Soils & Soil Problems

of India

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Soil
• Soil is the thin top layer on the earth‟s crust comprising rock particles mixed
with organic matter.
• Pedology is the study of soils in their natural environment.
• Pedogenesis is the natural process of soil formation that includes a variety
of processes such as weathering, leaching, calcification etc..

• The Soil formation is mainly related to the

• Parent rock material,
• Surface relief,
• Climate and
• Natural vegetation.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Soil Types – Sandy-Clayey-Loamy
• The soil is classified on the basis of the proportion of particles of various
sizes.
• If soil contains greater proportion of big particles it is called sandy soil.
• If the proportion of fine particles is relatively higher, then it is
called clayey soil.
• If the amount of large and fine particles is about the same, then the soil is
called Loamy soil.
• Water can drain quickly through the spaces between the sand particles.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
Soil Types: Sandy, Clayey & Loamy |
Soil Profile (Soil Horizon)
• Soil – Soil Types: Sandy – Clayey – Loamy.
• Soil Profile – Soil Horizon
• O horizon,
• A Horizon,
• E horizon,
• B Horizon,
• C Horizon or Parent rock,
• R Horizon or Bedrock.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
By Sudarshan Gurjar
 O Horizon
• Layers dominated by organic material.
• Some O layers consist of decomposed or partially decomposed litter
(such as leaves, needles, twigs, moss, and lichens).
• They may be on top of either mineral or organic soils.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 A Horizon or Surface soil
• It is the part of top soil.
• In this layer, organic matter is mixed with mineral matter.
• It is the layer of mineral soil with the most organic matter accumulation and
soil life.
• This layer is depleted of iron, clay, aluminum, organic compounds, and other
soluble constituents.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 E horizon
• “E” stands for eluviated layer.
• It is the horizon that has been significantly leached of clay, iron, and
aluminum oxides, which leaves a concentration of resistant minerals, such as
quartz, in the sand and silt sizes.
• These are present only in older, well-developed soils, and generally occur
between the A and B horizons.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 B Horizon or Subsoil
• It is subsurface layer reflecting chemical or physical alteration of parent
material.
• This layer accumulates all the leached minerals from A and E horizon.
• Thus iron, clay, aluminum and organic compounds accumulate in this horizon
[illuviation (opposite of eluviation)].

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 C Horizon or Parent rock
• Weathered parent material accumulates in this layer, i.e. the parent material
in sedimentary deposits.
• It is a layer of large unbroken rocks.
• This layer may accumulate the more soluble compounds (inorganic material).

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 R Horizon or Bedrock
• This layer denotes the layer of partially weathered bedrock at the base of
the soil profile.
• Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses of
hard rock.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
Factors that influence soil formation in
Indian Conditions

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Parent Material
• The rocks from which soils are formed are called parent materials.
• In most of the cases, the parent material determines the colouration,
mineral composition and texture of the soil.
• .

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• In Indian Conditions, parent material is generally categorized into:
• Ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks
• Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks
• Gondwana rocks
• Deccan basalts
• Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of extra peninsular
India {Rock System}

