MODULE 1

Skeletal System

MODULE 1
Skeletal System
Topic 1.1a:
Bones, tissues, development
 Learning Objectives

ü Identify the 4 main types of tissue

ü Describe the functions of the skeletal system
ü Identify specific bone markings

Skeletal System

Overview
How is the Body Organised?
1. Chemical level 3. Cellular level
Atoms → molecules Atoms → molecules § Atoms Micro
§ Molecules
3. Tissue § Organelles
Similar cell types
§ Cellular level
§ Tissue level
§ Organ level Macro
§ Organ system level
4. Organ level § Organism level
Different tissues (i.e. blood vessel)

6. Organismal level 5. Organ system level

Many organ systems Different organs working closely
Skeletal System together

Epithelial tissue Connective tissue

Tissue Types
§ Connective tissue - most
abundant (e.g. fat, cartilage, bone
& blood)
§ Muscle tissue - body movement
Muscle tissue Nervous tissue
(skeletal, smooth and cardiac)
§ Epithelial tissue - covers or lines
surfaces of body (e.g. lines
digestive or respiratory systems)
§ Nervous tissue - (brain, spinal
cord & nerves)

Skeletal System
 Body Planes &
Sections
§ Using an anatomical reference is
important when describing body parts
Midsagittal Frontal/coronal Transverse
§ This reference point is termed the
“Anatomical Position”
Most frequently used are:
§ Sagittal - divides body into left/right
§ Frontal/Coronal - divides body into
anterior & posterior
§ Transverse - divides body into superior
and inferior
Skeletal System

Orientation
&
terminology
Superior

Directional terms = explain Inferior

where one body structure
compared to another
Ventral

§ Superior/Inferior Dorsal

§ Ventral/Dorsal Medial
§ Medial/ Lateral
Lateral

Example: the ears are lateral to the nose

Can you think of another example?
Skeletal System

Orientation
&
terminology Proximal

§ Proximal/Distal Distal
§ Superficial/ Deep
Superficial

Deep

Example: the knee is distal to the hip the

Can you think of others?

Skeletal System
 Body cavities
1. Ventral body cavity (more anterior &
larger)

§ Thoracic cavity (ribs, muscles,

heart, lung)

§ Abdominal cavity (stomach,

intestines, spleen, liver)
§ Pelvic cavity (urinary bladder,
reproductive organs, rectum)
2. Dorsal body cavity
§ Cranial cavity (skull, brain)
§ Vertebral cavity (spinal cord)

Skeletal System

Skeleton
bones & cartilage
§ Human skeleton = contains cartilages and fibrous
membrane (replaced by bone)
§ Cartilage - maintains flexibility (hyaline, elastic,
fibrocartilage)
§ Bone is classified as = Connective tissue
§ Function of the skeleton is to provide:
§ Protection
§ Support
§ Anchorage
§ Mineral storage
§ Blood cell formation (or haemopoesis in bone
marrow)
§ Fat storage (energy) - yellow marrow

Skeletal System

Classification of bones
§ Human body has 206 Bones
§ Divided into 2 GROUPS
1. Axial (‘long axis’ – skull,
vertebral column, rib cage)
2. Appendicular (upper/lower &
girdles (shoulder/hip bones)
Bones are classified by their LOCATION
and SHAPE (this is important!)
§ Long (longer than they are wide)
§ Flat (thin, flattened)
§ Irregular (complicated shapes)
§ Short (roughly cubed) Name an example of each?
Skeletal System
 Bone Markings 1

Where do you
belong?

2
§ Bone markings – a wealth of
information about the bone and its
3
attached muscles/ligaments

§ 3 categories
1. Projections
2. Surfaces (that form joints)
3. Depressions & Openings

Gross Anatomy of Bones

§ Compact & Spongy Bone

§ Dense outer layer = compact
bone (covered by membrane =
periosteum)
§ Internal layer = spongy bone
(trabeculae bone, its resembles
honeycomb)
§ Open spaces between trabeculae
are filled with RED or YELLOW
marrow (living bone only)

Sectioned proximal
femur (thigh bone)

General Structure:
long bones
General structure:
shaft, bone ends & membranes

§ Diaphysis (dia = through)

Shaft

§ the shaft (long axis); compact bone

§ Epiphysis (epi = upon)

§ Bone ends (compact bone - outer;
Bone
ends

spongy bone - interior)

Membranes
§ Periosteum (peri = around)

§ Connective tissue covering external

bone surfaces
Membranes

§ Anchor points for tendons/ligaments

= strong bond
§ Endosteum (“within the bone”)
§ connective tissue covering internal

bone surfaces
§ lines canals and trabeculae
 Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
Bone formation & remodelling

Cells of Bone Tissue

§ Stem cell - osteoprogenitor
cells (differentiate into
osteoblasts)
§ Osteoblast - bone forming,
secrete matrix
§ Osteocyte - mature bone
cells; ‘spidery’ cells. Act as
sensors of stress/strain
§ Osteoclast – reabsorb bone Chemical composition of bone:
or ‘break it down’. 1. Organic components: cells (stem cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes &
osteoclasts) and osteoid (ground substance, collagen)
2. Inorganic components: mineral salts

Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

Compact bone

§ Structural unit = Osteon (os = bone)

or Haversian system of long cylinders.
§ Haversian canal = hollow central canal
filled with blood vessels/nerves
§ Lamella = layers of bony matrix
surrounding each canal
§ Volkmann’s canal joins one Haversian
canal with another
§ Osteocytes (‘spidery’ cells) occupy
the lacunae (lac = hollow) & monitor
bone matrix
§ Canaliculi – radiate from lacunae
(helps to connect)
A single osteon

Skeletal development
§ Ossification and osteogenesis = bone
tissue formation (genesis = beginning)
§ In utero (in embryos)
§ formation of the bony skeleton

§ Post-natal early adulthood

§ involves bone growth and
remodelling

Foetal development at 8 weeks

Summary of key concepts: Skeletal system 1.1a
§ Skeletal system = bone, cartilage and ligaments forming strong, flexible framework
§ Bone development occurs in utero and during childhood
§ There are 4 cells involved in bone formation: stem cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes,
osteoclasts.
§ Osseous tissue is a type of connective tissue
§ Bone = organ [osseous tissue, cartilage, blood, bone marrow, adipose, nervous and connective
tissue]
§ Bones are classified based on shape not size: long, flat, irregular, short
§ Bone markings are classified into 3 categories
§ Projections that form attachment sites for tendons and ligaments
§ Projections that form joints
§ Depressions or openings to allow passage of neurovascular bundles
 MODULE 1
Skeletal System
Topic 1.1b:
Bones, tissues, development

Learning Objectives

ü Describe the differences between intramembranous and

endochondral ossification

ü Describe the clinical conditions: Dwarfism, Marfan’s Syndrome

ü Describe the clinical conditions: Rickets, Osteomalacia,

Osteoporosis

Skeletal System

Ossification
Formation of Bony Skeleton

1. Endochondral (endo = with; chondro = cartilage)

§ Bone develops by replacing cartilage
§ e.g.: long bones - humerus, radius almost all
bones below base of skull (except clavicles)
2. Intramembranous
§ ‘inside’ the membrane
§ Commences at week 8 of development (in
utero)
§ e.g.: cranial bones, clavicles

Skeletal System
 Endochondral ossification BIRTH
Lets examine the steps of long bone
formation.

1. Bone collar forms around diaphysis (hyaline

cartilage model). Primary ossification centre
2. Calcification of hyaline cartilage. Opens up WEEK 9
the cavities in diaphysis (in utero)
3. Periosteal bud invades internal cavities
(spongy bone forms)
4. Diaphysis elongates forming medullary cavity.
Secondary ossification centre appears in
epiphysis
5. Secondary ossification centres in epiphyses
around birth
6. Epiphyses ossify in adolescence (remaining
epiphyseal line)
Skeletal System

Epiphyseal plate Epiphyseal plate closure = end of adolescence

(18 yrs Female; 21 yrs Male)

§ Growth in length of a long

bone occurs at the epiphyseal

plate
§ Closest to the epiphysis
(distal) = cartilage inactive
(resting zone)
§ Closest to the diaphysis
(proximal) = chondrocytes are
organised to allow quick,
efficient growth in length

Skeletal System

Intramembranous Ossification
1. Development of ossification centre (Stem cells migrate and
transform into osteoblasts )
2. Osteoid is secreted & calcifies (by osteoblasts) trapped
osteoblasts become osteocytes
3. Formation of woven bone (immature spongy bone) and
periosteum rich in blood supply
4. Compact bone (Lamellar bone) replaces immature spongy bone
→ Red marrow fills trabeculae of spongy bone

Skeletal System
 Clinical implications
Foetal skull
Fontanelles (little fountains)
§ Soft fibrous membranes of the skull that
ossify after birth
§ Anterior fontanelle – diamond shaped
closes over at 1½ - 2 years

Hydrocephalus (“water on the brain”) =

a condition in which cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) is produced faster than it drains.
Q. What are the implications in an
infant compared to an adult?
Skeletal System

Long bone growth

& remodeling
§ Bone Growth
§ occurs in infancy and youth
§ cartilage grows and is replaced by
bone (longitudinal growth)
§ Remodel
§ Involves new bone forming and bone
resorption
§ Bone thickness is added via via
appositional growth (diameter)
§ Osteoblasts and osteoclasts are
important for remodelling

Skeletal System BONE is a Dynamic tissue!

