultisol
▪ vertisol

Soil Science
o Soil science deals with soil as a natural
resource on Earth's surface.
 o Soil science includes the study of soil o Urbanization
formation, classification, and mapping; ▪ Conversion of land to urban centers
physical, chemical, biological, and fertility ▪ According to UN FAO, 33% of global soil is
properties of soils; and these properties in moderately to highly degraded through
relation to the use and management of the erosion, salinization, compaction,
soils. acidification, chemical pollution, and nutrient
depletion.
Soil and Soil Quality
o The following are the benefits of soil as a 5 Practical Ways to Conserve Soil
resource: o Plant trees and ground cover
▪ Arable land for agriculture o Employ "no dig" gardening techniques
▪ Arabilis: "able to plowed" o Avoid compacting soil
▪ World Bank statistics: the agricultural o Follow the trail
land in the Philippines from 2011-2015 o Control rainwater run-off
is 41.7% of its total land area
▪ Regulating Water and Filtering Conservation of Soil
Potential Pollutants Resource
▪ Minerals and microbes in soil are o Increasing soil organic matter
responsible for filtering, degrading, o Keeping the soil covered and vegetated
immobilizing, and detoxifying organic o Avoid excessive tillage
and inorganic materials. o Managing pests and nutrient efficiently
▪ Nutrient cycling o Promoting crop rotation
▪ Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorous, and o Reducing erosion and preventing soil compaction.
other essentials are stored,
transformed,
and cycled in the soil. Environment
o Foundation and support • refers to everything that surrounds a living
o Soil structure provides a base for plant organism, including physical factors such as air,
roots. water, and soil and biological factors such as living
o Soil along the bedrock also provide organisms—flora and fauna
foundation and support for human
shelter and structures such as houses Ecosystem services
and roads • refer to the direct and indirect contributions of
o Mineral Deposits ecosystems to human survival and quality of life.
o Soils are mined for their mineral • are provided by nature for free
content – whether it be iron, nickel, or
aluminum.

How Human Activities Degrade Soil Quality

o Soil Degradation
o It is the change in the soil health status,
resulting in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem
to provide goods and services for its beneficiaries.
Types of Soil Degradation:
o Soil Erosion
▪ Loss of topsoil and nutrients
▪ Most visible effect of soil degradation
▪ Made much worse by poor management
practices
o Soil Compaction
▪ Reduces the amount of air, water, and space
available to roots and soil organisms
o Desertification
▪ Irreversible change of the land to such a state
where it can no longer be recovered for its
• Support services - cycling of vital nutrients
original use
(biogeochemical cycle)
▪ Characterized by droughts and arid
• Provisioning services - basic needs for survival (air,
conditions as a result of human activities and
water, shelter, food, and energy)
exploitation
• Regulating services - benefits obtained by regulating
o Intensive Agriculture
the climate, hazards, and diseases through processes
▪ In an effort to feed the world efficiently
such as carbon sequestration
▪ Use of heavier machinery, deforestation, and
clearing of land for cultivation.
• Cultural services - non-material benefits such as
spiritual enrichment, recreation, etc.

Environmental Scientist
• Uses knowledge of the natural sciences to protect
the environment and human health
• Analyze environmental problems and develop
solutions

Universal recycling symbol

• Created by Gary Dean Anderson, a student at the
University of California
• During the conclusion of Earth day 1970
• Three mutually-chasing arrows that form a
Mobius strip

HUMAN ACTIVITIES, WASTE, AND WASTE

MANAGEMENT Waste management
• Solid waste • Waste management in homes, schools,
• generally made up of objects or particles that communities can be done using waste
accumulate on the site where they are produced. management hierarchy of options.
• NSWMC • Bio composting
• Metro Manila residents generates 0.70 kg/person
per day WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY OF OPTIONS
• Global average: 0.3 kg/person per day

Types of Solid waste

• Municipal Waste
• wastes come from households, commercial
establishments, institutions, and some industrial
sources
• Agricultural Waste
• wastes derived from farming and poultry
• Industrial Solid Waste
• wastes from industrial sources other than mining
• Mining Waste
• wastes generated from mining operations
ADDITIONAL CODES IN RECYCLING SYMBOLS
Methods of waste disposal
• Landfill
• fresh garbage is covered with soil
• Incineration
• burning in a controlled manner using an
incinerator
• Mulch and compost
• allowing the natural process of decomposition to
transform organic materials
• Source reduction
• method of designing, manufacturing, purchasing,
using, and reusing materials to reduce amount of
waste
• Recycling
• turning throwaway materials into useful product

