Computer + Fundamental and Programming in . : Reema Thareja |Computer Fundamentals and Programming in SECOND EDITION Reema Thareja Assistant Professor Department of Computer Science Shyama Prasad Mukherji College for Women University of Delhi OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESSOXFORD (Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It farthers the University’s objective of excellence in research. scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of (Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries. Published in India by Oxford University Press ‘YMCA Library Building. 1 Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001. India © Oxford University Press 2012. 2016 The moral rights of the author)s have been asserted. First Edition published in 2012 Second Edition published in 2016 All rights reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted iy lw, by licence, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics :hts organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the "above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. ‘You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. ISBN-13: 978-0-19-9463732 ISBN-10: 0-19-946373-5 ‘eISBN-13 (eBook): 978-0-19.909037-2 ‘e1SBN-10 (eBook): 0-19-909037-8 in Times New Roman by Ideal Publishing Solutions, Delhi Printed in India by Magic International (P) Ltd., Greater Noida ‘Third-party website addresses mentioned in this book are provided by Oxford University Press in good faith and for information only. Oxford University Press disclaims any responsibility for the material contained therein.I dedicate this book to my family and my uncle Mr B.L. TherajaFeatures of RW APG Li Steen oconputes IE imwactontac BRS Paps T Ve relhansive: Le Timpuransousuroenes [I eae onan Comiyietetsive Coveraae ee es dee swear ene Ppa Reaip ranging from basics of computer hardware and pets te software to the basics of C programming pp. i jay bry ¥ Lage terres ant [drs (odes Keys such as Shift, Ctrl, and Alt are called modifier keys because they are used to modi the normal function of 2 key. For example, Shift + character (lowercase) makes the Notes and Programming Tips bolt bugsccieh ee Notes highlight important terms and concepts, and programming tips educate the readers about Programming Tip: Soutien promratmaie ers spdhen eo Wold oo ‘manipulated with arithmetic or other operators available in Cboundaries, POINTS TO REMEMBER + Acomputeris an electronic machine that accepts ata -~Points to Remember and instructions and performs computations on the Se oe ‘Summary points at the end of each chapter help « Computers are used inallinterectve devices, such as _‘Teaders to revise all the important concepts explained cellular telephones, GPS units, portable organizers, _in the chapter ‘ATMs, and gas pumps. Glossary Includes a list of key terms along with their definitions for a quick recapitulation of important terms learned inall chaptersthe Book ‘CASE STUDY 1: Chapters 9 and 0 CASE STUDY 2: Chapter 12 Programming Examples About 250 C programs are included, which demonstrate the applicability of the concepts learned i on Answers to Objective ~ Questions Exercises Includes plenty of program code-related programs at the end of relevant chapters, which require the readers to find the output of a given code, the functionality of a given loop, or errors in a given program code Case Studies Select chapters on C include case studies that show how C can be used to create programs demonstrating real-life applications ram to print Hello World, using pointer Hinelude int main() C char *ch = "Hello Korld"; printf(7Xs", ch); return 0; ) Output Hello World Objective Questions Includes comprehensive exercises at the end of each chapter to facilitate revision—Answers to these questions are provided in Appendix F at the end of the book EXERCISESCompanion Online Resources aan Visit india.oup.com/ores’9780199463732 to access ‘natn both teaching. and learning solutions online. Online Resources The following resources are available to support the faculty and students using this text For Faculty + PowerPoint presentations * Solutions manual * Projects For Students + Multiple-choice Questions + Model Question Papers * Codes of chapter-wise programming examples step 4 Getting eared Step 7: Flin your deals regsteation fxm with ‘Step 2: treme qucy by coves purer + BASE SEANGH + fee mate ith * suThon inthe term me - ranastory ou + Upaate * Deen == me Step 6 you donathave an Oxford regiter within | Step 8: Validation > sierme + Weshal evet Sep 3 Seco elect Product _ Step 9: Contemation ‘Step 10 Vis sagan om + Goto ndlcupcam + Sgn wth Onoe © ‘Step 11: Vit your ensed products Step 12 Download Resources Chek onthe ile Select mou tye ‘owned the resoure you reaure + Goto *Resowees uction = Resources fcPreface to the Second Edition Information technology (IT) is the buzzword in the 21st century. It has revolutionized the way we think and irreversibly changed our everyday existence. Computers form the backbone of information technology affecting all aspects of our lives. They are not only used for general computing but also for performing tasks such as booking railway and airline tickets, designing a building, training a player, and practicing landing of an airplane. The use of computers has become so widespread that almost all electrical and electronic devices such as washing machines and air conditioners have a small embedded computer within them. Even the smartphones are connected to the Intemet. Learning computers is no longer meant only for students pursuing a career in engineering and technology, but is also ‘mandatory for students of other professions such as journalism, nursing, archaeology, and construction and management. ‘Therefore, a basic knowledge of computers helps one to be more productive and self-sufficient. Moreover, C is considered to be the mother of all modem-day computer languages. Almost all popular cross-platform programming languages and scripting languages, such as C++, Java, Python, Objective-C, Perl, Ruby, PHP, Lua, and Bash, are implemented in C and borrow syntaxes and functions heavily from C. In the programming language popularity website, C tops the list followed by C+ and Java, ‘Thus, knowledge of C provides a solid foundation to lear advanced programming skills such as object-oriented programming, event-driven programming, multi-thread programming. real-time programming, embedded programming, network programming, parallel programming, other programming languages, and new and emerging computing paradigms such as grid-computing and cloud computing. ABOUT THE BOOK ‘This second edition of Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C has been designed a8 a textbook for the undergraduate students of engineering, computer science, and computer applications. The objective of this book is to introduce the readers to the elements of computing, computer hardware and software, and C progemming, PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES ‘The following are the salient features of the book: Comprehensive coverage Provides comprehensive coverage of important topics ranging from the basics of computers to C programming and important data structures Case studies Includes case studies at the end of select chapters on C, which provide practical orientation to the concepts discussed in the respective chapters Complete program codes Contains plenty of program codes that are thoroughly tested and compiled to support the text Practical orientation Provides numerous solved examples and chapter-end exercises in the form of objective-type questions, review exercises, and programming problems that enable the students to check their understanding of the concepts Glossary Includes a list of key terms at the end of each chapter that facilitates revision of important topics learned ‘Tips and Notes Includes programming tips that educate readers about common programming errors and how to avoid them and notes that highlight important terms and concepts in between the text as sidebars for a quick recapitulation, NEW TO THIS EDITION ‘The following are the most notable additions in this: + Introduces a chapter on Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates, which discusses the basic concepts underlying digital computing systems + Many new sections have been added in this edition. The details are as follows: Chapter 1 To provide readets a perspective of how computers evolved over the last century, this chaptet presents a section on history of computers, which gives a timeline of the developments in computing technology. The section on applications of computers covers new applications,ve Preface to the Second Edition 1er 3 The section on secondary storage devices includes latest deviees such as Blu-ray disks and external hard disks. The chapter now also provides section on processor architecture, which focuses on the different components of a processor, and types of processors. Chapter 4 This chapter includes new examples to demonstrate the addition and subtraction of hexadecimal and octal numbers. In addition, the chapter covers codes such as Unicode and 8421 and 2421 BCD codes. The sections on logic gates and universal gates have been moved to Chapter S. Chapter 5 This is a new chapter, which focuses on logic gates that form the basic building blocks of a digital circuit, and discuses Boolean algebra, which is used to express the output of any circuit implemented using logic gates. Chapter 6 This chapter strengthens discussion on operating systems by briefly explaining the command interpretation module of an operating system and CLI vs GUI interface. It discusses the features of Windows 8 and Windows 10 along ‘with mobile operating systems, In addition, it includes a seetion outlining the differences between customized and public domain software. Chapter 7 To familiarize readers with how applications communicate over @ network, this chapter provides a brief overview of two reference models—OSI model and TCP/IP model. In addition, it discusses Internet-related concepts, such as IP address, URL, and domain name system (DNS). Chapter 8 In onder to make the text more coherent, this chapter has been restructured to focus on the program designing tools that aid in the development of efficient programs. The section on programming languages has been shifted to chapter 6. Chapter 9 This chapter includes an annexure, which shows the steps to compile and execute C programs on both Unix’ Linux and Ubuntu platforms. Chapter 12 This chapter adds a program showing the array representation of sparse matrices. Similarly, it includes a program to find whether a matrix is symmetric of not. Chapter 14 {tineludes a program to illustrate the dangling pointer problem, Chapter 15. Mt presents three different ways to find the size of a structure. All these different methods have been exemplified through program codes. CONTENT AND COVERAGE ‘The book is divided into two parts spanning 18 chapters and five appendices. Part |: Computers in Fundamentals Chapter 1, Introduction to Computers, provides an introduction to computers. The chapter explains the generations, classifications, applications, and the basic organization of a computer system. Chapter 2, Input and Output Devices, presents a detailed description of the different types of input and output devices. Chapter 3, Computer Memory and Processors, explains the significance of memory hierarchy and discusses the different types of primary and secondary memory that are widely used to store data, It also discusses the basic processor architecture (ineluding RISC and CISC) and the instruction set. Chapter 4, Number Systems and Computer Codes, discusses binary, octal, and hexadecimal number systems. The ‘chapter enables the reader to perform arithmetic operations on different number systems, Important codes such as ASCII, EBCDIC, Excess 3, Gray code, and Unicode are also discussed in the chapter. Chapter 8, Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates, introduces the concepts of digital computing systems such as Boolean algebra, Boolean functions, Boolean expressions, and logic gates. Chapter 6, Computer Software, provides a thorough overview of computer software. It discusses different types of system software and application software packages that are widely used. ‘Chapter 7, Computer Networks and the Internet, talks about different types of computet networks, wired and wireless media, network devices and topologies, area networks, and data transmission mode. It also discusses the Internet, TCP/ IP protocol, and different services provided by the Intemet. Chapter 8, Designing Efficient Programs, details the different ste performed for creating efficient and maintai solution(s) of a given problem at hand. ‘ps in software development process, which are ble programs. It also explains the different tools, which are used to obtainPreface to the Second Edition (oe Part Il: Programming in C Chapter 9, Introduction to C, discusses the building blocks of the C programming language, It includes descriptions om identifiers, constants, variables, and operators supported by the language. Annexure I shows the steps to write, compile, and execute a C program in Unix‘Linux and Ubuntu environments, Chapter 10, Decision Control and Looping Statements, deals with special types of statements such as decision control, iterative, break, control, and jump. Case Study’ 1 includes two programs which hamess the concepts learnt in Chapters 9 and 10, Chapter 11, Functions, deals with declaring, defining, and calling functions. It also discusses the storage classes as well as variable scope in C. The chapter ends with the concept of recursion and a discussion of the Tower of Hanoi problem. Annexure 2 discusses how to create user-defined header files. Chapter 12, Arrays, provides a detailed explanation of arrays that includes one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and ‘multi-dimensional arrays. Towards the end of the chapter, the operations that can be performed on such arrays are also explained Case Study 2 provides an introduction to sorting and various sorting techniques such as bubble sort, insertion sort, and selection sort. Chapter 13, Strings, discusses the concept of strings, which are better known as character arrays. The chapter not only focuses on reading and writing strings but also explains various operations that can be used to manipulate them. Chapter 14, Pointers, presents a detailed overview of pointers, pointer variables, and pointer arithmetic, The chapter also relates the use of pointers with arrays, strings, and functions. This helps readers to understand how pointers can be used to write better and efficient programs. Annexure 3 explains the process of deciphering pointer declarations. Case Study 3 includes a program which demonstrates how pointers can be used to access and manipulate strings. Chapter 15, Structure, Union, and Enumerated Data Type, introduces user-defined data types— structures and unions. It includes the use of structures and unions with pointers, arrays, and functions so that the inter-connectivity between the programming techniques can be well understood. Annexure 4 provides an explanation about bit fields and slack bytes. Chapter 16, Files, discusses how data can be stored in files. The chapter deals with opening. processing, and closing of files through a C program. These files are handled in text mode as well as binary mode for better clarity of the concepts. Chapter 17, Preprocessor Directives, deals with preprocessor directives. It includes small program codes that illustrate the use of different directives in a C program. Chapter 18, Introduction to Data Structures, provides an introduction to different data structures such as linked lists, stacks, queues, trees, and graphs, Appendix A, Bitwise Operations, discusses bit-level programming and some of the bitwise operators. Appendix B, ANSI C Library Functions, lists some of the ANSI C library fun Appendix C, Advanced Type Qualifiers and Inline Functions in C, introduces some advanced type qualificrs as well as inline functions. Appendix D, Interview Questions with Solutions, includes about 100 frequently asked interview questions along with their solutions. Appendix E, Linux: A Short Guide discusses the basics of Linux kernel and shell and describes the most commonly used Linux commands. Appendix F, Answers to Objective Questions, provides answers to objective questions. sand their descriptions ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | would like to gratefully acknowledge the feedback and suggestions provided by various faculty members for the improvement of the book. | am obliged to the editorial team at Oxford University Press India for all their support towards revising this book. Suggestions for improving the presentation and contents can be sent to the publishers through their website www.india.oup.com or to me at reemathareja(@/gmail.com. Reema TharejaPreface to the First Edition ‘Computers are so widely used in our day-to-day lives that imagining a life without them has become almost impossible. ‘They are not only used by professionals but also by children for interactively learning lessons, playing games, and doing their homework. Applications of the computer and its users are increasing by the day. Learning computer fundamentals is a stepping stone to having an insight into how these machines work. Once the reader is aware of the basic terminology that is commonly used in computer science, he/she can then go on to develop usefull computer programs that may help solve a user's problems. Since computers cannot understand human languages, special programming languages are designed for this purpos C is one such programming language. Being the most popular programming language, it is used in several different software platforms such as system software and application software. A few other programming languages such as C++ and JAVA are also based on C. Hence, mastering the C language is a prerequisite for learning such languages ABOUT THE BOOK Computer Furdamentals and Programming int Cis aimed at serving as a textbook for undergraduate level courses in ‘computer science and enginecring and postgraduate level courses of computer applications. The objective of this book is to introduce the students to the fundamentals of computers and the concepts of the C programming language and ‘enable them to apply these concepts for solving res Id problems. The book has been designed keeping in mind the Fequirements of a basic first-level course on computer fundamentals and programming, which is offered as a common subject in all engineering disciplines. It comprehensively covers the fundamental concepts of computers, including topics such as introduction to computers, number system, input/output devices, computer memory, computer software, the Internet, and introduction to algorithms and programming languages. Programming is a skill best developed by rigorous practice. Keeping this in mind, the book provides a number of examples and exereises that would help the reader learn how to design efficient, workable programs. Various programming examples that have been thoroughly implemented and tested have been included in the book. ‘To further enhance the understanding of the subject, there are numerous chapter-end exereises provided in the form of objective type questions, review questions, and programming problems. “The book is also useful as a reference and resource to computer professionals. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘The writing of this textbook was a mammoth task for which a lot of help was required from many people. Fortunately, 1 have had the fine support of my family, friends, and fellow members of the teaching staff at the Institute of Information ‘Technology and Management, Delhi My special thanks would always go to my father Shri Janak Raj Thareja, my mother Smt. Usha Thareja, my brother Pallay, and sisters Kimi and Rashi who were a source of inspiration and divine blessings for me. | am especially thankful to my son Goransh who has been very patient and cooperative in letting me realize my dreams. My sincere thanks go to my uncle, Mr B.L. Theraja, for his inspiration and guidance in writing this book. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the technical assistance provided to me by Ed. Udit Chopra, who helped me in designing and testing the numerous program codes provided in the book. Last but not least, my acknowledgements will remain incomplete if I do not thank the editorial team at Oxford University Press, India, for supporting me wholeheartedly during the publication of my books over the past few years. Reema TharejaBrief Contents Features of the Book iv Companion Online Resources vi Preface to the Second Edition vii Preface to the First Edition x Detailed Contents xii PART |: COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS 1 Introduction to Computers 2 Input and Output Devices 3 Computer Memory and Processors 4 Number Systems and Computer Codes § Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 6 Computer Software 7 Computer Networks and the Internet 8 Designing Efficient Programs PART Il: PROGRAMMING IN C 9 Introduetion to C 10 Decision Control and Looping Statements 11 Functions 12 Arrays 13 Strings 14 Pointers 15 Structure, Union, and Enumerated Data Type 16 Files 17 Preprocessor Directives 18 Introduction to Data Structures Appendix A: Bitwise Operations 488 Appendix B: ANSI C Library Functions 490 Appendix C: Advanced Type Qualifiers and Inline Functions in C498 Appendix D: Interview Questions with Solutions 501 Appendix E: Linux: A Short Guide S11 Appendix F: Answers to Objective Questions 516 Index 523 About the Author $25 124 149 163 165 205 248 275 317 347 386 415 447 460Detailed Contents Features of the Book iv Companion Online Resources vi Preface to the Second Edition vii Preface to the First Edition’ x Brief Contents xi PART I: COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS 1 1 Introduction to Computers 3 1.1 Computer 3 1.2 Characteristics of Computers 3 1.3 Stored Program Concept 4 1.3.1 Types of Stored Program Computers 4 1.4 History of Computers 5 1.5 Classification of Computers 9 15.1 Supercomputers 9 1.5.2 Mainframe Computers. 9 13.3 Minicomputers 9 1.3.4 Microcomputers 10 1.6 Applications of Computers 1 1,7 Basic Organization of a Computer 5 1.8 Lab Session—Inside the Computer 16 19 Motherboard 17 1.9.1 Characteristics ofa Motherboard 17 2 Input and Output Devices 2 2.1 Input Devices 22 2.1 Keyboard 21.2 Pointing Devices. 23 2.1.3 Handheld Devices 25 21.4 Optical Devices 26 2.15 Audiovisual Input Devices 28 2.2 Output Devices 29 22.1 Soft Copy Devices 29 2.2.2 Hard Copy Devices 33 3 Computer Memory and Processors 39 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Sequential and Random Access 39 3.3 Memory Hierarchy 39 3.4 Processor Registers 40. 3.5 Cache Memory 40 3.6 Primary Memory 40 3.6.1 Random Access Memory (RAM) 41 3.6.2 Read-only Memory (ROM) 41 3.6.3 Finding Required Data from Main Memory 42 4.7 Secondary Storage Devices 42 4.7.1 Offline Storage 42 3.8 Magnetic Tapes 43 3.9 Floppy Disks 43 3.10 Hard Disks 44 3.11 External Hard Disks 46 3.12 Optical Drives 46 3.12.1 CD-ROM 47 3.12.2 DVD-ROM 4? 3.123 CD-R 47 3.124 CD-RW 47 3.125 BLU-Ray Disks 48 3.13 USB Flash Drives 48 3.14 Memory Cards 49 3.15 Mass Storage Devices 50 3.15.1 Disk Array 50 3.15.2 Automated Tape Library 50 3.153 CD-ROM Jukebox 50 3.16 Basic Processor Architecture 5? 3.16.1 Execution Unit $1 3.16.2 Registers 51 3.16.3 Bus Interface Unit 52 3.164 Instruction Set $2 3.16.5 System Clock 53 3.16.6 Processor Speed 53 3.16.7 Pipelining and Parallel Processing 54 3.16.8 Types of Processors 54 4 Number Systems and Computer Codes 59 4.1 Introduction to Number Systems 59 4.2 Binary Number System 59 4.3 Working With Binary Numbers 60 43.1 Converting a Binary Number into Decimal Form 61 43.2 Converting a Decimal Number into Binary Form 61 43.3 Adding Two Binary Numbers 61 4.3.4 Subtracting Two Binary Numbers 62 43.5 Subtracting Two Binary Numbers Using Twos Complement 62 43.6 Multiplying Two Binary Numbers 63 4.3.7 Dividing Two Binary Numbers 63 44 Octal Number System 63 44.1 Converting an Octal Number into Decimal Form 63 44.2 Converting a Decimal Number into Octal Form 64 44.3 Converting an Octal Number into Binary Form 64 444 Converting a Binary Number into Octal Form 6444.5 Adding Two Octal Numbers 65 4.4.6 Subtracting Two Octal Numbers 65 4.5 Hexadecimal Number System 66 4.5.1 Converting a Hexadecimal Number into Decimal Form 66 4.5.2 Converting a Decimal Number into Hexadecimal Form 66 4.5.3 Converting a Hexadecimal Number into Binary Form 67 4.5.4 Converting a Binary Number into Hexadecimal Form 67 4.5.5 Converting a Hexadecimal Number into Octal Form 67 4.5.6 Converting an Octal Number into Hexadecimal Form 67 45.7 Adding Two Hexadecimal Numbers 68 4.5.8 Subtracting Two Hexadecimal Numbers 68 4.6 Working with Fractions 68 4.7 Signed Number Representation in Binary Form 69 4.7.1 Sign-and-magnitude 70 4.7.2 Ones Complement 70 47.3 Two Complement 70 48 BCD Code 70 4.9 Other Codes 71 4.9.1 ASCH Code 71 4.9.2 Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code 71 4.9.3 Excess-3 Code 71 4.9.4 Weighted Codes 71 49.3 Gray Code 73 4.9.6 Unicode 73 § Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 16 $.1 Boolean Algebra 76 $2 Venn Diagrams 77 5.3 Truth Tables 77 3.4 Basie Laws of Boolean Algebra 78 $4.1 Identity Law 78 $4.2 Idempotency Law 78 $4.3 Complement Law 78 $44 Involution Law 78 $4.5 Commutative Law 78 5.4.6 Associative Law 79 $4.7 Distributive Law 79 5.4.8 Absorption Law 80 5.4.9 Consensus Law 80 5.4.40 De Morgan's Laws 80 5.5 Representations of Boolean Functions 8/ 5.5.1 Minterm 81 5.5.2 Maxterm 82 5.6 Logic Gates 82 5.7 Logic Diagrams and Boolean Expressions 84 5.8 Universal Gates 85 5.8.1 NAND Universal Gate 85 Detailed Contents 5.8.2 NOR Universal Gate 86 5.9 Simplification of Boolean Expressions Using Kamaugh Map 87 6 Computer Software 92, 6.1 Introduction to Computer Software 92 6.2 Classification of Computer Software 93 6.2.1 System Software 93 6.2.2 Application Software 96 6.3 Acquiring Computer Software 96 63.1 Buying Pre-written Software 96 63.2 Having Customized Software 96 63.3 Downloading Public Domain Software 97 6.4 Productivity Software 97 6.4.1 Introduction to Microsoft Office 97 65 Graphics Software 109 6.6 Multimedia Software 109 6.7 Database Management Software 109 6.8 Operating Systems 1/0 6.8.1 Types of Operating Systems 110 68.2 Command Interpretation 111 6.9 Popular Operating Systems 112 69.1 Microsoft DOS 112 69.2 Windows 113 69.3 UNIX IIS 6.94 Linux 116 6.10 Mobile Operating Systems 116 6.11 Programming Languages 1/7 6.12 Generation of Programming Languages 118 6.12.1 First Generation: Machine Language 18 6.12.2 Second Generation: Assembly Language 118 6.12.3 Third Generation: High-Level Language 119 6.12.4 Fourth Generation: Very High-tevel Language 119 6.125 Fifth Generation Programming Language 120 7 Computer Networks and the Internet 124 7.1 Introduction to Computer Networks 124 7.1.1 Advantages of Computer Networks 124 7.2 Types of Networks 125 7.2.1 Local Area Network 125 7.2.2 Wide Area Network 125 7.2.3 Metropolitan Area Network 125 7.24 Campus/Corporate Area Network 126 7.2.5 Personal Area Network 126 7.2.6 Peer-to-Peer Networks 126 7.3 Physical Components of a Network 127 7.4 Wired Media 127 7.4.1 Twisted-pair Wires 127 7.4.2 Coaxial Cables 127 7.4.3 Fibre Optic Cables 127Ge) meric 75 Wireless Media 128 7.5.1 Terrestrial Microwaves 128 7.5.2 Satellite Communication 128 75.3 Infrared Communication 128 7.6 Networking Devices 128 7.6.1 Hub 128 7.6.2 Repeater 129 7.6.3 Switch 129 7.6.4 Bridge 129 7.6.3 Router 129 7.6.6 Gateway 130 7.6.7 Network Interface Card 130 7.7 Network Topologies 130 7.7.1 Bus Topology 130 7.7.2 Star Topology 130 7.7.3 Ring Topology 131 7.7.4 Mesh topology 131 7.7.5 Hybrid Topology 131 7.8 Wireless Networks /32 7.9 Data Transmission Mode 133 7.9.1 Simplex, Half-duplex, and Full-duplex Connections 133 7.9.2 Serial and Parallel Transmissions 134 7.9.3 Synchronous and Asynchronous Data Transmission Modes 135 7.10 Open System Interconnection Model 136 7.11. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol Model 138 712 Internet 138 7.12.1 History 139 7.13 Internet Protocol Address 139 7.14 TAS 716 7.13.1 Types of IP Addresses 139 Domain Name System 139 Uniform Resource Locator or Universal Resource Locator 140 Internet Services 141 7.16.1 Electronic Mail 141 7.16.2 File Transfer Protocol 142 7.16.3 Chatting 142 7.164 Internet Conferencing 143 7.16.5 Electronic Newspaper 143 7.16.6 World Wide Web 143 7.16.7 Online Shopping 143 7.168 Search Engine 144 Designing Efficient Programs 149 81 82 83 84 85 86 Programming Paradigms 149 B8L.1 Monolithic Programming 149 81.2 Procedural Programming 149 8.1.3 Structured Programming 150 814 Object-oriented Programming (00P) 1ST Example of a Structured Program 151 Design and Implementation of Efticient Programs 152 Program Design Tools: Algorithms, Flowcharts, Pscudocodes 153 84.1 Algorithms 153 $4.2 Control Structures Used in Algorithms 153 84.2 FLOWCHARTS 154 84.3 Pseudocodes 156 ‘Types of Errors 157 Testing and Debugging Approaches 158 PART Il: PROGRAMMING IN C 163 9 Introduction to C 9.1 Introduction 165 9.1.1 Background 165 9.1.2 Characteristics of C166 91.3 Uses of C 166 9.2 Structure of aC Program 166 9.3 Writing the first C Program 167 9.4 Files Used inaC Program 168 9.4.1 Source Code Files 168 9.4.2 Header Files 168 9.4.3 Object Files 169 9.4.4 Binary Executable Files 169 9.5 Compiling and Executing C Programs 169 9.6 Using Comments 170 9.7 CTokens 171 9.8 Character Set in@ 171 9.9 Keywords 171 9.10 Identifiers 172 9.10.1 Rules for Forming Identifier Names 172 9.11 Basie Data Types in 172 165 9.12 913 914 9.15 9.11.1 How are Float and Double Stored? 173 Variables 173 9.12.1 Numeric Variables 173 9.12.2 Character Variables 174 9.123 Declaring Variables 174 9.124 Initializing Variables 174 Constants 174 9.13.1 Integer Constants 174 9.13.2 Floating Point Constants 175 9.13.3 Character Constants 175 9.13.4 String Constants 175 9.13.5 Declaring Constants 175 Input/Output Statements in C176 9.14.1 Streams 176 9.14.2 Formatting Input/Output 176 9.14.3 print€() 176 9.144 scant() 179 9.14.5 Examples of printf/scanf 180 9.14.6 Detecting Errors During Data Input 182 Operators in 182 9.15.1 Arithmetic Operators 18310 9.15.2 Relational Operators 184 9.15.3 Equality Operators 18S 9.15.4 Logical Operators 185 9.15.5 Unary Operators 186 9.15.6 Conditional Operator 187 9.15.7 Birwise Operators 187 9.15.8 Assignment Operators 189 9.15.9 Comma Operator 189 9.15.10 sizeof Operator 191 9.15.11 Operator Precedence Chart 191 9.16 Type Conversion and Typecasting 195 9.16.1 Type Conversion 195 9.16.2 Typecasting 196 Annexure 1 204 Decision Control and Looping Statements 208 10.1. Introduction to Decision Control Statements 205 10.2 Conditional Branching Statements 205 10.2.1 1 Statement 205 10.2.2 if-else Statement 207 10.2.3 if-else-af Statement 209 10.2.4 switch case 212 10,3 Iterative Statements 2/6 10.3.1 while Loop 216 103.2 dowhile Loop 218 10.3.3 for Loop 221 10.4 Nested Loops 10.5 Break and Conti 10.3.1 break Statement 232 10.3.2 continue Statement 232 10.6 goto Statement 233 Case Sudy 1: Chapters 9 and 10° 245 Functions: was 11.1 Introduction 248 11.1.1 Why are Functions Needed? 248 11.2 Using Functions 249 11.3 Function Declaration/Function Prototype 249 11.4 Function Definition 250 11S Funetion Call 25/ ILS.1 Points to Remember While Calling Functions 251 11.6 Return Statement 252 1.6.1 Using Variable Number of Arguments 253 11.7 Passing Parameters to Functions 253 47.1 Call by Value 233 17.2 Call by Reference 254 11.8 Scope of Variables 257 1.8.1 Block Scope 237 11.8.2 Function Scope 258 11.8.3 Program Scope 258 11.8.4 File Scope 259 11.9 Storage Classes 259 119.1 auto Storage Class 259 11.9.2 register Storage Class 260 232 11.10 Recursive Functions 262 Detailed Contents oo 41.9.3 extern Storage Class 260 4194 static Storage Class 261 41.9.5 Comparison of Storage Classes 262 1.10.1 Greatest Common Divisor 263 1110.2 Finding Exponents 264 11.103 Fibonacci Series 264 11.11 Types ofRecursion 265 ILUL1 Direct Recursion 265 IL1L2 Indirect Recursion 265 ILU.3 Tail Recursion 265 ILIA Linear and Tree Recursion 266 11.12 Tower of Hanoi 266 11.13 Recursion Versus Iteration 267 Annexure 2 274 12 Arrays 25 12.1 Introduction 275 12.2 Declaration of Arrays 275 Points to Remember 276 12.3 Accessing the Elements of an Array 276 (2.3.1 Calculating the Address of Array Elements 277 123.2 Calculating the Length of an Array 277 124 Storing Values in Arrays 278 42.4.1 Initializing Arrays during Declaration 278 12.4.2 Inputting Values from the Keyboard 278 12.4.3 Assigning Values to Individual Elements. 278 12.5 Operations on Arrays 279 12.5.1 Traversing an Array 279 42.5.2 Inserting an Element in an Array 283 12.5.3 Deleting an Element from an Array 286 12.5.4 Merging Two Arrays 287 42.5.5 Searching for a Value in an Array 289 12.6 Passing Arrays to Functions 292 12.7 Two-Dimensional Amays 295 12.7.1 Declaring Two-dimensional Arrays 295 12.7.2 Initializing Two-dimensional Arrays 296 12.7.3 Accessing the Elements of Two-dimensional Arrays 297 12.8 Operations on Two-Dimensional Arrays. 300 12.9 Passing Two-Dimensional Arrays to Functions 302 129.1 Passinga Row 303 12.9.2 Passing an Entire 2D Array 303 12.10 Multidimensional Arrays 305 12.11 Sparse Matrices 306 I2ILI Array Representation of Sparse Matrices 307ee Detailed Contents 13 14 12.12 Applications of Arrays 308 Case Stuely 2: Chapter 12313 Strings 317 13.1 Introduction 317 13.11 Reading Strings 318 13.1.2 Writing Strings 319 13.13 Summary of Functions Used to Read and Write Characters 320 13.2 Suppressing Input 32/ 13.2.1 Using a Seanset 321 13.3 String Taxonomy 322 13.4 Operations on Sirings 322 13.4.1 Finding the Length of a String 323 13.4.2 Converting Characters of a String into Upper Case 323 13.4.3 Converting Characters of a String Into Lower Case 324 13.4.4 Concatenating Two Strings to Form a New String 324 13.4.5 Appending a String to Another String 325 13.4.6 Comparing Two Strings 326 13.4.7 Reversing a String 325 13.4.8 Extracting a Substring from Left 327 13.4.9 Extracting a Substring from Right of the String 328 13.410 Extracting a Substring from the Middle of a String 328 134.11 Inserting a String in Another String 329 134.12 Indexing 330 13.413 Deleting a String from the Main String 330 13.4.14 Replacing a Pattern with Another Pattern in a String 331 13.5 Miscellaneous String and Character Functions 33/ 13.5.1 Character Manipulation Functions 331 13.5.2 String Manipulation Functions 332 13.6 Arrays of Strings 337 Pointers 347 14,1, Understanding the Computer's Memory 347 14.2 Introduction to Pointers. 348 14.3 Declaring Pointer Variables 348 14.4 Pointer Expressions and Pointer Arithmetic 350 14.5 Null Pointers 354 14.6 Generic Pointers 354 14.7 Passing Arguments to Function Using Pointers 354 14,8 Pointers and Arrays 358 14.9 Passing an Array to a Function 359 14.10 Difference Between Array Name and Pointer 360 14.11 Pointers and Strings 360 14.12 Arrays of Pointers 364 14.13 Pointers and 2D Arrays 365 14.14 Pointers and 3D Arrays 367 14.15 Function Pointers 368 14.13.1 Initializing a Function Pointer 368 14.13.2 Calling a Function Using a Function Pointer 368 14.15.3 Comparing Function Pointers 369 14.15.4 Passing a Function Pointer as an Argument toa Funetion 369 14.16 Array of Function Pointers 369 14.17 Pointers to Pointers 370 14.18 Memory Allocation in C Programs 370 14.19 Memory Usage 370 14.20 Dynamic Memory Allocation 371 14.20.1 Memory Allocations Process 371 14.20.2 Allocating a Block of Memory 371 14.203 Releasing the Used Space 372 14.204 To Alter the Size of Allocated Memory 373 14.21 Drawbacks of Pointers 374 Annexure 3 382 Case Study 3: Chapters 13 and 14 384 15 Structure, Union, and Enumerated Data Type 386 15.1 Introduction 386 1S.LI Structure Declaration 386 15.12 Typedef Declarations 387 15.13 Initialization of Structures 388 15.14 Accessing the Members of a Structure 388 15.1.5 Copying and Comparing Structures 389 15.1.6 Finding the Size of a Structure 389 15.2 Nested Structures 392 15.3 Arrays of Structures 303 15.4 Structures and Functions 395 15.4.1 Passing Individual Members 395 15.4.2 Passing the Entire Structure 395 15.4.3 Passing Structures Through Pointers 398 15.5 Self-referential Structures 402 15.6 Unions 402 15.6.1 Declaring a Union 402 15.6.2 Aecessing a Member ofa Union 403 15.6.3 Initializing Unions 403 15.7 Arrays of Union Variables 404 15.8 Unions Inside Structures 404 15.9 Structures Inside Unions 404 Enumerated Data Type 405 15.10.1 enum Variables 406 15.10.2 Using the Typedef Keyword 40615.103. Assigning Values to Enumerated Variables 406 15.104 Enumeration Type Conversion 406 15.105 Comparing Enumerated Types 407 15.10.6. Input/Output Operations on Enumerated Types 407 Annexure4 413 16 Files a1 16.1 Introduction to Files 4/5 16.1.1 Streams in 415 16.1.2 Buffer Associated with File Streams 415 16.1.3 Types of Files 416 16.2 Using Files in C417 16.2.1 Declaring a File Pointer Variable 417 16.2.2 Openinga File 417 16.2.3 Closing a File Using felose() 418 163 Reading Data From Files 4/8 16.3.1 fscanf () 418 16.3.2 fgets() 419 163.3 fgetc() 420 16.34 fread() 420 164 Writing Data to Files 421 164.1 fprint#() 421 164.2 fputs () 422 164.3 fpute () 423 16.44 furite () 423 16.5 Detecting the End-of-File 424 16.6 Error Handling During File Operations 424 16.6.1 clearerr() 425 16.6.2 perror () 425 16.7 Accepting Command Line Arguments 426 16.8 Functions for Selecting a Record Randomly 438 168.1 fseck() 438 16.8.2 ftel. () 440 16.83 rewind () 440 16.84 fgetpos() 441 16.8.5 fsetpos() 441 16.9 Deleting a File 441 16.10 Renaming a File 442 16.11 Creating a Temporary File 442 17 Preprocessor Directives 47 17.1 Introduction 447 Appendix A: Bitwise Operations 488 ‘Appendix B: ANSI C Library Functions 490 Detailed Contents sit 17.2 Types of Preprocessor Directives 447 173 define 447 17.3.1 Object-like Macro 448 17.3.2 Function-like Macros. 448 17.3.3 Nesting of Macros 449 17.34 Rules for Using Macros 449. 17.3.5 Operators Related to Macros. 450 174 sinclude 450 17.5 sundef 451 176 sline 451 17.7 spragna 452 17.8 Conditional Directives 454 178.1 wifder 454 178.2 wifndet 454 1783 A 435 1784 telse 453 I78S tolit 453 1786 tendif 456 17.9 defined Operator 456 17.10 terror 456 17.11 Predefined Macro Names 457 18 Introduction to Data Structures 460 18.1 Introduction 460 18.2 Classification of Data Structures 460 18.2.1 Primitive and Non-primitive Data Structures 460 18.2.2 Linear and Non-linear Structures 460 18.3 Arrays 461 184 Linked Lists 46! 18.4.1 Traversing a Linked List. 462 18.4.2 Searching Linked List 462 18.4.3 Inserting a New Node in a Linked ist 463 18.44 Deleting a Node from a Linked List 466 18.5 Stacks 471 18.3.1 Operations on Stack 473 18.6 Queues 475 18.6.1 Operations on Queues 475 18,7 Trees 477 18.7.1 Representation of Binary Trees in Memory 478 18.7.2 Traversing a Binary Tree 478 18.8 Graphs 479 18.8.1 Representation of Graphs 480 “Appendix C: Advanced Type Qualifiers and Inline Functions in C498 “Appendix D: Interview Questions with Solutions S01 Appendix E: Limex: A Short Guide S11 “Appendix F: Answers to Objective Questions $16 Index 523 About the Author $251 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 PART | COMPUTER NDAMENTALS Introduction to Computers Input and Output Devices Computer Memory and Processors Number Systems and Computer Codes Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates Computer Software Computer Networks and the Internet Designing Efficient Programs‘TAKEAWAYS + Characteristics of computers ‘+ Digital computers * Stored program concept COMPUTER A computer, in simple terms, can be defined as an electronic device that is designed to accept data, perform the required mathematical and logical operations at high ‘speed, and output the result, ‘We all have seen computers in our homes, schools, and colleges. In fact, in today's scenario, we find computers in most aspects of our daily lives. For some of us, itis hard to even imagine a world without them, In the past, computers were extremely large in size and often required an entire room for installation. These computers consumed enormous amounts of power and were 100 expensive to be used for commercial applications. ‘Therefore, they were used only for limited tasks, such us computing trajectories for astronomical or military applications, However, with technological advancements, the size of computers became smaller and their energy requirements reduced immensely. This opened the way for adoption of computers for commercial purposes. ‘These days, computers have become so prevalent in the market that all interactive devices such as cellular phones, global positioning system (GPS) units, portable organizers, automated teller machines (ATMs), and gas pumps, work with computers. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS ‘We have seen that a computer is an electronic device that performs a function based on a given set of instructions known as a program. A computer accepts data, processes it, and produces information. Here, data refers to some raw fact or figure, and information implies the processed data, For example, if 12-12-92 is the date of birth of student, then it is data (a raw fact/figure). However, when we process this data (subtract it from the present-date) + Generations of computers + Types of computers + Applications of computers roduction to Computers + Basic organization of ‘acomputer and say that the age of the student is 23 years, then the outcome is information, ‘These days, computers have become a crucial part of our everyday lives, and we need computers just like we need televisions, telephones, or other electronic devices at home. Computers are basically meant to solve problems quickly and accurately. The important. characteristics of a computer (refer to Figure 1-1) are discussed in the following text. Ge Se & Cars) one CEE Figure 1.1 Characteristics of computers Speed Computers can perform millions of operations per second, which means that data that may otherwise take many hours to process is output as information in the blink of an eye. The speed of computers is usually given in nanoseconds and picoseconds, where 1 nanosecon 1 x 10” seconds and | picosecond = 1 x 10° seconds, Accuracy A computer is a very fast, reliable, and robust electronic device. It always gives accurate results, provided the correct data and set of instructions are input to it. Hence, in the event of an error, it is the user who hasG Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C ‘the incorrect data/program is responsible. This clearly ‘means that the output generated by a computer depends on the given instructions and input data. If the input data is, ‘wrong, then the output will also be erroneous. In computer terminology, this is known as garbage-in, garhage-out (GIGO). ‘Automation Besides being very fust_and accurate, computers are automatable devices that can perform a task without any user intervention. The user just needs to assign the task to the computer, after which it automati- cally controls different devices attached to it and executes, the program instructions, Diligence Unlike humans, computers never get tired of a repetitive task. It can continually work for hours without creating errors. Even if a large number of executions need tobe executed, each and every execution requires the same duration, and is executed with the same accuracy Versatile Versatility is the quality of being flexible. Today, computers are used in our daily life in different fields. For example, they are used as personal computers (PCs) for home use, for business-oriented tasks, weather forecasting, space exploration, teaching, railways, banking, medicine, and so on, indicating that computers can perform different tasks simultancously. On the PC that you use at home, you may play a garne, compose and send e-mails, listen to music, etc. Therefore, computers are versatile devices as they can perform multiple tasks of different nature at the same time. Memory Similar to humans, computers also have memory. Just the way we cannot store everything in our memory and need secondary media, such as a notebook, to record certain important things, computers also have internal or primary memory (storage space) as well as external or secondary memory. While the internal memory of computers is very expensive and limited in size, the secondary storage is cheaper and of bigger capacity. ‘The computer stores a large amount of data and programs in the secondary storage space. The stored data and programs can be retrieved and used whenever required. Secondary memory is the key for data storage. Some examples of secondary devices include floppy disks, optical disks (CDs and DVDs), hard disk drives (HDDs), and pen drives. When data and programs have to be used, they are copied from the secondary memory into the intemal ‘memory, offen known as random access memory (RAM). ‘The concept of computer memory is discussed in detail in Chapter 3. No 1Q Although the trend today is to make computers intelligent by inducing artificial intelligence (AI) in them, they still do not have any decision-making abilities of their ‘own, They need guidance to perform various tasks. Economical Today, computers are considered as short- term investments for achieving long-term gains. Using ‘computers also reduces manpower requirements and leads toan clegant andefficient way of performing various tas! Hence, computers save time, energy, and money. When ‘compared to other systems, computers can do more work in lesser time. For example, using the conventional postal system to send an important document takes at least (Wo to three days, whereas the same information when sent using, the Internet (e-mail) will be delivered instantaneously, STORED PROGRAM CONCEPT All digital computers are based on the principle of stored program conceptwhich was introduced by Sir John von Neumann in the late 1940s. The following are the key characteristic features of this concept: + Before any data is processed, instructions are read into memory, + Instructions ate stored in the computer's memory for execution. + Instructions are stored in binary form (using binary numbers—only 0s and Is), + Processing starts with the first instruction in the program, which is copied into a control unit circuit. The control unit executes the instructions. + Instructions written by the users are performed sequentially until there is a break in the current flow, + InpuvOurput and processing operations are performed simultaneously. While data is being tead/written, the central processing unit (CPU) executes another program in the memory that is ready for execution ‘Astored program architecture is a fundamental ‘computer architecture wherein the computer executes ‘the instructions that are stored in its memory. John W. Mauchly, an American physicist, and J. Presper Eckert, an American engineer, further contributed to the stored program concept to make digital computers much more flexible and powerful. As a result, engineers in England built the first stored-program computer, Manchester Mark I, in the year 1949, They were shortly followed by the Americans who designed EDVAC in the very same yeat. ‘Today, a CPU chip can handle billions of instructions per second. It executes instructions provided both the data and instructions are valid, In case either one of them or both are not valid, the computer stops the processing of instructions. 1.3.1 Types of Stored Program Computers A computer with a Von Neumann architecture stores data and instructions in the same memory. There is a serial machine in which data and instructions are selected oneskein sae esapiaes Fe Genie -cwicstcsuiineeem | Instruction address: Data address murnctin | nano | Pesce | pearvieden | gy Figure 1.2 Von Neumann architecture (a) Shared memory for instructions and data (b) Separate memories for instructions and data at a time. Data and instructions are transferred to and from memory through a shared data bus. Since there is a single bus to carry data and instructions, process execution becomes slower. Later Harvard University proposed stored program concept in which there was a separate memory to store data and instructions, Instructions are selected serially from the instruction memory and executed in the processor. When an instruction needs data, it is selected from the data memory, Since there are separate memories, execution becomes faster HISTORY OF COMPUTERS Early computers were designed not for entertainment but for solving number-crunching problems. These computers ‘were punch-card based computers that took up entire rooms. ‘Today, our smartphones have much more computing power than that was available in those early computers, In this section, we will read about history of computers ‘way back from the invention of abacus and take a look at the remarkable achievements in computing technology till the current time, Timeline of Developments 300 BC: The abacus was an early aid for mathematical computations and was designed to aid human's memory while performing calculations. A skilled abacus operator can add and subtract with the same speed as that of a person performing the same calculation using a hand calculator. ‘The invention of abacus is often wrongly attributed to ‘China, It was used by the Babylonians even in 300 BC and is still in use today (in the Far East) 1822: English mathematician Charles Babbage designed 4 steam-driven calculating machine that could compute lubles of numbers. Though the project failed as he could not complete the construction of the engine, it laid the foundation for the first computer. 1890: Herman Hollerith, an American inventor, designed & punched card system to calculate the 1880 census. ‘The system completed the task in three years saving the US government $5 million. Later Herman established a ‘company that we today know as IBM. 1936: British mathematician Alan Turing introduced 4 universal machine called the Turing machine capable ‘of computing anything that is computable, The central ‘concept of the modem computer is based on this machine. 1941: John Vincent Atanasoff, a Bulgarian-American physicist, and bis graduate student, Clifford Berry, at Towa, State College designed Atanasoff-Berry computer (ABC) that could solve 29 equations simultaneously. It was the first time a computer could store information in its main memory. 1943-1944: John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert built the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC), which is considered as the grandfather of digital computers. It filled a 20 x 40 feet room and had 18,000 vacuum tubes. 1946: Mauchly and Presper designed the UNIVAC, which was the first commercial computer for business and government applications.1 (6°) Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C "947; William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain of Bell Laboratories invented the transistor. Soon vacuum tubes in computers were replaced by transistors. 1953: Grace Hopper developed the first computer language COBOL. 1954: The FORTRAN programming language was developed. 1958: Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation separately invented integrated circuit, which is commonly known as the computer chip. 1964: Douglas Engelbart developed a prototype of the modern computer, with a mouse and a graphical user interface (GUD. This was a remarkable achievement as it shifted computers from a specialized machine for scientists and mathematicians to general public. 1969: Unix operating system was developed at Bell Labs. It was written in the C programming language and was designed to be portable across multiple platforms, Soon it became the operating system of choice among mainframes at large companies and government entities. 1970: DRAM chip was introduced by Intel. 1971: Alan Shugart with his team in IBM invented the floppy disk which allowed data to be shared among ‘computers. 1973; Robert Metcalfe, a research member at Xerox, developed Ethemet for connecting multiple computers, and other hardware. 1974-197: Personal popular. 1975: Paul Allen and Bill Gates started writing software for the Altair 8800 using the new BASIC language. On April 4, they both formed their own software company, Microsoft. 1976: Steve Jobs and Steve Worniak started Apple Computers and developed Apple I, the first computer with asingle-circuit board. computers started becoming 1977: Apple Il was launched that offered colour graphics and incorporated an audio cassette drive for storage. 1978: WordStar, a word processor application, was released by MicroPro International. 1979: VisiCale, the first computerized spreadsheet program for personal computers, was unveiled. 1981: The first IBM personal computer was introduced that used Microsoft's MS-DOS operating system. The term PC was popularized. 1983: The first laptop was introduced. Moreover, Apple introduced Lisa as the first personal computer with a GUL with drop-down menus and icons 1985: Microsoft announced Windows as a new operating system, 1986: Compaq introduced Deskpro 386 in the market, Which was a 32-bit architecture machine that provides speed comparable to mainframes. 1990; Tim Bemers-Lee invented World Wide Web with HTML as its publishing language 1993: The Pentium microprocessor introduced the use of graphics. and music on PCs. 1994: PC games became popular. 1996: Sergey Brin and Larry Page developed the Google search engine at Stanford University. 1999: The term Wi-Fi was introduced when users started connecting to the Internet without wires. 2001: Apple introduced Mac OS X operating system, which had protected memory architecture and pre-emptive multi-tasking, among other benefits, To stay competitive, Microsoit launched Windows XP. 2003: ‘The first 64-bit processor, AMD's Athlon 64, was brought into the consumer market, 2004: Mozilla released Firefox 1.0 and in the same year Facebook, « social networking site, was launched, 2005: YouTube, a video sharing service, was launched. In the same year, Google acquired Android, a Linux-based mobile phone operating system. 2006: Apple introduced MacBook Pro, its first Intel- based, dual-core mobile computer: 2007: Apple released iPhone, which brought many ‘computer functions in the smartphone 2009: Microsoft launched Windows 7 in which users could pin applications to the taskbar. 2010: Apple launched iPad, which revived the tablet computer segment. 2011: Google introduced Chromebook, a laptop that runs ‘on the Google Chrome operating system. 2015: Apple released the Apple Wate, In the same year, Microsoft launched Windows 10. ‘After reading these interesting developments in computing technology, let us also understand the evolution of computers through different generations. First Generation (1942-1955) Hardware Technology First. generation computers were ‘manufactured using thousands of vacuum tubes (see Figure 1.3);a vacuum tube is adevice made of fragile glass. Memory Electromagnetic relay was used ay primary memory and punched cards were used to store data and instructions. Software Technology Programming was done in machine or assembly language,Used for Scientific applications Examples ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 701 Highlights + They were the fastest calculating device of those times + Computers were too bulky and required « complete room for storage * Highly unreliable as vacuum tubes emitted a large amount of heat and burnt frequently + Required air-conditioned rooms for installation + Costly + Difficult to use + Required constant’ maintenance because vacuum tubes used filaments that had limited life time. Therefore, these computers were prone to frequent hardware failures Figure 1.3. Vacuum tube Source: Viadysiav Danilin/Shutterstock Second Generation (1955-1964) Hardware Technology Second generation computers were manufactured using transistors (see Figure 1.4) ‘Transistors were reliable, powerful, cheaper, smaller, and cooler than vacuum tubes. ‘Memory Magnetic core memory was used as primary memory; magnetic tapes and magnetic disks were used to store data and instructions. These computers had faster sand larger memory than the first generation computers. Software Technology Programming was done in high level programming languages. Batch operating system was used. Used for Scientific and commercial applications Examples Honeywell 400, IBM 7030, CDC UNIVAC LARC Highlights + Faster, smaller, cheaper, reliable, and easier to use than the first generation computers 1604, sci ttn + They consumed 1/10th the power consumed by f ‘generation computers + Bulky in size and required a complete room for its installation + Dissipated less heat than first generation computers but still required air-conditioned rooms * Costly + Difficult to use at o® Figure 14 Transistors Source: yurazaga/Shutterstock Third Generation (1964-1975) Hardware Technology Third generation computers were manufactured using integrated chips (ICs) (shown in Figure 1.5). ICs consist of several components such as transistors, capacitors, and resistors on a single chip to avoid wired interconnections between components, These computers used $S/ and MSI technology. Minicomputers came into existence, Initially, ICs contained 10-20 components. This technology was called Small Scale Integration (SSI). Later, ‘it was enhanced to contain about 100 components. This. was called MSI (Medium Scale integration), Memory Larger magnetic core memory was used as primary memory; larger capacity magnetic tapes and magnetic disks were used to store data and instructions. Software Technology Programming was doneinhigh level programming languages such as FORTRAN, COBOL, Pascal, and BASIC. Time sharing operating system. was used. Software was separated from the hardware. This allowed users to invest only in the software they need. Used for Sciemtific, commercial, and interactive online applications Examples 1BM 360/370, PDP-8, PADP-11, CDC6600 Highlights + Faster, smaller, cheaper, reliable, and easier to use than the second generation computers + They consumed less power than second generation computers8 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C W Bulky in size and required a complete room for installation + Dissipated less heat than second generation computers but still required air-conditioned rooms + Costly + Easier to use and upgrade Figure 1.5 Integrated circuits Source: cooldesign/FreeDigitalPhotos.net Fourth Generation (1975-1989) Hardware Technology Fourth generation computers were manufactured using ICs with LSI (Large Scale Integrated) and later with VLSI technology (Very Large le Integration), Microcomputers came into existenc Use of personal computers became widespread. High speed computer networks in the form of LANs, WANs, and MANs started growing. Besides mainframes, supercomputers were also used {51 circuits cantained 30,000 components on a single chip and VLSI technology had about one million electronic components on a single chip. Memory Semiconductor memory was used as primary memory, large capacity magnetic disks were used as built in secondary memory, Magnetic tapes and floppy disks were used as portable storage devices. Software Technology Programming was high level programming language such as C and C+ Graphical User Interface (GUI) based operating system (e.g, Windows) was introduced. It had icons and menus among other features to allow computers to be used as a general purpose machine by all users. UNIX was also introduced as an open source operating system. Apple Mac OS and MS DOS were also released during this period. ALI these operating systems had multi-processing and multi~ programming capabilities done Used for Scientific, commercial, interactive online, and network applications Examples IBM PC. Apple Il, TRS-80, VAX 9000, CRAY 1, CRAY-2, CRAY-X/MP Highlights Faster, smaller, cheaper, powerful, reliable, the previous generation computers and easier to use U Figure 1.6 VLSI chip Fifth Generation (1989-Present) Hardware Technology Fifth generation computers arc manufactured using ICs with ULSI (Ultra Large Seale Integrated) technol ‘The use of Internet became widespread and very powerful mainframes, desktops, portable laptops, and smartphones are being used common ‘Supercomputers use parallel processing techniques, {ULSI circuits contain about 10 million efectronic ‘components on a single chip. Memory Semiconductor memory is used as. primary memory: large capacity magnetic disks are used as built-in secondary memory. Magnetic tapes and floppy disks were used as portable storage devices, which have now been replaced by optical disks and USB flash drives. Software Technology Programming is done in high-level programming languages such as Java, Python, and C¥. Graphical User Interface (GUI)-based operating systems such as Windows, Unix, Linux, Ubuntu, and Apple Mac are being used. These operating systems are more powerful and user friendly than the ones available in the previous generations Used for Scicntific, commercial, interactive multimedia (graphics, audio, yideo), and network application: Examples IBM notebooks, Pentium PCs, SUM workstations, IBM SP/2, Param supercomputer Highlights + Faster, smaller, cheaper, powerful, reliable, and easier to use than the previous generation computers + Speed of microprocessors and the size of memory are growing rapidly+ High-end features available on mainframe computers in the fourth generation are now available on the microprocessors + They consume less power than computers of prior generations + Airconditioned rooms required for mainframes and supercomputers but not for microprocessors Figure 1.7 ULSI chip CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS ‘Computers can be broadly classified into four categories based on their speed, amount of data that they can process, and price (refer to Figure 1.8). These categories are as follows: + Supercomputers + Mainframe computers + Minicomputers + Microcomputers 1.5.1 Supercomputers Among the four categories, the supercomputer is the fastest, most powerful, and most expensive computer. Supercomputers were first developed in the 1980s t0 process large amounts of data and to solve complex scientific problems, Supercomputers use _paraltel processing technology and can perform more than one trillion caleulations in a second. A single supercomputer can support thousands of users at the same time, Such computers are mainly used for weather forecasting, nuclear energy research, aircraft design, automotive design, online banking, controlling industrial Introduction to Computers 9 units, etc. Some examples of supercomputers are CRAY-Ty CRA) Control Data CYBER 205, and ETA A-10. 1.5.2 Mainframe Computers Mainframe computers are large-scale computers (but smaller than supercomputers). These are very expensive and need a very large clean room with air conditioning, thereby making them very costly to deplay. As with supercomputers, mainframes can also support multiple processors. For example, the IBM $/390 mainframe can support 50,000 users at the same time, Users can access mainframes. by either using terminals or via PCs. The two types of terminals that can be used with mainframe systems are as follows: Dumb Terminals Dumb terminals consist of only a monitor and a keyboard (or mouse). They do not have their own CPU and memory and use the mainframe system’s CPU and storage devices. Intelligent Terminals In contrast to dumb terminals, intelligent terminals have their own processor and thus can perform some processing operations. However, just like the dumb terminals, they do not have their own storage space. Usually, PCs are used as intelligent terminals to facilitate data access and other services from the mainframe system. Mainframe computers are typically used as servers on the World Wide Web, They are also used in organizations such as banks, airline companies, and universities, where a large number of users frequently access the data stored in their databases. IBM is the major manufacturer of mainframe computers. Some examples of mainframe computers include IBM $/390, Control Data CYBER 176, and Amdahl 580. 1.5.3 Minicomputers As the name minicomputers are smaller, cheaper, and slower than mainframes. They are called minicomputers because they were the smallest computer of their times. Also known as midrange computers, the capabilities of minicomputers fall between mainframe and personal computers, suggests, Classification of computers, ‘Supercomputers Mainframe computers Minicompucers Microcomputers Dumb terminals Intelligent terminals Deskiop PCs Laptops Handheld devices Workstations Network computers Figure 1.8 Classification of computersCE) corone rinses rooming nc Minicomputers are widely used in business, education, hospitals, government organizations, etc. While some ‘minicomputers can be used only by a single user, others ‘are specifically designed to handle multiple users simultaneously, Usually, single-user minicomputers are used for performing complex design tasks. ‘As with mainframes, minicomputers can also be used as servers in a networked environment, and hundreds of PCs can be connected to it. ‘The first minicomputer was introduced by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in the mid-1960s, Other ‘manufacturers of minicomputers include IBM Corporation (AS/400 computers), Data General Corporation, and Prime Computer. 1.5.4 Microcomputers Microcomputers, commonly known as PCs, are very small and cheap. The first microcomputer was designed by IBM in 1981 and was named IBM-PC, Later on, many computer hardware companies copied this design and termed their microcomputers as PC-compatible, which refers to any PC that is based on the original IBM PC design. ‘Another type of popular PC is designed by Apple. PCs designed by IBM and other PC-compatible computers have a different architecture from that of Apple computers. Moreover, PCs and PC-compatible computers commonly use the Windows operating system, while Apple computers use the Macintosh operating system (MacOS). PCs ean be classified into the following categories: Desktop PCs ‘A desktop PC is the most popular model of PCs. The system unit of the desktop PC can be placed flat on a desk ‘or table, It is widely used in homes and offices, Laptops Laptops (Figure 1,9) are small microcomputers that ean casily fit inside a briefease. They are very handy and can Figure 1.9 Laptop Source: You can more/Shutterstock easily be carried from one place to another. They may also be placed on the user's lap (thus the name). Hence, laptops are Very useful, especially when going on long journeys. Laptops operate on a battery and do not always have to be plugged in like desktop computers. ‘The memory and storage capacity of a laptop is almost equivalent to that of a desktop computer. As with desktop ‘computers, laptops also have hard disk drives, USB drives, ele, For input, laptops have a built-in keyboard and a trackball/touchpad, which is used as a pointing device (as a mouse is used for a desktop PC), Today, luptops have the same features and processing speed as the most powerful PCs. However, a drawback is that laptops are generally more expensive than desktop computers. These computers are very popular among business travellers. Workstations Workstations are single-user computers that have the same features as PCs, but their processing speed matches that of a minicomputer or mainframe computer, Workstation computers have advanced processors, more RAM and storage capacity than PCs. Therefore, they are more expensive and powerful than a normal desktop computer. Although workstation computers are widely used as, powerful single-user computers by scientists, engineers, architects, and graphic designers, they can also: be used as servers in a networked environment, Network Computers Network computers have less processing power, memory, and storage than a desktop computer. These are specially designed to be used as terminals in a networked environment. For example, some network computers are specifically designed to access data stored on 4 network including the Intemet and intranet) ‘Some network computers do not have any storage space and merely rely on the network's server for data storage and processing tasks. The concept of network computers had become popular in the mid-1990s when several variations ‘of computers such as Windows terminals, NetPCs, and diskless workstations were widely used. Network computers that are specifically designed to access only the Internet or intranet are often known as Internet PCS or Intemet boxes. Some network computers used in homes do not even have a monitor. Such computers may be connected to a television, which serves as the output device. The most common example of a home-based network computer is, Web TY, which enables the user to connect a television to the Internet. ‘The Web TV is equipped with a special set-top box that is used to connect to the Internet. The set-top box also provides controls to enable the user to navigate the Internet, send and receive e-mails, and to perform other tasks on the network while Watching television. The other reason for the popularity of network computers is that they are cheaper to purchase and maintain than PCsHandheld Computers ‘The mid-1990s witnessed a range of small personal computing devices that are commonly known as handheld computers, or mobile computers. These computers are called handheld computers because they can fit in one hand, while users can use the other hand to operate them, Handheld computers are very small in size, and hence they have small-sized screens and keyboards. These computers ‘are preferred by business travellers and mobile employees whose jobs require them to move from place to place Some examples of handheld computers are as follows: ‘+ Smartphones + Tablet PCs ‘Smartphones ‘Thesedays,cellularphonesare web-enabled telephones. Such phones are also known as smartphones because, in addition to basic phone capabilities, they also facilitate the users to access the Intemet and send e-mails, edit Word documents, generate an Excel sheet, create a presentation, and lots more, Smartphones run an advanced mobile operating system that enables it to run various applications. The four major mobile operating systems are iOS, Android, BlackBerryOS, and Windows Mobile, Smartphones also have a CPU, more storage space, more memory, and a larger sereen than a regular cell phone: In nutshell, smartphone refers to a multi-functional mobile phone handset that packs in varied functionalities from a camera to a web browser to a high-density display. Tablet PCs A tablet PC (see Figure 1.10) is a computing device that is smaller than a laptop, but bigger than a smartphone. Features such as user-friendly interface, portability, and touch screen have made them very popular in the last few years. These days, a wide range Of high-performance tablets are available in the market While all of them look similar from outside, they may differ in features such as operating system, speed of data connectivity, camera specifications, size of the screen, Processing power, battery life, and storage capability Some operating systems that are used in tablets are Android Jellybean (an open-source operating system built by Google), Windows 8, and iOS (developed by Apple). Each operating system has its own advantages and disadvantages and a proprietary app store, from which users can download applications, extending the tablet’s functionality. These apps range from games to specialized word processors and even instruments. While users can easily type directly on the surface of a tablet, some users prefer a wireless or bluetooth-connected Keyboard. These days, tablets also offer an optional docking station with keyboards that transforms the tablet into a full-featured netbook. Uses The following are the uses of Tablet PCs: + View presentations + Videoconferencing ‘+ Reading e-books, e-newspaper Introduction to Computers + Watching movies * Playing games + Sharing pictures, video, songs, documents, etc. + Browsing the Internet + Keeping im touch with friends and family on popular social networks, sending emails + Business people use them to perform tasks such as editing a document, exchanging documents, taking notes, and giving presentations * Tablets are best used in crowded places such as airports and coffee shops, where size and portability become more important. Not Tablets may replace laptops if users don’t have to perform heawy processing tasks and do not require a CD ‘or DVD player Figure 1.10 Tablet Source: bloomua/Shutterstock/OUP Picture Bank ERD AppLications oF COMPUTERS When the first computers were developed, they were used ‘only in the fields of mathematics and science. In fact, the first effective utilization of computers was for decoding messages in military applications. Later on, computers Were used in real-time control systems, like for landing on the moon. However, with the advancement of technology, the cost of computers and their maintenance declined This opened the way for computers to be extensively used in the business and commercial sector for information processing. Today, computers are widely used in fields such as engineering, health care, banking, education, ete, Let us discuss how computers are being effectively utilized to perform important tasks. Word processing Word processing software enables users to read and write documents. Users can also add images, tables, and graphs for illustrating a concept. The software wutomatically corrects spelling mistakes and includes copy-paste features (which is very useful where the same text has to be repeated several times).@ Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C yet The Internet is a network of networks that connects computers all over the world. It gives the user ‘access {0 an enormous amount of information, much more than available in any library. Using e-mail, the user can communicate in seconds with a person who is located thousands of miles away. Chat software enables users to chat with another person in real-time (irrespective of the phy'sical location of that person). Video conferencing. tools are becoming popular for conducting meetings with people who are unable to be present at a particular place. Digital video or audio composition Computers: make audio or video composition and editing very simple. This has drastically reduced the cost of equipment to compose music or make a film. Graphics engineers use computers for developing short or full-length films and creating 3-D models and special effects in science fiction and action movies. Desktop publishing Desktop publishing software enables Us to create page lay outs for entire books. ‘After discussing how computers are used in today's scenario, let us now have a look at the different areas Where computers are being widely utilized. e-Business e-Business or electronic business is the process of conducting business via the Internet. This may include buying and selling of goods and services using computers ‘and the Internet, Use of email and videoconferencing technology has revolutionized the way business is being conducted these days. While an e-mail is a service that delivers messages from a sender to one or more receivers via computer, voice mail systems capture, store, and transmit spoken messages. Videoconferencing, which is an advanced form of teleconferencing, provides a complete simulation of a normal meeting environment in which all concerned parties can see, hear, and present material, just as if they were in the same room, These meetings not only speed up business process but also save the cost of travel and cost of the time wasted during travel. Both the terrms—e-Commerce and e-Business—are often Companies today use e-commerce applications for marketing, twansaction, processing, and product and customer services processing. For example, the website ‘of a company can perform activities such as interactive marketing, ordering, payment, and customer support proces e-commerce used to perform transactions between business partners or customers has several applications such as home banking. electronic shopping, buying stocks, finding a job, conducting an auction, marketing and advertising products or services, and providing ‘customer service. The following are techniques in which ‘e-commerce helps users to conduct business transactions. Business-to-consumer or B2C In this: form of electronic commerce, business companies deploy their websites on the Internet to sell their products and services to the customers. On their websites, they provide features such 1s catalogues, interactive order processing system, secure electronic payment system, and online customer support. Business-to-business or 828 This type of clectronic ‘commerce involves business transactions performed between business partners (customers are not involved). For example, companies use computers and networks (in the form of extranets) to order raw materials from their suppliers. Companies can also use extranets to supply their products to their dealers. Consumer-to-consumer or C2C This type of electronic ‘commerce enables customers to carry business transactions among themselves. For example, on auction websites, a customer sells hisvher product which is purchased by another customer. Electronic banking Electronic banking, also known as eyberbanking or online banking, supports various banking activities conducted from home, a business, or on the road instead of a physical bank location, Bioinformatics Bioinformatics is the application of computer technology to manage large amount of biological information. Computers are used to collect, store, analyse, and integrate biological and genetic information to facilitate gene-based, drug discovery and development. The need for analysis has become even more important with enormous amount of genomic information available publicly from the Human Genome Project. Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field of molecular biology. computer science, statistics, and mathematics, [t involves analyses of genomic information to understand human diseases and thus discover new drugs to treat those diseases. ‘We know that DNA is made up of smaller pieces of molecules and the sequence of molecules along a string, of DNA contains all information about an organist. This, information can be used to grow new organisms. For example, scientists are using this information to grow better variety of crops, to generate a genome that will ‘enable cows to yield more milk, s0 and so forth, Therefore. bioinformatics helps scientists to store the DNA information in huge databases. retrieve it as and when required, and analyse it to grow and develop new ‘organisms. Scientists also use bioinformatics to identity diseases and discover drugs for them. This is done by writing