Bone Tissue
Deposition & Removal of Bone

§ Dynamic in nature = bone remodelling is a coordinated

effort between osteoblasts (deposit) and osteoclasts
(resorption) https://www.aranahillsphysiotherapy.com .au/osteoporosis-and-

§ Osteoblasts = bone builders (bone matrix – osteoid)

exercise/

§ Osteoclasts = bone crushers (via secretion of acid &

enzymes)

0-20 years 20-50 years > 50 years Bone growth can be

OB > OC OB = OC OC > OB altered. Lets discuss
bone formation > bone formation = bone resorption >
bone resorption bone resorption bone formation this

Skeletal System
 Altered bone growth Achondroplastic Dwarfism –
affects endochondral ossification (long bone growth)
Marfan’s Syndrome Pituitary Dwarfism
genetic disorder affecting connective ↓ GH during childhood growth
tissue (impacts intramembranous & endochondral ossification)

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Skeletal System

Control of Bone growth & remodelling

§ 2 control loops to ensure

remodeling is continuous
i. Calcium homeostasis (Ca2+)
ii. Keeping bones strong

1. Hormonal
§ parathyroid hormone (PTH)
§ calcitonin
2. Mechanical stress

Skeletal System

Mechanical stress on the bone

bone anatomy & bending stress

Wolff’s Law – bone grows and remodels in

response to demands placed on it

§ Tension and compression forces act on bone incl. gravity

§ How does bone respond? → thickening
§ Osteocytes respond to pressure
§ Release biochemical factors to initiate remodelling

Think of an example where Wolff's

law may apply?
§ Being left or right handed (thicker
bones in dominant hand)
§ Tennis player server arm (more
muscle pull = thicker bones)
Bone Disorders
Abnormal bone deposition & reabsorption
Imbalances between bone DEPOSIT and bone REABSORPTION

Osteoporosis “brittle bones” -

§ bone resorption > bone deposition
§ fragile bones (↓ bone mass)

Osteomalacia & Rickets “soft bones” -

§ poorly mineralized, Ca2+ salts are not
adequately deposited.
§ painful condition when weight bearing.
§ Cause? ↓ Vitamin D or Ca2+ (deficiency)

How do they compare?

Summary of key concepts: Skeletal system1.1b

§ 2 ossification processes
§ intramembranous
§ endochondral
§ Long bone growth is co-ordinated by hormones – growth hormone and sex hormones
§ Bone growth alterations – Marfan’s, dwarfism ( pituitary and achondroplasia)
§ Bone remodelling is controlled by
§ Hormone activity - PTH regulates release of calcium into blood by stimulating osteoclast
activity
§ Mechanical stress - Osteocytes monitor and maintain bone matrix and release biochemical
signals in response to physical stress → alter action of osteoclasts and osteoblasts
§ Bone disorders – osteomalacia, rickets, osteoporosis
 MODULE 1
Skeletal System
Topic 1.2a:
Axial skeleton - Skull

Learning Objectives

ü Identify the components of the axial skeleton

ü Identify the 22 bones in the human skull; 8 cranial, 14 facial
ü Identify key features of the human skull from anterior, posterior, lateral, superior
and inferior aspects.
ü Identify the paranasal sinuses

Human Skeleton
1. Axial skeleton (green)
3 regions that forms the longitudinal axis
i. skull
ii. vertebral column
iii. thoracic cage
§ sternum
§ ribs
2. Appendicular skeleton (gold)
“Appended” to the axial skeleton
§ pectoral girdle
§ pelvic girdle
§ upper limbs
§ lower limbs
 i. Skull

§ Cranial bones (8)

§ Facial bones (14)

§ Cranial Cavities
§ Cranial
§ Orbital (8 x bones)
§ Nasal
§ Oral
(14 x bones)

i. Skull (2 x)
(1 x)

View = Anterior view

§ Cranial bones (8)
§ frontal (1) (2 x)
§ parietal (2)
§ temporal (2)
§ sphenoid (1)
§ ethmoid (1)
§ occipital (1) *posterior view
TIP! Use this mnemonic to help!

Parietal; ethmoid, sphenoid; temporal;

occipital; frontal – there are 6 of them!

Activity:
‘Label and Learn’
§ Identify & label these
Frontal
cranial bones Parietal
§ frontal
§ parietal Sphenoid
Temporal
§ temporal
§ sphenoid
Ethmoid
§ ethmoid

Which cranial bone

cannot be identified in
this view?
i. Skull
View = Posterior
§ Cranial bones
§ Parietal
§ Occipital
§ Temporal
§ Sutures
§ Major Sutures (joint)
§ Sagittal suture (posterior view)
§ Lambdoid suture (posterior
view)
§ Frontal suture (anterior view)
§ Squamous suture (lateral)

Activity:
‘Label & Learn’
§ In this posterior view of Sagittal suture
the skull, identify & label
the following: Parietal
§ sagittal suture bone
§ parietal bones Lambdoid
§ occipital bone suture
§ lambdoid suture
§ mastoid processes Occipital
bone Mastoid
§ external occipital process
protuberance

external occipital
protuberance

i. Skull
View = Anterior view
§ Facial bones (14)
§ nasal (2)
§ lacrimal (2)
§ zygomatic (2)
§ maxilla (2)
§ mandible (1) ‘Keystone’

§ vomer (1)
§ inferior nasal concha (2)
§ palatine (2)
 Activity:
‘Label & Learn’
§ Identify & label these facial
bones:
§ nasal
§ lacrimal
§ zygomatic
§ inferior nasal concha
§ maxilla
§ mandible
§ vomer