The Resource Cycle

• process involving the transformation of raw
material into a usable or consumable product and
its disposal
EXOGENIC PROCESSES • The separation and removal of weathered and
• It include the processes of weathering, erosion, unweathered rocks and soil from its substrate due
transportation, and deposition to gravity or transporting agents like wind, ice, or
WEATHERING water
• It is the on-site breakdown of rock and its TRANSPORT
eventual transformation into sediments. • Processes by which sediments are moved along
o MECHANICAL WEATHERING from the source to where they are deposited
- Physical breakdown of rock into
unconnected grains or chunks without • WIND EROSION
changing its composition • Commonly occurs in flat, bare areas or dry, sandy,
• EXFOLIATION and loose soils.
- Rocks split into onion-like sheets parallel • Detaches soil particles and transports them by
to the surface wind
• FROST WEDGING
- Water inside rocks experience regular Sediments move along in four ways:
freezing or thawing • Traction-rolling or dragging of large grains aided
• ROOT WEDGING by the push of smaller grains
- When plants grow on surface of rocks that • Saltation- bouncing of sand grains as they are
pry it open picked-up, carried along, and dropped repeatedly
• SALT WEDGING • Suspension- movement of fine particles like silt
- When the salt crystallizes, it pushes and clay
surrounding grains and weakens the rock, • Solution- movement
causing it to disintegrate
• THERMAL EXPANSION Sediments can be transported through:
- When rock is exposed to high temperature • Tributaries
• Distributary channels-tidal flats
o CHEMICAL WEATHERING • Longshore drift
- Occurs when there are chemical changes • Tidal currents
in at least some of the composition of the
rock MASS WASTING OR MASS MOVING
• DISSOLUTION • Downslope movement of rock, soil, and ice due to
- Happens in a certain minerals which are gravity
dissolved in water (halite, calcite, etc)
• HYDROLYSIS Factors that contribute to the occurrence of mass
- When water reacts with the minerals and wasting:
breaks them down (amphibole, pyroxene • Relief - difference in elevation
react with water and form various types of • Slope stability - balance between the downslope
clay minerals) force caused by gravity and the resistance force
• OXIDATION • Fragmentation and weathering
- Reaction of oxygen with minerals in the
rock, forms oxides CLASSIFICATION OF MASS WASTING
Example: Biotite and pyrite produce iron In mass wasting process,
oxide (hematite) • Debris refers to predominantly coarse soil
• HYDRATION • Earth refers to predominantly fine materials
- Occurs when water is absorbed into the • Fall
crystal structure of the mineral causing it to • Topple
expand • Slide
Example: Formation of gypsum from the • Spread
mineral anhydrite • Flow
• BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING • complex
- Occur in roots of plants, when fungi and
lichens secrete organic acids that dissolve
minerals and the nutrients are taken by
these organisms

WEATHERING
• It is an important process in the formation of soil

EROSION AND TRANSPORT

• Glaciers have enormous erosive power
• Water is the most common erosion agent

EROSION
 • Earth’s internal heat drives volcanism and plate
tectonics
Source of Heat of Earth’s Internal
• Leftover heat from its formation 4.54 Gya
• Collision of Earth with the Theia
• Disintegration of natural radioactive elements
inside Earth
• Based on geophysical data and geochemical
models, scientist estimate that temperatures in
the Earth’s core are between 5000 and 7000
degrees Celsius.
Magma
• Molten rocks that are found beneath the Earth’s
surface.
• They are less dense than the surrounding solid
rock and have higher volume, therefore capable
of rising the surface.
• It is usually composed of the abundant elements
including Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K, H, O
• The compositional variation of magma is
expressed in terms of oxides such as 𝑆𝑖𝑂2,
𝐴𝑙2𝑂3,𝐶𝑎𝑂,𝑀𝑔𝑂,𝐹𝑒𝑂, and 𝐻2𝑂
• Most common component: 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 (45% to 75%
by wt.)
• Very high temperature
• Melting temperature for rocks: 800 to 1400
DEPOSITION degrees Celsius
• Process by which sediments settle out of the • Viscous
transporting medium • Viscosity depends on silica content, gas content,
and temperature
SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENT • High silica magmas are more viscous than low-
• Glacial environment silica magmas
• Mountain stream environment
• Mountain front environment Formation of Magma
• Desert environment 1. Decompression Melting
• Lake (lacustrine) environment • Melting can occur when the temperature stays
• River (fluvial) environment the same but the pressure decreases.
• Delta environment • This usually occurs in parts of the crust called rift
• Beach environment valleys, mid-ocean ridges, and in volcanic
• Shallow marine environment hotspots
• Shallow water carbonate environment Common Site of Magma Formation
• Deep marine environment

ENDOGENIC PROCESSES
• These are driven by energy and forces deep
within Earth.