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks
• They are the Oldest rocks [(pre-Cambrian era)(formed due to solidification
of molten magma about 4billion years ago)].
• They form the ‘Basement Complex’ of peninsular India.
• They are basically granites, gniesses and schists.
• These rocks are rich in ferromagnetic materials and give rise to red soils on
weathering.
• The red colour of these soils is due to the presence of iron oxide.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks
• They are ancient sedimentary rocks (4000 m thick).
• On weathering they give calcareous [containing calcium carbonate;
chalky]
• The soil is mostly devoid of metalliferous minerals.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Gondwana rocks
• These rocks are also sedimentary in nature and they are much
younger.
• On weathering they give rise to comparatively less mature soils.
• The soil is more or less of uniform character but of low fertility.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Deccan basalts
• Volcanic activity over a vast area of the Peninsular India many
hundred million years ago gave rise to Deccan Traps.
• Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures covering a vast area of about ten
lakh sq km.
• Basalts are rich in titanium, magnetite, aluminium and magnesium.
• Consequently the weathering of these rocks has given rise to soils
of darker colour.
• The is fertile with high moisture holding capacity and is popularly
known as ‘regur’ or black cotton soil.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks
• Rocks of extra peninsular (plains and Himalayas) India have given rise to soils
with high porosity.
• These soils are generally immature recent and sub recent rocks, result
in alluvial soils on weathering.
• Alluvial fertile soils consist of fine silts and clay. These soils have little
relation with the original rocks.
• On the other hand, the soils of peninsular plateau are generally coarse-
grained and are closely related to the parent rocks.
• The peninsular soils are generally less fertile.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• In areas of heavy rainfall and high temperature, the soils are red or
lateritic. Why?
• Torrential rainfall during the rainy season washes the upper soil and leaches
the materials into deeper horizon.
• During the dry summer season the evaporation exceeds precipitation and
through capillary action iron and aluminium oxides are transported to the
surface making the soil red.
• In areas of alternate wet and dry climate, the leached material which goes
deep down in the horizon is brought up and the blazing sun bakes the top soil
so hard that it resembles a brick.
• Therefore, this soil is called lateritic which literally means brick.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Major groups:
• Alluvial soils,
• Black soils,
• Red soils,
• Laterite and Lateritic soils,
• Forest and Mountain soils,
• Arid and Desert soils,
• Saline and Alkaline soils and
• Peaty and Marshy soils.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Alluvial Soils
• Alluvial soils are formed mainly due to silt deposited by Indo-Gangetic-
Brahmaputra rivers.
• In coastal regions some alluvial deposits are formed due to wave action.
• Rocks of the Himalayas form the parent material.
• Thus the parent material of these soils is of transported origin.
• They are the largest soil group covering about 15 lakh sq km or about 46 per
cent of the total area.
• They support more than 40% of the India‟s population by providing the most
productive agricultural lands.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Characteristics of Alluvial Soils
• They are immature and have weak profiles due to their recent
origin.
• Most of the soil is Sandy and clayey soils are not uncommon.
• Kankar (calcareous concretions) beds are present in some regions
along the river terraces.
• Porosity and texture provide good drainage and other conditions
favourable for agriculture.
• These soils are constantly replenished by the recurrent floods.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Chemical properties of Alluvial Soils

• The proportion of nitrogen is generally low.

• The proportion of Potash, phosphoric acid.
• The proportion of Iron oxide and lime vary within a wide range.

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 Distribution of Alluvial Soils in India

• They occur all along the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains except in few

places where the top layer is covered by desert sand.
• They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Cauvery, where they are called deltaic alluvium (coastal alluvium)
• Some alluvial soils are found in the Narmada, Tapi valleys and Northern
parts of Gujarat.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Crops in Alluvial Soils

• They are mostly flat and regular soils and are best suited for agriculture.
• They are best suited to irrigation and respond well to canal and well/tube-
well irrigation.
• They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute,
maize, oilseeds, vegetables and fruits.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Black Soils
• The parent material for most of the black soil are the volcanic rocks that
were formed in the Deccan Plateau (Deccan and the Rajmahal trap)..
• These are the region of high temperature and low rainfall.
• It is, therefore, a soil group typical to the dry and hot regions of the
Peninsula.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Characteristics of Black Soils
• In general, black soils of uplands are of low fertility while those in the
valleys are very fertile.
• The black soil is highly retentive of moisture.
• It swells greatly on accumulating moisture.
• Much effort is required to work on such soil in rainy season as it gets very
sticky.
• In summer, the moisture evaporates, the soil shrinks and is seamed with broad
and deep cracks.
• The lower layers can still retain moisture.
• The cracks permits oxygenation of the soil to sufficient depths and the soil
has extraordinary fertility.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Colour of Black Soils
• The black colour is due to the presence of a small proportion of
titaniferous magnetite or iron and black constituents of the
parent rock.
• .

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Chemical Composition of Black Soils
• 10 per cent of alumina,
• 9-10 per cent of iron oxide,
• 6-8 per cent of lime and magnesium carbonates,
• Potash is variable (less than 0.5 per cent) and
• phosphates, nitrogen and humus are low.
• Distribution of Black Soils
• Spread over 46 lakh sq km (16.6 per cent of the total area)
across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, parts of Karnataka,
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Crops in Black Soils
• These soils are best suited for cotton crop. Hence these soils are called as
regur and black cotton soils.
• Other major crops grown on the black soils include wheat, jowar, linseed,
tobacco, castor, sunflower and millets.
• Rice and sugarcane are equally important where irrigation facilities are
available.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Red Soils
• Red soils along with its minor groups form the largest soil group of India.
• The main parent rocks are crystalline and metamorphic rocks like acid
granites, gneisses and quartzites.
• Characteristics of Red Soils
• The texture of these soils can vary from sand to clay, the majority being
loams.
• On the uplands, the red soils are poor, gravelly, and porous.
• But in the lower areas they are rich, deep dark and fertile.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Chemical Composition of Red Soils
• They are acidic mainly due to the nature of the parent rocks.
• They are poor in lime, magnesia, phosphates, nitrogen and humus.
• They are fairly rich in potash and potassium.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Colour of Red Soils

• The red colour is due to the presence of iron oxide.