Answers

i. Skull
View = Lateral
§ Cranial
§ temporal
§ parietal
§ frontal
§ occipital
§ sphenoid
§ ethmoid
§ Facial
§ Nasal (x 2)
§ Lacrimal (x 2)
§ Zygomatic (x 2)
§ Maxilla (x 2)
§ Mandible ( x1)
Activity:
‘Label & Learn’
How many facial
and cranial bones
bones can you
name in this view?

i. Skull
View = Medial
(midsagittal section)
§ Anterior cranial floor
frontal bone
§ Middle cranial floor
sphenoid bone
§ Posterior cranial
floor occipital bone

Activity:
‘Label & Learn’
How many facial &
cranial bones
bones can you
name in this
midsagittal view?
 i. Skull
View = Inferior
Special features
§ foramen magnum “large
hole” - spinal cord
§ occipital condyles –
articulates with 1 st vertebrae
§ palatine bones – forms
posterior hard palate
§ jugular foramen – “hole” for
jugular vein
§ carotid canal – opening for
carotid artery

i. Skull
§ How many cranial and
facial bones and/or Which 2 bones form
the hard palate?
features can recognise
from this inferior view of the
skull?

Which passes through this

feature?

i. Skull
View = Superior
§ Base of the cranial
cavity.
§ Special features:
§ crista galli
(ethmoid)
§ sella turcica
(sphenoid)
Sphenoid bone
Cranial Bone

View = Superior view (a)

§ Features:
§ sella turcica - saddle Seat for the pituitary gland “Bat shaped”
shaped (“Turks saddle) Spans the width of the middle cranial
fossae
§ optic canal - passageway
for optic nerve
View = Posterior view (b)
§ Feature:
§ superior orbital fissure –
a small “slit” between
greater and lesser wings

Sphenoid bone
Cranial Bone
Activity:
Identify the
features

A = sella turcica (hypophyseal fossa)

Ethmoid bone
§ Deepest bone in skull
§ Cribriform plate - forms roof of nasal cavity and floor of anterior cranial
fossa
Cranial Bone § Cribriform plates – contain tiny holes (“foramina”) for olfactory nerves
to pass through
§ Cristi galli - ‘rooster’s comb’ attached to dura mater (outer most
meningeal layer of brain)
Mandible & Maxilla
Facial Bones

§ Mandible (Lower)
largest and strongest in face
Ment = chin
§ Maxilla (Upper)
§ 2 x bones fused medially
(pleural = maxillae)
§ articulates with all facial
bones (except mandible)

Mandible & Maxilla

Facial Bones
Activity: Identify the
bones
Maxilla

Mandible

Paranasal Sinuses
Air-filled spaces in the bones of the
skull (mucosa-lined)
§ Why ?

§ lighten the skull

§ enhance resonance of voice
§ mucosa helps to warm and
humidify inspired air
Summary of key concepts: Skeletal system 1.2a
§ axial skeleton: skull, spinal column, thoracic cage
§ human skull has 22 bones: 8 cranial, 14 facial
§ cranial bones protect the brain and special senses and are joined by sutures
§ facial bones surround oral and nasal cavities
§ 3 paired cranial fossae form the base of skull (cranial vault) and fit the contours of lobes of the brain
§ sphenoid and ethmoid bones deep and specialised
§ maxillae and mandible form the upper and lower jaw bones
§ paranasal sinuses lighten the skull and help humidify inspired air
 MODULE 1
Skeletal System
Topic 1.2b:
Axial skeleton -Vertebral column

Learning Objectives

ü Identify the components of a typical vertebra

ü Distinguish structural and functional differences of the three categories of vertebra,
and specialised vertebra C1, C2 and the sacrum
ü Identify the features and function of the rib cage

Human Skeleton
1. Axial skeleton (green)
3 regions that forms the longitudinal axis
i. skull
ii. vertebral column
iii. thoracic cage
§ sternum
§ ribs
2. Appendicular skeleton (gold)
“Appended” to the axial skeleton
§ pectoral girdle
§ pelvic girdle
§ upper limbs
§ lower limbs
 ii. Vertebral column

1. Cervical (C1 - C7)

2. Thoracic (T1 -T12)
3. Lumbar (L1- L5)
4. Sacrum (5 fused vertebra)
5. Coccyx (4 fused vertebra)

Direction of curvature referenced

from the posterior aspect

Review Identify the anatomical view in each image

A B C

4
5 visiblebody.com

What is
Abnormal about
these spinal
curvatures?
§ Scoliosis (A) - “twisted
disease” abnormal lateral
curvature
§ Kyphosis (B) -
“hunchback” dorsally
exaggerated thoracic
curvature
§ Lordosis (C) -
“swayback” accentuated
lumbar curvature
 *Tilt your head
forw ard. Feel the
bony process on the

General Structure back of your neck.