2. Flux Melting
• Another melting trigger is when volatiles or
gaseous substances are added in the hot solid
rocks in a process called flux melting
• The water vapor or carbon dioxide will react with
the rocks and weaken or break their bonds and
cause them to change from solid to liquid state.
• This usually occurs in subduction zones.

3. Heat Transfer Melting

• Magma can also be formed via process called
heat transfer melting
MAGMA AND VOLCANISM • It is the melting of surrounding rocks caused by
very hot magma that brings in additional heat.
 • An extremely hot magma (1200 degrees Celsius) - A caldera collapse is usually triggered by the emptying
from the upper mantle could rise and cause of the magma chamber beneath the volcano, as the
melting of rocks in the lower crust (500 degrees result of a large volcanic eruption.
Celsius) which has lower temperature
• This occurs in rift valleys, mid-ocean ridges, Eruption: event when lava is spewed out of the volcano
hotspots, and subduction zones Two types of eruption:
• Effusive eruption
Eutectic temperature - dominated by the flow of lava and formation of
- melting temperature of the rock fountains and lakes
Partial melting - associated with lavas with low silica content, less
- when rocks melt, only certain minerals are viscous, flow rapidly
melted • Explosive eruption
Fractionation - ejects ash and larger fragments of broken up
- if the magma is separated from rock that has not pyroclastic materials, forming ash clouds that
undergone complete melting, the magma will eventually collapse and cover the slopes of the
consist of components that melted at lower volcano
temperature and the remaining solid rock will - associated with lavas with high silica content,
contain components with higher melting more viscous
temperature
Different kinds of volcanoes according to shape:
Crystallization of Magma • Shield volcano: very broad dome with a gentle
• Crystallization occurs when magmas cools and slope that covers a very wide area made of
mineral grains start to form. alternating layers of basaltic lava and cinder
• Sequence of mineral crystallization in igneous • Stratovolcanoes or composite volcanoes:
rocks is called the Bowen’s reaction series. composed of alternating layers of lava and
Bowen’s Reaction Series pyroclastic materials
• Cinder cone: small cone formed by spattering of
lava and composed of cinder with mafic
composition

Various type of materials formed during volcanic

eruptions
• Lava flow deposit
➢ Pahoehoe: lavas with smooth surface
➢ Aa: lavas with rough surfaces
• Obsidian, Pumice
• Pyroclastic debris- fragmental materials of
Dike various grain size
- igneous rock that forms wall-like sheet • Lapilli-are pea-to marble-sized fragments of lava
Sill • Volcanic ash- very fine particles composed of
- igneous rock that forms tabular layer glass shards, crystals, and fragments of existing
Batholith rocks
- amalgamation of many plutons • Tuff- lithified volcanic ash
• Bombs- blobs of lava that are thrown into the air
Relative Age: The geologic age of a fossil • blocks- larger non streamlined chunks of lava or
organism, rock, geologic feature, or event, preexisting rocks
defined relative to other organisms, rocks, • Ignimbrite- pyroclastic deposit that is dominantly
features, or events rather than in terms of years. composed of pumice
Absolute Age: age of a rock in terms of years • Lahar- pyroclastic debris mix with water, it forms
muddy-like slurry
VOLCANO
• Volcanoes are visible manifestations of the Earthquake
process of rock formation. • It is the vibration on the surface of Earth resulting
• It is a vent that serves as the conduit of lava or from the sudden release of energy.
molten rock that reaches Earth’s surface
• Crater- funnel-shaped depression where materials Elastic Rebound Theory
are ejected
Orogenesis: process of mountain formation
: mountain building
: movement of converging plates in
orogenesis is 1-16cm per year.
Caldera: is a volcanic feature formed by the collapse of
a volcano into itself, making it a large, special form of
volcanic crater.
 • Fault: fracture on which one body of rock slides
past another
- Majority of the earthquakes in the planet are
due to the movement of existing faults
• Other causes of earthquake: explosion of a
volcano, large landslide, meteorite impact, and
underground nuclear-bomb test
• Focus/Hypocenter: the place where rock ruptures
and slips
• Epicenter: point at the surface directly above the
focus
- Triangulation: is a way of determining
something's location using the locations of other
things. It is commonly used by geologists to find Seismograph
the locations of Earthquakes, and is also used to - instrument that detects and records the ground
determine spacecraft location. motion from an earthquake and seismogram is the
record.