• When limestone, granites, gneisses and quartzites are eroded the clay
enclosed within the rocks remains intact with other forms of non-soluble
materials.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Distribution of Red Soils
• These soils mostly occur in the regions of low rainfall.
• These soils are spread on almost the whole of Tamil Nadu.
• Other regions with red soil include parts of Karnataka, south-east of
Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Odisha, Chota Nagpur plateau, parts of south Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar
Pradesh, Aravalis and the eastern half of Rajasthan (Mewar or Marwar
Plateau), parts of North-Eastern states.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Crops in Red Soils
• The red soils are mostly loamy and hence cannot retain water like
the black soils.
• The red soils, with the proper use of fertilizers and irrigation
techniques, give good yield of cotton, wheat, rice, pulses, millets,
tobacco, oil seeds, potatoes and fruits.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Laterite – Lateritic Soils
• Laterite soils are mostly the end products of weathering.
• They are formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall
with alternate wet and dry periods.
• Heavy rainfall promotes leaching (nutrients gets washed away by water) of
soil whereby lime and silica are leached away and a soil rich in oxides of iron
and aluminium compounds is left behind.
• „Laterite‟ means brick in Latin.
• They harden greatly on loosing moisture.
• Laterite soils are red in colour due to little clay and more gravel of red sand-
stones.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Chemical composition of Laterite – Lateritic Soils
• They are very poor in lime, magnesia, potash and nitrogen.
• Sometimes, the phosphate content may be high in the form of iron
phosphate.
• In wetter places, there may be higher content of humus.
• Distribution of Laterite – Lateritic Soils
• Continuous stretch of laterite soil is found on the summits of Western Ghats,
Eastern Ghats, the Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyan, Satpuras and Malwa Plateau.
• They also occur at lower levels and in valleys in several other parts of the
country.
• They are well developed in south Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka etc. and are
widely scattered in other regions.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Crops in Laterite – Lateritic Soils
• Laterite soils lack fertility due to intensive leaching.
• When manured and irrigated, some laterites are suitable for
growing plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut,
arecanut, etc.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Forest – Mountain Soils
• They are mainly heterogeneous soils found on the hill slopes covered by
forests.
• The formation of these soils is mainly governed by the characteristic
deposition of organic matter derived from forests and their character
changes with parent rocks, ground-configuration and climate.
• Consequently, they differ greatly even if they occur in close proximity to
one another.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Distribution of Forest – Mountain Soils

• In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valleys, less steep and
north facing slopes.
• The south facing slopes are very steep and exposed to denudation and hence
do not support soil formation.
• Forest soils occur in Western and Eastern Ghats also.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Chemical properties of Forest – Mountain Soils
• The forest soils are very rich in humus.
• They are deficient in potash, phosphorus and lime.
• They require good deal of fertilizers for high yields.