This is your C 7
spinous process

Vertebra
Typical vertebra structures:
1. body
2. vertebral arch
§ lamina
§ pedicle
3. vertebral foramen
4. spinous process
5. transverse process

Animation: rotatable spine

(A) vertical (B) horizontal

Activity:
‘Label and Learn’
Answers:
‘Label and Learn’

ii. Vertebral column

Cervical vertebrae

§ C1-C7
§ Smallest; lightest
§ The body is oval
§ Vertebral foramen - large,
triangular
§ Transverse process contains
transverse foramen

Axis & Atlas

Special cervical
vertebra
§ C1 - atlas
§ C2 - axis
ii. Vertebral column
Thoracic vertebrae

§ T1-T12
§ Articulate with ribs
§ Body – heart shaped
§ Contains costal facets
(inferior/superior)
§ Vertebral foramen - circular
§ Spinous process – longer &
points inferiorly (downward)

ii. Vertebral column

Lumbar vertebrae
§ L1-L5
§ Receives most stress; weight
bearing
§ Body – large (kidney
shaped)
§ Pedicles & laminar –
shorter/thicker
§ Vertebral foramen –
triangular
§ Spinous process – short,
flat & hatchet shaped
(project directly backward)

Summary: Regional characteristics

 Intervertebral
discs
§ Intervertebral disc -
cushioned pad
§ 2 parts
§ Nucleus pulposus
§ Anulus fibrosus
§ Sandwiched between two
vertebra
§ ‘Shock absorbers’
§ Make up ~25% of vertebral
column height

Herniated disc ?
Rupture of anulus fibrosus (can
be very painful)

ii. Vertebral Column

Sacrum and coccyx
Sacrum
§ 5 fused vertebra
(triangular)
§ Sacral hiatus -
enlarged external
opening at inferior end
of sacral canal

Coccyx “tailbone”
§ Small triangular bone
fuses with sacrum
§ 4 bones (sometimes 3-
5 bones)
§ Greek for “cuckoo”

iii. Thoracic cage

Bony Thorax
Protective cage around vital organs
(heart, lungs and great vessels))
§ Sternum (breastbone)
§ ~15cm length; fusion of 3 bones
§ manubrium
§ body
§ xiphoid process
§ Ribs (12 pairs)
§ true 1-7 (attach to sternum)
§ false 8-12 (attach indirectly to
sternum)
§ floating 11,12 (no anterior
attachments)
iii. Thoracic cage
Ribs
Which end goes where?
§ Sternal end - smooth
surface, attach to costal
cartilage anteriorly
§ Vertebral end - rougher
surface, attachment points on
vertebral body posteriorly

Summary of key concepts: Skeletal system 1.2b

§ vertebral column: 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 fused sacral vertebrae and 1 fused coccyx
§ curvatures of the spinal cord: primary, secondary, concave, convex
§ intervertebral discs and the curvatures of the vertebral column provide the spine with flexibility
§ a typical vertebra is made up of a body and vertebral arch which form the vertebral foramen to
house and protect the spinal cord
§ specialised cervical vertebra C1 atlas and C2 axis
§ thoracic cage contains the sternum and 12 ribs.
§ sternum is made up of 3 segments: manubrium, body, xiphoid process
§ ribs: 1-7 true, 8-12 false, 11 and 12 floating
 MODULE 1
Skeletal System
Topic 1.3a:
Appendicular skeleton:
Pectoral girdle and Upper limb

Learning Objectives

ü Describe the composition of the pectoral girdle and its attachment to the axial skeleton
ü Identify structural features of the scapula
ü Identify structural features of the clavicle
ü Identify structural features of the humerus
ü Identify structural features of the forearm
ü Identify the carpal bones of the wrist

Human Skeleton
1. Axial skeleton (green)
3 regions that forms the longitudinal axis
i. skull
ii. vertebral column
iii. thoracic cage
§ sternum
§ ribs
2. Appendicular skeleton (gold)
“Appended” to the axial skeleton
§ pectoral girdle
§ pelvic girdle
§ upper limbs
§ lower limbs

3
 Appendicular Skeleton Sternoclavicular
joint
Pectoral girdle
View = Anterior
§ Each pectoral girdle consists of 2 bones (pectus = breast)
§ clavicle - anteriorly
§ scapula – posteriorly
§ pectoral girdle is incomplete…..Why?
§ girdle refers to a belt like structure encircling the
body
§ sternoclavicular joint
§ only attachment to axial skeleton
§ Enables humans to carry out movement (throw a ball,
climbing, use our phone)
§ mobility > stability

Pectoral Girdle
clavicle

§ Clavicles = “little keys”

§ Slender s-shaped bones (collarbone)
§ Anchor many muscles & acts as a
brace to hold the scapula and arms
out and backwards
§ sternal end (medial, cone-shaped)
§ acromial end (lateral, flattened)

Pectoral Girdle
Scapulae
§ 3 Borders
§ superior
§ lateral
§ medial
§ Anterior – special features
§ coracoid process (corac = “beaklike”)
§ glenoid cavity
§ subscapular fossa (sub = below)
§ Posterior
§ spine of the scapula
§ acromion process
§ supraspinous fossa
§ infraspinous fossa

*TIP: Learn the prefix’s to help you with identifying bone features*

6
 Pectoral Girdle
Scapulae
§ 3 Borders
§ superior
§ lateral
§ medial
§ Anterior
§ coracoid process
§ glenoid cavity
§ subscapular fossa
§ Posterior – special features
§ spine of the scapula
§ acromion process
§ supraspinous fossa (supra = above)
§ infraspinous fossa (infra = below)
*Learning the prefix’s will help you with identifying bone features*

Pectoral Girdle posterior anterior

Scapulae

Review some key bony

features of the scapulae
in this view.