Size of an earthquake is measures in two ways:

• Magnitude: energy released, measured using
Richter Scale
• Intensity: amount of damage, using Mercalli
Intensity Scale (first intensity scale)

In the Philippines, PEIS-PHIVOLCS earthquake intensity

scale

Seismic waves
- energy released from the hypocenter of an earthquake
travels as seismic waves
-Seismic waves have different velocities
1. Body waves
- waves that travel within the interior of Earth
o Primary waves or P-waves
- body waves in which the particles of the
material move back and forth parallel to
the direction of wave motion
o Secondary waves or S-waves or Shear waves
- body waves where the particle of the
material move back and forth
perpendicular to the wave motion
2. Surface waves
- waves that travel along the Earth’s surface
o Rayleigh waves
- surface waves that cause the ground to
ripple up and down
o Love waves
- surface waves that cause the ground to
move back and forth in a snake-like
movement
Deformation o Crust
• Tectonic forces operating inside the Earth causes o Mantle
rocks to undergo deformation. o Outer Core
• It is a process in which rocks change in shape, o Inner Core
size, location, tilt or break due to squeezing,
stretching or shearing. Moho
o (Mohorovicic Discontinuity)
STRESS o Separates the crust from the underlying
• In Physics, a force applied per unit area is called mantle.
stress o Earthquake waves increase when they reach
1. Uniform stress- forms when forces act uniformly this layer.
from all directions
2. Confining stress- pressure that weight of
overlying rocks exerts
3. Differential stress- if the force is not equal from
all directions
Three Types of Differential Stress
• Tensional stress- occurs when the dominant force
is directed away from each other
• Compressional stress- occurs when the dominant
force is directed towards each other o The red line represents the Moho.
• Shear stress-occurs when the dominant force is
directed towards each other but not along the Geophysical surveys
same axis o seismic, gravity, magnetics, electrical,
geodesy
o Acquisition: land, air, sea and satellite

Geological surveys
o fieldwork, boreholes, mines

Plate Tectonics
• The Earth’s crust is divided into 12 major plates
which are moved in various directions.
• This plate motion causes them to collide, pull
STRAIN apart, or scrape against each other.
• resulting change in rocks due to the different type
of stress Tectonic
Different kind of strains: • Each type of interaction causes a characteristic
• Stretching set of Earth structures or “tectonic” features.
• Shortening or contraction • The word, tectonic, refers to the deformation of
• Shear strain-change in angles between features the crust as a consequence of plate interaction.
• Elastic strain-can change back to its original form
World Plates
Three Successive Stages of Deformation
1. Elastic deformation-first stage, reversible strain
2. Ductile formation-second stage, strain is
irreversible
3. Permanently deformed- third stage, deformation
is permanent resulting to fracture

• Tectonic plates are made of rigid lithosphere.

• Below the lithosphere (which makes up the
tectonic plates) is the asthenosphere.

Plate Movement
• “Plates” of lithosphere are moved around by the
Earth’s Structure underlying hot mantle convection cells
 - Continent-oceanic crust collision
▪ Subduction

Three types of plate boundary

o Divergent Boundaries - Ocean-ocean collision
▪ When two oceanic plates collide, one
runs over the other which causes it to
sink into the mantle forming a
subduction zone.
▪ The subducting plate is bent downward
to form a very deep depression in the
ocean floor called a trench.
▪ The world’s deepest parts of the ocean
are found along
trenches.
– E.g. The Mariana Trench is 11 km
- Spreading ridges deep!
▪ As plates move apart new material is erupted
to fill the gap o Transform

- Iceland has a divergent plate boundary running

through its middle

o Convergent Boundaries - Where plates slide past each other

- There are three styles of convergent

plate boundaries:
- Continent-continent collision
▪ Forms mountains, e.g. European Alps,
Himalayas