Crops in Forest – Mountain Soils

• They are suitable for plantations of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits
in peninsular forest region.
• Wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits are grown in the Himalayan
forest region.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Arid – Desert Soils
• The desert soils consist of Aeolian sand (90 to 95 per cent) and clay (5 to 10
per cent).
• Desertification of neighbouring soils is common due to intrusion of desert
sand under the influence of wind [Aeolian sand].
• Distribution of Arid – Desert Soils
• Occur in arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana.
• The sand here is blown from the Indus basin and the coast by the prevailing
south-west monsoon winds.
• Sandy soils without clay factor are also common in coastal regions of Odisha,
Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Chemical properties of Arid – Desert Soils
• They are usually poor in organic matter.
• Some desert soils have of soluble salts like calcium carbonate.
• Calcium content increases downwards and the subsoil has ten times more
calcium.
• The phosphate content of these soils is as high as in normal alluvial soils.
• Nitrogen is originally low but some of it is available in the form of nitrates.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Crops of Arid – Desert Soils
• Phosphates and nitrates make these soil fertile wherever moisture is
available.
• There is a possibility of reclaiming these soils if proper irrigation facilities
are available.
• In large areas, only the drought resistant and salt tolerant crops such as
barley, cotton, millets, maize and pulses are grown.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Saline – Alkaline Soils
• It forms near the places where the drainage system is poor, the water with
high salt concentration becomes stagnant and deposits all the salts in the top
soil once the water evaporates.
• In regions with high sub-soil water table, injurious salts are transferred from
below by the capillary action as a result of evaporation in dry season.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Distribution of Saline – Alkaline Soils
• These soils are found in canal irrigated areas and in areas of high sub-soil
water table.
• Parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana, Punjab (side effects of improper or excess irrigation), Rajasthan
and Maharashtra have this kind of soils.
• The accumulation of these salts makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit
for agriculture.
• In Gujarat, the areas around the Gulf of Khambhat are affected by the sea
tides carrying salt-laden deposits.
• Vast areas comprising the estuaries of the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and
the Sabarmati have thus become infertile.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Peaty – Marshy Soils
• These are soils with large amount of organic matter and considerable
amount of soluble salts.
• The most humid regions have this type of soil.
• They are black, heavy and highly acidic.
• Distribution of Peaty – Marshy Soils
• Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala where it is called kari.
• Also occur in the coastal areas of Odisha and Tamil Nadu, Sunderbans of
West Bengal, in Bihar and Almora district of Uttarakhand.

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• Chemical Properties of Peaty – Marshy Soils
• They are deficient in potash and phosphate.
• Crops of Peaty – Marshy Soils
• Most of the peaty soils are under water during the rainy season but
as soon the rains cease, they are put under paddy cultivation.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Characteristics of Indian Soils
• Most soils are old and mature. Soils of the peninsular plateau are much older
than the soils of the great northern plain.
• Indian soils are largely deficient in nitrogen, mineral salts, humus and
other organic materials.
• Plains and valleys have thick layers of soils while hilly and plateau areas depict
thin soil cover.
• Some soils like alluvial and black soils are fertile while some other soils such
as laterite, desert and alkaline soils lack in fertility and do not yield good
harvest.
• Indian soils have been used for cultivation for hundreds of years and have
lost much of their fertility.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Problems Of Indian Soils
• Soil erosion (Himalayan region, Chambal Ravines etc.)
• Deficiency in fertility (Red, lateritic and other soils),
• Desertification (around Thar desert, rain-shadow regions like parts
of Karnataka, Telangana etc.),
• Waterlogging (Punjab-Haryana plain) salinity and alkalinity
(excessively irrigated regions of Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka etc.),
• Wasteland, over exploitation of soils due to increase in population
and rise in living standards and encroachment of agricultural land due
to urban and transport development.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Soil Degradation
• Soil degradation is the decline in soil quality caused by its improper
use, usually for agricultural, pastoral, industrial or urban purposes.
• Soil degradation is a serious global environmental problem and may
be exacerbated by climate change.
It encompasses physical (soil erosion), chemical (salinity and
alkalinity, pollution) and biological deterioration (pollution and
deterioration of vegetal cover).