What view is this?

A = Lateral (right)

Upper limb
Humerus
§ Typical long bone, articulates with scapulae
(proximal) at shoulder and radius/ulna (distal)
§ Special features - Anterior view
§ head (HOH)
§ anatomical neck
§ greater tubercle
§ lesser tubercle
§ intertubercular sulcus (inter = between)
§ deltoid tuberosity
§ capitulum (lateral condyle)
§ trochlea (medial condyle)
§ medial epicondyle (epi = on top)
§ lateral epicondyle

9
 Upper limb
Humerus
§ Special features - Posterior view
§ head (HOH)
§ anatomical neck
§ surgical neck
§ deltoid tuberosity
§ olecranon fossa
§ medial epicondyle
§ lateral epicondyle
§ trochlea

10

Activity
‘Label & Learn’

1. Greater tubercle 1. Head of humerus

2. Lesser tubercle 2. Surgical neck
3. Intertubercular 3. Deltoid tuberosity
sulcus 4. Medial epicondyle
4. Surgical neck 5. Lateral
5. Deltoid
epicondyle
tuberosity 6. Olecranon fossa
6. Lateral
epicondyle
7. Medial
epicondyle
8. Capitulum
9. Trochlea

11

Upper limb
Radius & Ulna
§ Forearm (2 parallel long bones)

§ Radius
§ head (biceps brachii
attaches here)
§ radial tuberosity
§ radial styloid process
§ Ulna (elbow)
§ olecranon
§ ulnar styloid process What bone does the olecranon
§ interosseous membrane - articulate with?

connecting ligament

12
 Activity
‘Label & Learn’

1. radius
2. radial head
3. radial tuberosity
4. radial styloid
process
5. ulna
6. olecranon
7. ulna styloid
process
8. interosseous
membrane

13

Upper limb
Hand

§ Carpus (wrist)
§ 8 carpal bones (wrist)
- short bones
§ Metacarpals (palm)
§ 5 metacarpals
§ Phalanges
§ 14 phalanges
(fingers)
§ 3 in digits 2-5
§ 2 in thumb

14

Summary of key concepts: Skeletal system 1.3a

§ The upper limb is attached to the axial skeleton via the pectoral girdle.
§ The pectoral girdle is composed of the scapula and clavicle.
§ The humerus articulates with the shallow glenoid cavity of the scapula.
§ The forearm is composed of the radius (lateral) and ulna (medial).
§ The radius articulates with the carpals.
§ The metacarpals form the bones in the palm.
§ The phalanges are the bones located in the fingers.

15
 MODULE 1
Skeletal System
Topic 1.3b:
Appendicular skeleton:
Pelvic girdle and Lower limb

Learning Objectives
ü Describe the composition of the pelvic girdle and its attachment to the axial skeleton

ü Identify structural features of the coxal bones

ü Identify structural features of the femur

ü Identify structural features of the tibia

ü Identify structural features of the fibula

ü Identify the key tarsal bones of the foot

ü Identify the phalanges of the foot

Human Skeleton
1. Axial skeleton (green)
3 regions that forms the longitudinal axis
i. skull
ii. vertebral column
iii. thoracic cage
§ sternum
§ ribs
2. Appendicular skeleton (gold)
“Appended” to the axial skeleton
§ pectoral girdle
§ pelvic girdle
§ upper limbs
§ lower limbs
 Appendicular Skeleton
Pelvic girdle
§ Complete girdle = 2 x hip bones +
sacrum

§ hip bones = os coxae (3 bones fused in

adults)
§ ilium
§ ischium
§ pubis

§ Sacroiliac joint = attachment of pelvic girdle

to the axial skeleton

§ Attach anteriorly via pubic symphysis and

posteriorly via sacrum

§ Important for weight bearing (activities such

as running, walking) stability > mobility

Appendicular Skeleton
Pelvic girdle
Hip bones - important features
1. Ilium (hands on hips):
§ iliac crest;
§ greater sciatic notch
§ anterior and posterior
superior iliac spine
2. Ischium (sitting bone)
§ lesser sciatic notch;
§ ischial spine
§ obturator foramen
3. Pubis (pubic bone)
§ obturator foramen

Appendicular Skeleton A
Activity: ‘Label and Learn’

1. Identify the anatomical view in

each pair of images [A] & [B].
2. Identify the 3 bones that form
each hip bone at image [A]. B
3. Identify the bony features
indicated by the arrows in both
image [B]

Structurally, are Male and Female

pelves the same? Lets explore.
 3/3/22

Appendicular Skeleton
Pelvic Structure (Male vs. Female)
[A] Female [B] Male

Which pelvis is a Male and Female?

Appendicular Skeleton
Pelvic Structure (Male vs. Female)
[A] Female [B] Male

Male vs. Female Pelves

Coccyx
Male: less movable, projects anteriorly
Female: more movable, projects
inferiorly (why?)

3
 Male vs.
Female
Pelves

Pelvic inlet
Male: Narrow; Heart shaped
Female: wide; oval shaped

Appendicular Skeleton
Lower limb - Thigh
Femur (thigh)
- Largest, longest, strongest bone.
- Surrounded by bulky muscles
§ head
§ neck
§ greater & lesser trochanter
§ gluteal tuberosity
§ linea aspera
§ epicondyles - lateral and medial (Epi – upon)
§ condyles - lateral and medial
Patella (kneecap) – sesamoid bone
§ protects the knee joint
§ apex (anterior)

Activity
‘Label & Learn’

A B

Q. Identify the name

of this bone and their
view in [A] & [B]?
 Appendicular Skeleton
Lower limb - Leg
§ 2 x parallel bones (tibia and fibula). Connected
by Interosseous membrane
§ region of lower limb – connects knee and ankle

i. Tibia
§ tibial plateau
§ tibial tuberosity
§ condyles - medial &

lateral
§ medial & lateral
malleolus
ii. Fibula

§ head
§ lateral malleolus

Activity
‘Label & Learn’

A B

Q. Identify the name

of the bones in
image [A] & [B]?
§ Tibia [A]
§ Fibula [B]

Appendicular Skeleton
Lower Limb - Foot

i. Tarsals (7 x bones)
§ 2 largest
§ talus
§ calcaneus
ii. Metatarsals (5 x)
§ long bones
ii. Phalanges (14 x)
§ toes

Tibia on tarsals (talus), tarsals on metatarsals, metatarsals on toes (phalanges)!

Summary of key concepts: Skeletal system 1.3b
§ Lower limb articulates with the axial skeleton via the pelvic girdle
§ The coxal bones articulate with the axial skeleton via the sacroiliac joint
§ The coxal bones are comprised of 3 fused bones: ilium, ischium, pubis
§ The head of femur articulates with the acetabulum
§ Lower leg is comprised of the tibia and the fibula
§ The tibia articulates with the second largest tarsal bone = talus
§ Metatarsals form the forefoot
§ Phalanges form the toes
 MODULE 1
Skeletal System
Topic 1.4:
Joints

Learning Objectives

ü Describe the 2 different classification systems for joints

ü Name the different types of joints
ü Understand the structure of a joint and how it governs movement
ü Describe key features of the knee joint and common injuries
ü Compare and contrast shoulder and hip joints
ü Describe differences between Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis

What is a Joint?
§ Movements (football, ballet,
running) all made possible by joints
§ Joint = an articulation where 2
bones meet
§ What do they help with?
§ mobility
§ stability
§ Vulnerable? yes, they are the
weakest part of the skeleton
§ Classification is via
(i) structure AND (ii) function
 Joint classification

1. Structural (structure of joint – the material binds it all together)

i. Fibrous: fibrous connective tissue, no joint cavity
ii. Cartilaginous: joined by cartilage, no joint cavity
iii. Synovial: joint cavity, capsule, filled with synovial fluid

2. Functional (amount of movement permitted ) (arthro = joint)

i. Synarthrotic: immovable e.g. sutures of the cranium (mostly in axial skeleton)
ii. Amphiarthrotic: slightly movable, e.g. intervertebral discs (mostly in axial skeleton)
iii. Diarthrotic: freely movable joint, e.g. joints in the limbs (mostly in appendicular skeleton)

Structure Sutures Syndemoses Gomphoses

1. Fibrous Joints
§ Bones joined by connective
tissue
§ No joint cavity
§ Most immovable
§ 3 types of fibrous joints:
§ Sutures (only in skull)
§ Syndesmoses
(connected by ligaments)
§ Gomphoses (peg-in-
socket)

Structure
Synchondroses
2. Cartilaginous Joints
§ Bones joined by cartilage
§ No joint cavity
§ Not highly movable
§ 2 types of of cartilaginous joint Symphyses
§ Synchondroses (plate of
hyaline cartilage)
§ Symphyses (fibrocartilage
unites bones. Acts as
shock absorber)
Structure
3. Synovial Joints
§ Bones separated by fluid-filled joint cavity
§ Freely movable diarthroses
§ 6 key features:
§ Articular cartilage : glassy smooth hyaline
cartilage ends of bone)
§ Joint (articular) cavity: a space containing
synovial fluid
§ Articular capsule: joint cavity enclosed by a 2
layered articular capsule
§ Synovial fluid: slippery fluid found in free spaces
(reduces friction)
§ Ligaments: reinforce and strengthen the joint
§ Nerves and blood vessels: richly supplied

Summary of Joint Classes

Gliding at the

Movements wrist

Synovial Joints Rotation of the

head and neck

§ Range of motion in synovial joints

varies
§ Nonaxial (gliding)
Flexion/
§ Uniaxial (movement in 1 plane) extension at the
neck

§ Biaxial (movement in 2 planes)

§ Multiaxial (movement in all 3
planes)
§ 3 general types of movement:
§ Gliding, angular and rotation (and
special movements) Flexion/ extension
of the vertebral
column
 Shoulder