By Sudarshan Gurjar
By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Soil Erosion
• Soil erosion is the removal of top soil by agents like wind and water.
• Top soil has most of the nutrients necessary for a plant‟s growth.
• With depth, the fertility of the soil decreases.
• Thus, erosion results in reduction of fertility of the soil by washing away the
fertile top layer.
• Erosion by wind and water is much quicker than the soil formation process.
• So once fertile soil layer is lost, it requires a lot of time and resources to
restore it.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Prevention is a more practical measure.
• It is less time and resource consuming.
• In India‟s case, the problem of soil erosion is particularly severe due
to over dependence on agriculture and improper land management.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Water Erosion
• Water erosion leads to rilling, gullying, sheet-wash and rain peeling.
• If erosion continues unchecked for a long time, numerous finger-shaped
grooves may develop in the silt laden soils.
• The whole pattern resembles the shape of a tree. This is called rill erosion.
• With further erosion of the soil, the rills deepen and become enlarged and
are turned into Gullies formed over a large area gives rise to badland
topography (Chambal Ravines).
• When a gully bed is eroded further, the bed gradually deepens and flattens
out and a ravine is formed. The depth of a ravine may extend to 30 metres
or more.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
By Sudarshan Gurjar
By Sudarshan Gurjar
By Sudarshan Gurjar
By Sudarshan Gurjar
By Sudarshan Gurjar
• When the entire top sheet of soil is washed away by water or by wind,
leaving behind barren rock, it is called sheet erosion.
• Sheet erosion attacks a large area of top soil and renders the land almost
unfit for cultivation.
• In the coastal areas, waves dash along the coast and cause heavy damage to
soil.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Wind Erosion
• Wind erosion or Aeolian erosion is quite significant in arid and semi-arid
regions.
• Winds usually blow at high speeds in deserts due to absence of trees
(physical obstruction).
• These winds remove the fertile, arable, loose soils leaving behind a
depression devoid of top soil.
• Desertification around desert regions is due to wind erosion.
• Wind erosion is accentuated when the soil is dry, soils are subjected to
overgrazing and devoid of vegetation cover.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Extent Of Soil Erosion In India
• 80 million hectares or about one-fourth of our total area is exposed to wind
and water erosion.
• One-eighth of land has undergone serious erosion.
• Wind erosion is a serious problem in arid and semi-arid parts of north west
India.
• About one-ninth of land is subject to severe wind erosion in Rajasthan and
adjoining areas of Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Western Uttar Pradesh.
• It is estimated that 34 lakh tonnes of fertile soils is removed by wind every
year.
• The loss due to water erosion is 53.34 million hectares annually.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Factors affecting Soil Erosion
• Intensity and duration of rainfall,
• Wind speed,
• Nature of soil and the physiography,
• Strong winds in dry areas,
• Human density,
• Deforestation,
• Overgrazing,
• Faulty methods of agriculture,
• Diversion of natural drainage courses,
• Wrong orientation of roads and railways, embankments and bridges.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Effects of Soil Erosion
• Fertile top soil is eroded.
• Flooding and leaching result in loss of mineral nutrients.
• Ground water level is lowered.
• There is decrease in soil moisture.
• Frequency and intensity of floods and drought increases.
• Rivers, canals and tanks are silted and their water holding capacity
decreases.
• The incidence and damaging power of landslides increases.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Deforestation
• Population explosion has created pressure on forest land and resources and
this causes deforestation.
• Deforestation accentuates soil erosion (soil degradation).
• Roots of trees and plants bind the soil particles and regulate the flow of
water, thus saving soil from erosion.
• Deforestation make soil vulnerable to wind and water erosion.
• The large scale damage to soil in Shiwalik range, the Chos of Punjab, the
ravines of Chambal valley are due to deforestation.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Overgrazing
• During the rainy season, there is plenty of vegetation and animals get enough
fodder.
• But during the dry period, there is shortage of fodder and the grass is
grazed to the ground and torn out by the roots by animals.
• This leads to loose structure of the soil and the soil is easily washed away by
rains.
• Moreover, soil is pulverized (reduce to fine particles) by the hoofs of animals,
and thus proves detrimental to top soil when heavy showers fall on it.
• Soil erosion due to overgrazing is a common site in the hilly areas.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Faulty Methods of Agriculture
• Much of the soil erosion in India is caused by faulty methods of agriculture.
• Wrong ploughing, lack of crop rotation and practice of shifting cultivation are the most
adversely affecting methods of agriculture.
• If the fields are ploughed along the slope, there is no obstruction to the flow of water
and the water washes away the top soil easily.
• In some parts of the country, the same crop is grown year after year which spoils the
chemical balance of the soil.
• This soil is exhausted and is easily eroded by wind or water.
• Shifting cultivation practiced in some areas in the north-eastern states.
• In this method, a piece of forest land is cleared by felling and burning of trees and
crops are grown.
• The removal of the forest cover leads to the exposure of the soil to rains and sun which
results in heavy loss of top soil, especially on the hill slopes.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Effects of salinity and alkalinity
• Salinity and alkalinity have adverse effect on soil and reduce soil fertility.
• Cultivation is not possible on saline soils unless they are flushed out with
large quantities of irrigation water to leach out the salts.
• Choice of crops is limited to salinity tolerant crops like cotton, barley etc..
• Quality of fodder and food produced in poor in quality.
• Salinity and alkalinity create difficulties in building and road construction.
• These cause floods due to reduced percolation of water.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Steps to treat salinity and alkalinity
• Providing outlets for lands to drain out excess water and lower water table.
• Seal leakages from canals, tanks and other water bodies by lining them.
• Making judicious use of irrigation facilities.
• Improve vegetal cover to avoid further degradation by planting salt tolerant
vegetation.
• Crop rotation..
• Liberal application of gypsum to convert the alkalies into soluble compounds.
• Alkali can be removed by adding sulphuric acid or acid forming substances
like sulphur and pyrite.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Steps to treat salinity and alkalinity
• Organic residues such as rice husks and rice straw can be added to promote
formation of mild acid as a result of their decomposition.
• Flushing the salt by flooding the fields with excess water. However, this
practice can lead to accumulation of saline water in the downstream area.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Desertification
• Desertification is the spread of desert like conditions in arid or semi-arid
areas due to man‟s influence or climatic change.
• A large part of the arid and semi-arid region lying between the Indus and the
Aravali range is affected by spreading desert conditions.
• Desert soils suffer maximum erosion by wind. The sand carried by wind is
deposited on the adjoining fertile lands whose fertility dwindles and slowly
the fertile land start merging with the advancing desert.
• It has been estimated that the Thar Desert is advancing at an alarming rate
of about 0.5 km per year.
• The process of desertification is attributed to uncontrolled grazing, reckless
felling of trees and growing population. Climate change have also contributed
to the spread of deserts.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Ecological implications of desertification
• Drifting of sand and its accumulation on fertile agricultural land.
• Excessive soil erosion by wind and to some extent by water.
• Deposition of sand in rivers, lakes and other water bodies thereby
decreasing their water containing capacity.
• Lowering of water table leading to acute water shortage.
• Increase in area under wastelands.
• Decrease in agricultural production.
• Increase in frequency and intensity of droughts.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Measures of Controlling Desertification
• Intensive tree plantation in the transition zones.
• Mulches serve as an effective physical barrier to the moving sand.
• Grazing should be controlled and new pastures should be developed.
• Indiscriminate felling of trees should be banned.
• Alternative sources of fuel can reduce the demand for fuel wood.
• Sandy and wastelands should be put to proper use by judicious planning.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Waterlogging
• The flat surfaces and depressions results in waterlogging.
• Waterlogged soils are soaked with water accumulated during rainy
season or due to leakage from various water sources.
• Extent of waterlogged soils is about 12 million hectares in India – half
of which lies along the coast and the other half in the inland area.
• Waterlogging is believed to be one of the chief causes of salinity.
• Proper layout of drainage schemes is the only way to overcome the
menace of waterlogging.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• The basic methods of removing excess water from waterlogged
soils are
• (a) surface drainage
• (b) vertical drainage.
– Surface Drainage. Surface drainage involves the disposal of excess
water over ground surface through an open drainage system with an
adequate outlet.
– Vertical Drainage. Any bore or well from which the underlying water is
extracted is defined as vertical drainage.
– It works well in Indo-Gangetic plain where the pumped water is used for
irrigating the neighboring regions.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Soil Conservation
• Soil conservation is the prevention of soil from erosion or reduced fertility
caused by overuse, acidification, salinization or other chemical soil
contamination.
• Soil erosion is the greatest single evil to Indian agriculture and animal
husbandry.
• - “With soil conservation people rise and with its destruction they fall.
• - Neglect of soil is like killing the hen that lays the golden egg.”

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Crop Rotation
• Adopting sustainable agricultural practices is the most important measure to
conserve soil.
• In many parts of India, a particular crop is sown in the same field year after
year.
• This practice leads to exhaustion of certain nutrients in the soil making it
infertile.
• Crop rotation is a practice in which a different crop is cultivated on a piece
of land each year.
• This helps to conserve soil fertility as different crops require different
nutrients from the soil.
• Crop rotation will provide enough time to restore lost nutrients.
• For example, potatoes require much potash but wheat requires nitrate.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Thus it is best to alternate crops in the field.
• Legumes such as peas, beans, and many other plants, add nitrates to the soil
by converting free nitrogen in the air into nitrogenous nodules on their
roots.
• Thus if they are included in the crop rotation nitrogenous fertilizers can be
dispensed with.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Strip Cropping
• Crops may be cultivated in alternate strips, parallel to one another.
• Some strips may be allowed to lie fallow while in others different crops may
be sown.
• Various crops are harvested at different intervals.
• This ensures that at no time of the year the entire area is left bare or
exposed.
• The tall growing crops act as wind breaks and the strips which are often
parallel to the contours help in increasing water absorption by the soil by
slowing down run off.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Use of Early Maturing Varieties
• Early maturing varieties of crops take less time to mature and thus put
lesser pressure on the soil.
• In this way it can help in reducing the soil erosion.
• Contour Ploughing
• If ploughing is done at right angles to the hill slope, the ridges and furrows
break the flow of water down the hill.
• This prevents excessive soil loss as gullies are less likely to develop and also
reduce run-off so that plants receive more water.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Checking Shifting Cultivation
• Checking and reducing shifting cultivation by persuading the tribal people to
switch over to settled agriculture is a very effective method of soil
conservation.
• This can be done by making arrangements for their resettlement which
involves the provision of residential accommodation, agricultural implements,
seeds, manures, cattle and reclaimed land.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Ploughing the Land in Right Direction
• Ploughing the land in a direction perpendicular to wind direction also
reduces wind velocity and protects the top soil from erosion.
• Mulching
• The bare ground (top soil) between plants is covered with a
protective layer of organic matter like grass clippings, straw, etc.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Benefits
• Protects the soil from erosion.
• It helps to retain soil moisture.
• Reduces compaction from the impact of heavy rains.
• Conserves moisture, reducing the need for frequent watering.
• Maintains a more even soil temperature.
• Prevents weed growth.
• Organic mulches also improve the condition of the soil.
• As these mulches slowly decompose, they provide organic matter which helps
keep the soil loose.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Contour barriers
• Stones, grass, soil are used to build barriers along contours.
• Trenches are made in front of the barriers to collect water.
• They intercept downslope flowing water and soil particles.
• These barriers slow down the water movement and reduce its erosive force.
• They also filter out and trap many of the suspended soil particles, keeping
them from being washed out of the field.
• A long term advantage of barriers is that soil tends to build up behind them,
creating a terrace effect.
• Barriers can be classified as live (strips of living plants), dead (rocks, crop
residues), or mixed (a combination of the previous two).

By Sudarshan Gurjar
By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Rock dam
• Rocks are piled up across a channel to slow down the flow of water.
• This prevents gullies and further soil loss.

• Terrace farming
• In terracing, a number of terraces are cut along the hill slope.
• These are made on the steep slopes so that flat surfaces are available to
grow crops.
• They can reduce surface run-off and soil erosion.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Contour Bunding
• Contour bunding involves the construction of banks along the contours.
• Terracing and contour bunding which divide the hill slope into numerous small
slopes, check the flow of water, promote absorption of water by soil and
save soil from erosion.
• Retaining walls of terraces control the flow of water and help in reducing soil
erosion.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
Shelter belts or Windbreaks
• In the coastal and dry regions, rows of trees are planted to check the wind
movement to protect soil cover.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Sand fences
• Sand fences are barriers made of small, evenly spaced wooden slats or
fabric.
• They are erected to reduce wind velocity and to trap blowing sand.
• Sand fences can be used as perimeter controls around open construction
sites to keep sediments from being blown offsite by the wind.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Afforestation
• It includes the prevention of forest destruction along with growing new
forests or increase area under forests.
• A minimum area 20 to 25 per cent of forest land was considered healthy for
soil and water conservation for the whole country.
• It was raised to 33 per cent in the second five year plan – 20 per cent for
the plains and 60 per cent for hilly and mountainous regions.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
• Checking Overgrazing
• Overgrazing accentuates erosion. During the dry period, there is shortage
of fodder and the grass is grazed to the ground and torn out to the roots
by animals.
• Soil is pulverized (reduce to fine particles) by the hoofs of animals.
• All this leads to weak top layer.
• So overgrazing needs to be checked to prevent soil erosion.
• This can be done by creating separate grazing grounds and producing larger
quantities of fodder.

By Sudarshan Gurjar
 Dams
• Much of the soil erosion by river floods can be avoided by
constructing dams across the rivers in proper places.
• This checks the speed of water and saves soil from erosion.
• But indiscriminate dam construction can worsen the condition by
creating floods and landslides like it happens in the Himalayan
region.

By Sudarshan Gurjar