Movements Flexion

Synovial Joints Shoulder

extension
Knee
Knee
flexion
extension

Abduction/
Rotation
adduction

Activity: Identify these joints and their movements on yourself. circumduction

Practice the terminology

Movements
Synovial Joints
Special Body Movements
§ Don't fit into the other categories
(gliding, rotation or angular)
§ Pronation/supination
§ Opposition
§ Dorsiflexion/ plantarflexion
§ Inversion/eversion
§ Protraction/retraction

Synovial Joint
Shapes Plane joints Condylar joints
6 types

1. Plane joint (non

axial)
2. Hinge joint Hinge joints Saddle joints
(uniaxial)
3. Pivot joint
(uniaxial)
4. Condylar joint Ball & Socket joints
Pivot joints
(biaxial)
5. Saddle joint
(Biaxial)
6. Ball and socket
(multiaxial)
 Activity: Check your understanding

Q. Name the category of each of the synovial joints illustrated and their
movement (i.e. according to shape and movement)

Synovial Joint
Knee
§ Largest and most complex joint in body
§ Single joint cavity,
§ But consists of 3 joints in 1!
§ Tibiofemoral (lateral and medial)
§ hinge joint (bicondylar: flex/ext,
some rotation when partially flex)
§ Patellofemoral (patella & femur)
§ plane joint (gliding)
§ Bursa – fluid filled sacs (reduce friction)
§ Menisci – outer margins, prevent side to
side rocking and are shock absorbers

Synovial Joint
Knee
§ Ligaments – strengthen and reinforce
the joint
§ Anterior view = Capsule absent
§ 3 broad ligaments
§ Patellar ligament (tapped in
knee-jerk reflex
§ Medial patellar retinaculum
§ Lateral patellar retinaculum
 Synovial Joint
Knee
§ Anterior (absent capsule)
§ Patellar ligament
§ Extracapsular ligaments (import for prevent lat/med
rotation when knee extended)
§ Tibial (medial) collateral ligament (MCL)
§ Fibula (lateral) collateral ligament (LCL)
§ Intracapsular ligaments
§ cruci = cross (X marks the spot)
§ Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) – prevents forward
sliding of tibia on femur
§ Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) – prevents forward
sliding of femur (or tibia going backwards)

Activity:
Tibial
‘Label & Learn’ collateral
ligament
§ Name the ligaments of the knee:
Anterior Posterior
§ Anterior (absent capsule) cruciate cruciate
ligament ligament
§ Intracapsular
§ Extracapsular Fibula
collateral
ligament

Patellar
ligament

Synovial Joint
Summary: Knee
§ Tendons
§ Semimembranosus
§ Gastrocnemius
§ Muscle
§ Popliteus
§ Ligaments
§ Oblique popliteal ligament
§ Arcuate popliteal ligament
§ Tibial collateral ligament (MCL)
§ Fibula collateral ligament (LCL)
Knee “Unhappy Triad”
1. Tibial Collateral Ligament (MCL)
2. Medial Meniscus
3. Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL)

Inflammatory & Degenerative OA

Conditions that Affect Joints
What is Arthritis?
§ Most wide spread and crippling disease (100 types. 1 in 5 people
suffer)
§ Symptoms: pain, joint stiffness and swelling
§ Chronic Arthritis: Osteoarthritis (OA) and Rheumatoid (RA)

Osteoarthritis vs. Rheumatoid

OA
§ chronic degeneration (wear & tear), cartilage breakdown
(eroded articular surfaces) RA
§ most prevalent in aged population
§ women > men
§ common in knees, hips, lumbar spine, fingers (unilateral)
RA
§ chronic inflammation (autoimmune disease - body immune
system attacks its owns tissues
§ affects 30-50 yrs (rarer that OA) 1% population
§ many joints affected at ONE time (bilateral)
§ treatment: immune suppressants, NSAI, SAI https://www.medicinenet.com/osteoarthritis/article.htm

Summary of key concepts: Skeletal system 1.4

§ Joints classification: (i) structurally and (ii) functionally
i. Fibrous joints: generally immobile, depending on the length of the fibres in the
joint [synarthrotic, amphiarthrotic] e.g.: sutures, syndesmosis
ii. Cartilaginous joints: immobile or slightly moveable [synarthrotic, amphiarthrotic]
e.g.: intervertebral disc, pubic symphysis
iii. Synovial joints: freely moveable [diarthrotic] e.g.: knee joint, glenohumeral joint
§ non-axial, uniaxial, multiaxial
§ joint cavity with capsule filled with synovial fluid
§ most structurally complex
§ most commonly dysfunctional!
Summary of key concepts: Skeletal system 1.4

§ The knee joint is the large and complex tibiofemoral joint.

§ The knee joint capsule encloses the lateral and posterior aspects of the
knee.
§ Ligaments enclose the anterior aspect of the knee joint.
§ The knee has capsular, intracapsular and extracapsular ligaments.
§ When the knee is locked straight, the femur rotates medially on the tibia.
§ The unhappy triad involves injury to the ACL, MCL and medial meniscus.
§ Arthritis: chronic inflammation (Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis)