ACIDS AND BASES

• Write and construct balanced equations

• Perform calculations, including use of mole concept, involving
volumes and concentration of solutions, and relate the number of
significant figures in your answers to those given or asked for in the
question
• Deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations
• Show understanding of, and use, the Bronstead-Lowry theory of
acids and bases including the use of the acid 1 base-1, acid-2 base-
2 concept
• Explain qualitatively the differences in behavior between strong and
weak acids and bases and the pH values of their aqueous solutions
in terms of the extent of dissociation
How many of these pre-
test questions can you
answer?
Identify the substance as an acid or a base.
Identify the substance as an acid or a base.
Identify the substance as an acid or a base.
Identify the substance as an acid or a base.
Identify the substance as an acid or a base.
Identify the substance as an acid or a base.
Identify the substance as an acid or a base.
Identify the substance as an acid or a base.
 Identify the substance as an acid or a base.

NEUTRAL
 HISTORY OF ACIDS
All acids contain
Acid is a
oxygen.
“oxys”:
substance that
= acidic gives
= sharp tasting hydrogen ions
= gonos in water

Antoine Svante
Robert Boyle Humpry
Lavoisier Arhennius
(1661) Davy (1810)
(1766) (1884)

Found that
Acidus (Latin) hydrochloric
= taste sour acid contained
hydrogen and
chlorine only.
 ⇌

H H +
O H+ O H
H H
water hydrogen ion oxonium ion
(hydroxonium ion)

only exists by in water, a hydrogen ion

itself in a will be datively bonded
vacuum to a water molecule to
give an oxonium ion
 Alkalis or Bases?

 Bases are substances that neutralise acids.

 Alkalis are substances that produce OH- ions when they dissolve in water. Bases
CaCO3 ZnCO3 FeO
 All alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis.

 Alkalis include:
1. Hydroxides of the Group 1 elements (the alkali metals)
2. The soluble hydroxides of Group 2 elements (the alkaline earth
metals) Alkalis
3. Ammonia
4. Soluble organic amines NaOH
Na2CO3
pH Scale
How many of these
post-test questions can
you answer?
 ARRHENIUS THEORY
Acids and Bases

Post-test:
State whether the following substances are acids or bases.
1. HNO3(aq) → H+(aq) + NO3–(aq) ACID
2. Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) BASE
3. CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO–(aq) + H+(aq) ACID
4. H2CO3(aq) HCO3–(aq) + H+(aq) ACID
5. H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH–(aq) NEUTRAL
 HISTORY OF ACIDS
All acids contain
Acid is a
oxygen.
“oxys”:
substance
= acidic that gives
= sharp tasting hydrogen
= gonos ions in water

Antoine Svante
Robert Boyle Humpry
Lavoisier Arhennius
(1661) Davy (1810)
(1766) (1884)

Found that
Acidus (Latin) hydrochloric
= taste sour acid contained
hydrogen and
chlorine only.
 ACIDS AND BASES

Limitations of the Arrhenius definition

 The Arrhenius theory is limited in that it can only describe acid-

base chemistry in aqueous solutions.
 Similar reactions can also occur in non-aqueous solvents, however,
as well as between molecules in the gas phase.

 As a result, modern chemists usually prefer the Brønsted-Lowry

theory, which is useful in a broader range of chemical reactions.

Arrhenius
 STRONG ACIDS AND BASES

STRONG completely dissociate (split up) into ions in aqueous solution

ACIDS
e.g. HCl (aq) H+(aq) + Cl¯(aq) MONOPROTIC 1 replaceable H
HNO3 (aq) H+(aq) + NO3¯(aq) MONOPROTIC 1 replaceable H
H2SO4 (aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42- (aq) DIPROTIC 2 replaceable H’s

Acids that can donate a maximum of one, two or three protons (H+) are
called monoprotic, diprotic or triprotic respectively.
STRONG completely dissociate (split up) into ions in aqueous solution
BASES

e.g. NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH¯(aq)

Arrhenius
 pH scale
H 2O H+ + OH-

[H+] x [OH-] = 1x10−14

[H+] 10–1 10–3 10–7 10–11 10–14

[OH–] 10–13 10–11 10–7 10–3 100

 Calculating pH
(strong acids & bases)

pH = - log [H+] pOH = - log [OH-] pH + pOH = 14

Work Examples:
1st method:
1. [𝐻+ ] = 2x10−3
2nd method: 1. [𝐻+ ] = 2 x 10−3
−3
pH = - log [H+] = - log 2x10 = 2.70 pH = 3 – log 2 = 2.70

2. pH = 6 – log 4 = 5.40
[𝐻 + ] = 4 x10 −6 pH = - log [H+] = - log 4x10−6 = 5.40

3. pOH = 4 – log 1 = 4 Log 10 = 1 Log 1 = 0

−4
[𝑂𝐻− ] = 1 x10
4. pH = 3
pOH = pH - pOH
pOH = 14 - 3 = 11
 WEAK ACIDS AND BASES

WEAK ionised to only small extent (possibly less than 10%)

ACIDS
e.g. ethanoic acid CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO¯(aq) + H+(aq)

When a weak acid dissolves in

water an equilibrium is set up HA(aq) + H2O(l) A¯(aq) + H3O+(aq)

The water stabilises the ions

To make calculations easier

the dissociation can be written... HA(aq) A¯(aq) + H+(aq)

The weaker the acid, the less it dissociates

the more the equilibrium lies to the left.
It has an acid dissociation constant (𝑲𝒂 )
[𝑯+ ] = 𝑲𝒂 . 𝑴
pH = - log [H+] Arrhenius
 WEAK ACIDS AND BASES

WEAK ionised to only small extent (possibly less than 10%)

BASES
e.g. Ammonia (NH)3
When a weak base dissolves in NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH¯ (aq)
water an equilibrium is set up

as in the case of acids it is more simply written… NH3 (aq) + H+ (aq) NH4+ (aq)

The weaker the base, the less it dissociates

the more the equilibrium lies to the left.
It has a base dissociation constant (𝑲𝒃 )
[𝑶𝑯− ] = 𝑲𝒃 . 𝑴
pOH = - log [OH-]
pH = 14 - pOH
pH + pOH = 14
Arrhenius
 STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS
Comparison Based on Arrhenius’s and Bronsted-Lowry’s Theory

STRONG ACID

Acid that gives up a proton more easily than the H3O+ ion
does.
Example: HCl(g) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
ACID BASE ACID BASE
(strong) (weak) (weak)

WEAK ACID

Acid that gives up a proton less easily than the H3O+ ion
does.
Example: CH3CO2H(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + CH3CO2–(aq)
ACID BASE ACID BASE
(weak) (strong) (strong)
 ACIDS AND BASES

BRONSTED-LOWRY THEORY

ACID proton donor

BASE proton acceptor
H+

HClO4(aq) + H2SO4(l) ClO4–(aq) + H3SO4+(aq)

proton donor proton acceptor

ACID BASE
 ACIDS AND BASES

BRONSTED-LOWRY THEORY

ACID proton donor

BASE proton acceptor
H+

HClO4(aq) + H2SO4(l) ClO4–(aq) + H3SO4+(aq)

proton acceptor proton donor

BASE ACID
 ACIDS AND BASES

BRONSTED-LOWRY THEORY

ACID proton donor HCl (aq) H+(aq) + Cl¯(aq)

BASE proton acceptor NH3(aq) + H+ (aq) NH4 + (aq)

Conjugate systems:
Acids are related to bases ACID PROTON + CONJUGATE BASE
Bases are related to acids BASE + PROTON CONJUGATE ACID
For an acid to behave as an acid, it must have a base present to accept a proton...
HA + B BH+ + A¯
acid base conjugate conjugate
H+ acid base

Example: H2O + CH3COO¯ CH3COOH + OH¯

acid base conjugate conjugate
acid base
 ACIDS AND BASES

BRONSTED-LOWRY THEORY

For an acid to behave as an acid, it must have a base present to accept a proton...

O O
𝛿− 𝛿+
O Cl O H H O S O H
O has the hydrogen
O must contain a lone
atom which already pair of electrons
ACID carries a slight BASE that can be used to
positive charge form a dative bond
with the proton
 ACIDS AND BASES

BRONSTED-LOWRY THEORY

ACID proton donor

BASE proton acceptor
conjugate acid-base pair I

conjugate acid-base pair II

HClO4(aq) + H2SO4(l) ClO4–(aq) + H3SO4+(aq)

ACID -I BASE-II BASE -I ACID -II

conjugate
 BRONSTED-LOWRY THEORY
Amphoteric Substance

Water can behave both as an acid and as a base. Such substance is

called an ampholyte and shows amphoteric behaviour.

Consider the following reactions!

H+

H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) HSO4–(aq) + H3O+(aq)

ACID +
BASE BASE ACID
H Conjugate Conjugate

NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)

BASE ACID ACID BASE
Conjugate Conjugate
 BRONSTED-LOWRY THEORY
Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs

Post-test:
For each of the following equations, decide whether the
underlined species is acting as an acid or a base, and state
which species is its conjugate base or acid!
1. Br– + HSO4– → HBr + SO42– ACID
2. H2SO4 + HNO3 → HSO4– + H2NO3+ ACID
3. NH3 + H2O → NH4+ + OH– ACID
 FA 1: “Acids and Bases”
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 STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS
Predicting the Strength of Acid/Base from the Kc

We can also predict the strength of acid and base from the Kc!
Consider the following reactions!

Shift to the right

H2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) SO42–(aq) + 2H3O+(aq)

strong acid

[SO42–] [H3O+]2 increase

Kac =
[H2SO4] decrease

very high
 STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS
Predicting the Strength of Acid/Base from the Kc

We can also predict the strength of acid and base from the Kc!
Consider the following reactions!

Shift to the left

H2CO3(aq) + 2H2O(l) CO32–(aq) + 2H3O+(aq)

weak acid

[CO32–] [H3O+]2 decrease

Kac =
[H2CO3] increase

very small
 STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS
Predicting the Strength of Acid/Base from the Kc

We can also predict the strength of acid and base from the Kc!
Consider the following reactions!
Shift to the right

NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)

strong base

[Na+] [OH–] increase

Kbc =
[NaOH] decrease

very high
 STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS
Predicting the Strength of Acid/Base from the Kc

We can also predict the strength of acid and base from the Kc!
Consider the following reactions!
Shift to the left

Mg(OH)2(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)

weak base

[Mg2+][OH–]2 decrease
Kbc =
[Mg(OH)2] increase

very small
 LEWIS THEORY
Donating and Accepting Lone Pair

Consider the following reaction!

With the concept of Bronsted-Lowry Theory,
state which one is acid and which one is base!
H+
NH3(aq) + H+(aq) NH4+(aq)
lone pair donor BASE ACID lone pair acceptor

H H +
X

H NX
X
X
H + H N H
X

H H
 SUMMARY
Comparison Among Theories

ACID BASE

Arrhenius Donor H+ Donor OH–

Bronsted-
Proton (H+) donor Proton (H+) acceptor
Lowry

Lewis Lone pair acceptor Lone pair donor

STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS
Predicting the Strength of Acid/Base from the Kc
 STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS
Comparison Based on Arrhenius’s and Bronsted-Lowry’s Theory

ACID Strength pH BASE Strength pH

H2SO4 very strong <0 HSO4– very weak 4

HCl Cl–
HNO3 NO3–
H3O+ fairly strong 1 H2O weak 7
HSO4– SO4 2–
CH3CO2H CH3CO2–
H2CO3 weak 5 HCO3– less weak 9
NH4+ NH3
H2O very weak 7 OH– strong 14
How many of these
post-test questions can
you answer?
HCl H2 O

H2O CH3NH2

NH4+ H2 O

H2 O NH2OH

H2SO4 H2 O

H2SO4 HNO3
H2SO4 HCl HNO3

Acid Base Conj.Base Conj.Acid

Acid Base Conj.Base Conj.Acid

Acid Base Conj.Base Conj.Acid

Base Acid Conj.Acid Conj.Base

pH scale
 LESSON OBJECTIVES

• Explain the terms pH, Ka, pKa, Kw and use them

in calculations
• Calculate [H+(aq)] and pH values for strong and
weak acids and strong bases
• Explain the choice of suitable indicators for acid-
base titrations, given appropriate data
• Describe the changes in pH during acid-base
titrations and explain these changes in terms of
the strengths of the acids and bases
 INTRODUCTION
The Dissociation of Weak Acids

Consider the dissociation of acid, HA, in water below!

H+ H+
Kc
HA(aq) + H2O(l) A–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
ACID BASE BASE ACID
Conjugate Conjugate
(weak) (weak) (strong) (strong)

[A–] [H3 O+] Pure water has a molar mass of 18.0 g mol-1
and a density of 1.00 g cm-3.
Kac = 1000
[HA] 𝐻2𝑂 𝑙 = = 55.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚−3
18.0 × 1
In any dilute aqueous solution, [H2O(l)] is very
acid dissociation little different from this value and so may be
constant taken as a constant.
 INTRODUCTION
Ka Values for Some Common Acids

Ka values can be used to calculate [H+] in solutions of weak acids.

Consider the case below!
very strong
Calculate the concentration of
hydrogen ions in a solution of
0.0020 mol dm-3 carbonic acid!
Dissociation of carbonic acid
H2CO3(aq) HCO3–(aq) + H+(aq)
I: 0.002 mol
R: x mol x mol x mol

E: (0.002 – x) x mol x mol

the same

very weak
 INTRODUCTION
Ka Values for Some Common Acids

Ka values can be used to calculate [H+] in solutions of weak acids.

Consider the case below! 𝐻𝐶𝑂3− [𝐻+ ]
Calculate the concentration of 𝐾𝑎 =
[𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 ]
hydrogen ions in a solution of
0.0020 mol dm-3 carbonic acid! 𝐻 + [𝐻+ ]
𝐾𝑎 =
Dissociation of carbonic acid [𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 ]
H2CO3(aq) HCO3–(aq) + H+(aq) 𝐻+ 2
I: 0.002 mol 𝐾𝑎 =
[𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 ]
R: x mol x mol x mol
𝐻+ 2
= 𝐾𝑎 [𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 ]
E: (0.002 – x) x mol x mol 𝐻+ = 𝐾𝑎 [𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 ]
the same
In general:
Since, [HCO3 = –] [H+]
𝐻+ = 4.2 × 10−7 × 0.002 𝐻+ = 𝐾𝑎 [𝐻𝐴]
𝐻+ = 3.00 × 10−5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚−3
 INTRODUCTION
Ka Values for Some Common Acids

Ka values can be used to calculate [H+] in solutions of weak acids.

Consider the case below!
Calculate the concentration of
hydrogen ions in a solution of
0.0020 mol dm-3 carbonic acid!
Dissociation of carbonic acid
H2CO3(aq) HCO3–(aq) + H+(aq)
NOTICE:
I: 0.002 mol This formula can only be used if
R: x mol x mol x mol there are no added H+(aq) ions or
A–(aq) ions
E: (0.002 – x) x mol x mol
the same
In general:
Since, [HCO3 = –] [H+]
𝐻+ = 4.2 × 10−7 × 0.002 𝐻+ = 𝐾𝑎 [𝐻𝐴]
𝐻+ = 3.00 × 10−5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚−3
 INTRODUCTION
Kb Values for Some Common Bases

Kb values can be used to calculate [OH–] in solutions of weak bases.

Consider the case below!
very weak
Calculate the concentration of
hydroxide ions in a solution of 0.01
mol dm-3 ammonia!
Dissociation of ammonia:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)
I: 0.01 mol
R: x mol x mol x mol

E: (0.01 – x) x mol x mol

the same
Since, [NH4+] = [OH–]

very strong
 INTRODUCTION
Kb Values for Some Common Bases

Kb values can be used to calculate [OH–] in solutions of weak bases.

Consider the case below! 𝑁𝐻4+ [𝑂𝐻− ]
Calculate the concentration of 𝐾𝑏 =
[𝑁𝐻3 ]
hydroxide ions in a solution of 0.01
mol dm-3 ammonia! 𝑂𝐻− [𝑂𝐻− ]
𝐾𝑏 =
Dissociation of carbonic acid [𝑁𝐻3 ]
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq) 𝑂𝐻 − 2
I: 0.01 mol 𝐾𝑏 =
[𝑁𝐻3 ]
R: x mol x mol x mol
𝑂𝐻− 2
= 𝐾𝑏 [𝑁𝐻3 ]
E: (0.01 – x) x mol x mol 𝑂𝐻− = 𝐾𝑏 [𝑁𝐻3 ]
the same
In general:
Since, [NH4 = +] [OH–]
−
𝑂𝐻 = 𝐾𝑏 [𝑀𝑂𝐻]
 INTRODUCTION
Kb Values for Some Common Bases

Kb values can be used to calculate [OH–] in solutions of weak bases.

Consider the case below!
Calculate the concentration of
hydroxide ions in a solution of 0.01
mol dm-3 ammonia!
Dissociation of carbonic acid
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq) 𝑂𝐻− = 1.8 × 10−5 × 0.01
I: 0.01 mol 𝑂𝐻− = 4.24 × 10−4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚−3
R: x mol x mol
Do you know how to find the
E: (0.01 – x) x mol concentration of hydrogen ion and
the same or hydroxide ion in a strong acid
In a
and or general:
strong base?
Since, [NH4+] = [OH–]
−
𝑂𝐻 = 𝐾𝑏 [𝑀𝑂𝐻]
 INTRODUCTION
Worked Examples

Test Yourself
1. Using Ka values from the table (given), calculate the
hydrogen ion concentration in each of the following
aqueous solutions:
(a) 0.0036 mol dm-3 methanoic acid (Ka = 1,8 x 10-4)
(b) 1.3 mol dm-3 hydrocyanic acid (Ka = 4,0 x 10-10)
(c) 0.0050 mol dm-3 hydrofluoric acid (Ka = 7,4 x 10-4)

2. Calculate the hydrogen ion concentration in a 2.0 mol

dm-3 solution of sodium hydroxide
 THE IONIC PRODUCT OF WATER
Kw

“pure water conducts electricity slightly”

H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH–(aq)

It must be ionised to a small extent
For this equilibrium:

Kw = [H+] [OH–]
Kw = [H+] [OH–]

Ionic product of water

Kw = 1.0 x 10–14 mol2 dm–6
At 25oC
 THE IONIC PRODUCT OF WATER
Kw

In a neutral solution: Recall:

[H+] = [OH–] Calculate the hydrogen ion
concentration in a 2.0 mol dm-3
Kw = [H+] [OH–] solution of sodium hydroxide
Kw = [H+] [H+] Answer:
NaOH = SB (completely dissociate)
Kw = [H+]2
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
𝐻+ = 𝐾𝑤 2.0 mol 2.0 mol

+
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐻 = 1.0 × 10−14 𝑂𝐻 − = = 2.0 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚 −3
1 𝑑𝑚3
𝐻 + = 1.0 × 10−7 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚−3 𝐾𝑤 1.0 × 10−14
𝐻+ = −
=
[𝑂𝐻 ] 2.0
𝐻 + = 5.0 × 10−15 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚−3
 THE pH SCALE
pH = ?
The pH Scale was introduced to make the numbers representing acidity easier

[H+] ↓↓
[OH–] ↑↑
pH ↑↑

[H+] ↑↑
[OH–] ↓↓
pH ↓↓
 THE pH SCALE
pH = ?
The pH Scale was introduced to make the numbers representing acidity easier

𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [𝐻+ ]
With the same techniques, we can derive:

𝑝𝑂𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [𝑂𝐻− ]

𝑝𝐾𝑤 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐾𝑤
𝑝𝐾𝑎 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐾𝑎
𝑝𝐾𝑏 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐾𝑏
𝑝𝐻 + 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑤
 THE pH SCALE
Worked Example

Test Yourself
1. Calculate the pH of each of the following solutions:
(a) 0.050 mol dm-3 solution of hydriodic acid, HI
(b) 0.30 mol dm-3 solution of hydrofluoric acid, HF
(Ka = 5.6 x 10–4 mol dm–3)
(c) 0.40 mol dm-3 solution of sodium hydroxide
ANSWER:
1. (a) pH = 1.3
(b) pH = 1.9
(c) pH = 13.6
 LESSON OBJECTIVES
• Write and construct balanced equations
• Perform calculations, including use of mole concept,
involving volumes and concentration of solutions,
and relate the number of significant figures in your
answers to those given or asked for in the question
• Deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations
• Show understanding of, and use, the Bronstead-
Lowry theory of acids and bases including the use of
the acid 1 base-1, acid-2 base-2 concept
• Explain qualitatively the differences in behavior
between strong and weak acids and bases and the
pH values of their aqueous solutions in terms of the
extent of dissociation
 INTRODUCTION
Calculation Involving Acid-base Reactions

Consider the following case!

impure NaOH
TITRATION

initial
1.500 g of water
reading
impure NaOH
burette
25.0 cm3
of NaOH(aq) HCl(aq) final
% purity? reading

Titration is a technique that is Indicator

often used in analytical chemistry 25.0 cm3 has
changed
to measure with a high degree of of NaOH(aq) the color
accuracy the concentration of an
acid or base in a sample.
 INTRODUCTION
Calculation Involving Acid-base Reactions

Consider the following case!

Run the standard solution until the
reaction between the two TITRATION
the result
substances is just complete.

Comparing it to the concentration initial

STOICHIOMETRY
of base or acid in a standard reading
solution (a solution in which the burette
concentration of solute in mol dm-3
is known accurately)
HCl(aq) final
reading

Titration is a technique that is Indicator

often used in analytical chemistry 25.0 cm3 has
changed
to measure with a high degree of of NaOH(aq) the color
accuracy the concentration of an
acid or base in a sample.
 INTRODUCTION
Calculation Involving Acid-base Reactions

Consider the following case!

Neutralisation Reaction:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) TITRATION

Neutral:
initial
mol H+ = mol OH–

STOICHIOMETRY
reading

. .
Va Ma a burette

Acid dissociation: HCl(aq) final

reading

HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

. V .M
Va Ma a a 25.0 cm3
Indicator
has
changed
H SO (aq) → 2H (aq) + SO
+ 2–(aq) of NaOH(aq) the color

V .M 2.V .M
2 4 4

a a a a
 INTRODUCTION
Calculation Involving Acid-base Reactions

Consider the following case!

Neutralisation Reaction:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) TITRATION

Neutral:
initial
mol H+ = mol OH–

STOICHIOMETRY
reading

. .
Va Ma a = Vb Mb b . . burette

Base dissociation: HCl(aq) final

reading

NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)

.
Vb Mb Vb Mb. 25.0 cm3
Indicator
has
changed
Ba(OH) (aq) → Ba 2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) of NaOH(aq) the color

V .M
b b
2
. .
2 Vb Mb
 INTRODUCTION
Calculation Involving Acid-base Reactions

Consider the following case!

Neutralisation Reaction:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) TITRATION

Neutral:
initial
mol H+ = mol OH–

STOICHIOMETRY
reading

. .
Va Ma a = Vb Mb b . . burette

Va = volume of acid (cm3) HCl(aq) final

reading

Ma = concentration of acid (mol dm–3)

Indicator
a,b = valence of acid or base 25.0 cm3 has
changed
Vb = volume of base (cm3) of NaOH(aq) the color

Mb = concentration of base (mol dm–3)

 TITRATION
Carrying out a Titration

Total mark = 4 – 6 marks

MMO quality:
The best difference

6 marks
 TITRATION
Carrying out a Titration

How to increase your precision?

1. Clean and rinse the burette and the pipette thoroughly
to ensure that the concentrations remain constant
 TITRATION
Carrying out a Titration

How to increase your precision?

2. Fill the burette precisely, assure no air left
 TITRATION
Carrying out a Titration

How to increase your precision?

3. Read initial and final reading of the burette properly
 TITRATION
Carrying out a Titration

How to increase your precision?

3. Read initial and final reading of the burette properly

50.00 cm3

0.00 cm3
 TITRATION
Carrying out a Titration

How to increase your precision?

4. Readings should be recorded to the nearest 0.05 cm3,
which is the approximate volume of one drop.
Example: 25.00, 25.05 and 26.00 cm3

Initial Reading: Final Reading:

9.65 cm3 24.15 cm3
 TITRATION
Carrying out a Titration

How to increase your precision?

4. Add a few drops of indicator to the flask.
 TITRATION
Carrying out a Titration

How to increase your precision?

5. During the first titration, the end-point is often missed through
overshooting, that is, adding slightly more titrant than is necessary
just to change the indicator colour. However, the reading should still
be recorded as a ‘rough’ titration.

Good end-point Bad end-point

 TITRATION
Carrying out a Titration

How to increase your precision?

6. Further titrations should then be done so that the results
of two consecutive titrations differ by no more than
0.10 cm3.
Initial Reading Final Reading Volume of Titrant
Trial
(cm3) (cm3) (cm3)
Rough 22.15
1 22.05
further δ < 0.1 cm3
2 22.10
titration δ < 0.1 cm3
3 22.00
 TITRATION
Stoichiometric Calculation

Refer to the previous case!

pure NaOH
0.982 g of sodium
hydroxide was made up to
500 cm3 in a calibrated
flask. What is the
0.982 g of concentration of the
pure NaOH
solution?
ANSWER:
𝑊 0.982
𝑛= = = 2.46 × 10−2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀𝑚 40.0
𝑛 2.46 × 10−2
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 = = = 4.92 × 10−2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚3
𝑉 0.5
 TITRATION
Stoichiometric Calculation

Refer to the previous case!

initial 1.50 g of impure sample of
25.0 cm3 reading sodium hydroxide was made
of NaOH(aq) burette up to 500 cm3. A 25.00 cm3
pipette-full of this solution was
HCl(aq) neutralized by 17.50 cm3 of
0.100 mol dm-3 hydrochloric
acid run in from a burette. What
25.0 cm3 is the percentage purity of the
of NaOH(aq) sodium hydroxide?

ANSWER:
𝑉 17.50
𝑛 𝐻𝐶𝑙 = 𝐻𝐶𝑙 × = 0.100 × = 1.75 × 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1000 1000
 TITRATION
Stoichiometric Calculation

Refer to the previous case!

initial 1.50 g of impure sample of
25.0 cm3 reading sodium hydroxide was made
of NaOH(aq) burette up to 500 cm3. A 25.00 cm3
pipette-full of this solution was
HCl(aq) neutralized by 17.50 cm3 of
0.100 mol dm-3 hydrochloric
acid run in from a burette. What
25.0 cm3 is the percentage purity of the
of NaOH(aq) sodium hydroxide?

ANSWER:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
𝑛 𝐻𝐶𝑙 = 𝑛(𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻)
𝑛 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑖𝑛 25 𝑐𝑚3 = 1.75 × 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙
 TITRATION
Stoichiometric Calculation

Refer to the previous case!

initial 1.50 g of impure sample of
25.0 cm3 reading sodium hydroxide was made
of NaOH(aq) burette up to 500 cm3. A 25.00 cm3
pipette-full of this solution was
HCl(aq) neutralized by 17.50 cm3 of
0.100 mol dm-3 hydrochloric
acid run in from a burette. What
25.0 cm3 is the percentage purity of the
of NaOH(aq) sodium hydroxide?

ANSWER:
500
𝑛 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑖𝑛 500 𝑐𝑚3 = 1.75 × 10−3 × = 3.50 × 10−2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
25.0
 TITRATION
Stoichiometric Calculation

Refer to the previous case!

initial 1.50 g of impure sample of
25.0 cm3 reading sodium hydroxide was made
of NaOH(aq) burette up to 500 cm3. a 25.00 cm3
pipette-full of this solution was
HCl(aq) neutralized by 17.50 cm3 of
0.100 mol dm-3 hydrochloric
acid run in from a burette. What
25.0 cm3 is the percentage purity of the
of NaOH(aq) sodium hydroxide?

ANSWER:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 = 3.50 × 10−2 × 40.0 = 1.40 𝑔
1.40
% 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 = × 100% = 93.3%
1.50
 TITRATION
Titration Curve

Refer to the previous case!

initial HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
reading SA SB
burette

HCl(aq) pH meter

25.0 cm3 TITRATION

of NaOH(aq) CURVE

Titrant = 0.100 mol dm-3 of HCl

Vol (HCl) = 17.50 cm3
 TITRATION
Titration Curve

Refer to the previous case!

initial HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
reading SA SB
End point titration
burette pH if pp is used
HCl(aq) 14
Equivalent point
10 (mol H+ = mol OH–)
pp
25.0 cm3
of NaOH(aq) 8
7 End point titration
5 if mo is used
mo
3
Titrant = 0.100 mol dm-3 of HCl
Vol (HCl) = 17.50 cm3
0
17.5
Vol (HCl)
 TITRATION
Titration Curve

How is the titration curve when the titrant is strong base?

initial HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
reading SA SB
burette pH End point titration
if pp is used
NaOH(aq) 14
Equivalent point
(mol H+ = mol OH–)
10
25.0 cm3 8 pp
of HCl (aq) 7 End point titration
5 if mo is used
mo
3
Titrant = 0.100 mol dm-3 of NaOH
Vol (NaOH) = 17.50 cm3
0
17.5
Vol (NaOH)
 TITRATION
Titration Curve

Consider the following titration curves!

NH4OH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
WB SA
pH < 7

Initial pH < 14
(Weak Base) Equivalent point
pp (mol H+ = mol OH–)

End point titration

since mo is used
mo

Final pH ≈ 0
(Strong Acid)
 TITRATION
Titration Curve

Consider the following titration curves!

NaOH(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) → CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)
SB WA
pH > 7
Equivalent point
Final pH ≈ 14 (mol H+ = mol OH–)
(Strong Base)
End point titration
pp since pp is used

mo
Initial pH > 1
(Weak Acid)
 TITRATION
Titration Curve

Consider the following titration curves!

WA + WB Equivalent point WB + WA
(mol H+ = mol OH–)
 TITRATION
Worked Examples

Test Yourself
1. 25.00 cm3 of 0.0500 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide
neutralised 20.00 cm3 of hydrochloric acid. What is the
concentration of the hydrochloric acid?
ANSWER:
𝑉𝑎 × 𝑀𝑎 × 𝑎 = 𝑉𝑏 × 𝑀𝑏 × 𝑏
20 × 𝑀𝑎 × 1 = 25 × 0.05 × 1
25 × 0.05
𝑀𝑎 = = 0.0625 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚−3
20
 TITRATION
Worked Examples

Test Yourself
2. 23.65 cm3 of 0.0800 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid were
neutralized by 25.00 cm3 of a solution of sodium
carbonate according to the equation:
2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
What is the concentration of the sodium carbonate
solution?
ANSWER:
𝑉𝑎 × 𝑀𝑎 × 𝑎 = 𝑉𝑏 × 𝑀𝑏 × 𝑏
23.65 × 0.08 × 1 = 25 × 𝑀𝑏 × 2
23.65 × 0.08
𝑀𝑏 = = 0.0378 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚−3
25 × 2
 TITRATION
The Usage of Titration

TITRATION

usage


Finding the purity
of a substance
Finding the
amount of water
crystallisation
Finding the
stoichiometry of a
reaction
 TITRATION
Finding the Amount of Water Crystallisation

Consider the following case!

Washing soda has the formula Na2CO3.xH2O. A mass of
1.428 g of washing soda was made up to 250 cm3. 25.0
cm3 of this solution were neutralized by 20.0 cm3 of 0.0500
mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid run in from a burette.
The equation for this reaction is:
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Find the value of x, and the formula of washing soda!
 TITRATION
Finding the Amount of Water Crystallisation

Consider the following case!

washing soda
V(HCl) = 20.0 cm3

initial
1.428 g of water
reading
washing soda
burette
250 cm3
25.0 cm3
of solution HCl(aq) final
x=? reading

Indicator
25.0 cm3 has
changed
of solution the color
 TITRATION
Finding the Amount of Water Crystallisation

ANSWER:
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
20.0
𝑛 𝐻𝐶𝑙 = 0.05 × = 1.00 × 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1000
1
𝑛 𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3 𝑖𝑛 25.0 𝑐𝑚 = × 1.00 × 10−3 = 5.00 × 10−4 𝑚𝑜𝑙
3
2
250
𝑛 𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3 𝑖𝑛 250 𝑐𝑚3 = 5.00 × 10−4 × = 5.00 × 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙
25.0
Since Mm (Na2CO3) = 106.0 g mol-1, thus

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3 𝑖𝑛 250 𝑐𝑚3 = 5.00 × 10−3 × 106.0 = 0.530 𝑔

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑎 = 1.4280 − 0.530 = 0.898 𝑔

Since Mm (H2O) = 18.0 g mol-1, thus

0.898
𝑛 𝐻2𝑂 = = 4.99 × 10−2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
18.0
 TITRATION
Finding the Amount of Water Crystallisation

ANSWER:
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Na2CO3.xH2O(s) → Na2CO3(aq) + xH2O(l)
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3 𝑛 (𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3)
=
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝐻2𝑂 𝑛 (𝐻2𝑂)
1 5.00 × 10−3
=
𝑥 4.99 × 10−2
𝑥 = 9.98 ≈ 10
Therefore, x = 10 and the formula of washing soda is Na2CO3.10H2O
 TITRATION
Finding the Stoichiometry of a Reaction

Recall: Monoprotic vs Diprotic

Neutralisation of monoprotic acid-base:
𝑛 (𝐻𝐶𝑙) 1
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) =
𝑛 (𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻) 1
Neutralisation of diprotic acid-base:
𝑛 (𝐻2𝑆𝑂4) 1
H2SO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaHSO4(aq) + H2O(l) =
𝑛 (𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻) 1
𝑛 (𝐻2𝑆𝑂4) 1
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) =
𝑛 (𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻) 2

TITRATION
 TITRATION
Finding the Stoichiometry of a Reaction

Consider the following case!

25.0 cm3 of 0.105 mol dm-3 sodium carbonate were
neutralized by 24.50 cm3 of 0.213 mol dm-3 hydrochloric
acid, using methyl orange as an indicator. Construct an
equation for the reaction of sodium carbonate with
hydrochloric acid under these conditions!
 TITRATION
Finding the Stoichiometry of a Reaction

Consider the following case!

V(HCl) = 24.50 cm3
ANSWER:
25.0
𝑛 𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3 = 0.105 × = 2.625 × 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙
initial 1000
reading 24.50
𝑛 𝐻𝐶𝑙 = 0.213 × = 5.2185 × 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙
burette 1000
𝑛 (𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3) 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3
=
HCl(aq) final 𝑛 (𝐻𝐶𝑙) 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝐻𝐶𝑙
reading
2.625 × 10−3 1
=
Indicator 5.2185 × 10−3 1.988
25.0 cm3 has
changed Therefore, 1 mol of Na2CO3 reacts with 2 mol of HCl
of Na2CO3 the color
1Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
→ 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
 TITRATION
Back Titrations

Predict the titration curve of the following reaction!

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
WB SA

 CaCO3 is insoluble in water

 CaCO3 reacts very slowly with acid
 No sharp end-point

1. Known acid is calculated to be an

excess of that required to react with
all CaCO3
2. After the reaction has finished, the
amount of acid left over can be
found by titration against a soluble
base.
 TITRATION
Back Titrations

Predict the titration curve of the following reaction!

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
WB SA
initial
CO2(g) liberated reading
burette
Excess HCl(aq)
Impure 0.05 mol dm-3
1.00 mol dm-3
CaCO3 NaOH(aq)
constant mass 250 cm3 CaCl2 25.0 cm3
H2O of solution
no more bubbles produced
left over
HCl

ACID USED = ACID AT START – ACID LEFT AT END

 TITRATION
Back Titrations

Predict the titration curve of the following reaction!

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
WB SA

Incomplete Reaction
(formation of HCO3–)
pp 2CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + Ca(HCO3)2

Complete Reaction
(formation of CO2)
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2CO3
mo
 TITRATION
Back Titrations

0.765 g of an impure sample of calcium carbonate was

dissolved in 25.0 cm3 of 1.00 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid.
The resulting solution was made up to 250 cm3 in a
calibrated flask. 25.0 cm3 of this solution were neutralized
by 24.35 cm3 of 0.050 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide. What is
the purity of the calcium carbonate?
 TITRATION
Back Titrations

ANSWER:
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The amount of acid at the start:
25.0
𝑛 𝐻𝐶𝑙 = 1.00 × = 2.50 × 10−2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1000
The amount of acid left at the end:
24.35
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 0.050 × = 1.2175 × 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1000
250
𝑛 𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 250 𝑐𝑚3 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑘 = 1.2175 × 10−3 × = 1.2175 × 10−2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
25
The amount of acid used up in the reaction with calcium carbonate:
𝑛 𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 = 2.50 × 10−2 − (1.2175 × 10−2 )
= 1.2825 × 10−2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
 TITRATION
Back Titrations

ANSWER:
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
1
𝑛 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 = × 1.2825 × 10−2 = 6.413 × 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙
2
Since Mm (CaCO3) = 40.1 + 12.0 + 48.0 = 100.1 g mol-1, thus
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 = 6.413 × 10−3 × 100.1 = 0.6419 𝑔
0.6419
% 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 = × 100% = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟗%
0.765
 TITRATION
Back Titrations

3.920 g of an oxide of formula MO were completely

dissolved in 30.0 cm3 of 2.00 mol dm-3 sulfuric acid. The
resulting solution was made up to 100 cm3. 25.0 cm3 of this
solution were neutralized by 27.50 cm3 of 0.100 mol dm-3
sodium hydroxide. What is the relative atomic mass of M?
Identify the metal!
 TITRATION
Back Titrations

ANSWER:
The amount of acid at the start:
30.0
𝑛 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 = 2.00 × = 6.00 × 10−2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1000
The amount of acid left at the end:
27.50
 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 0.100 × 1000 = 2.75 × 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙
 As the H2SO4 is in excess, the equation for the reaction is:
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
1 100
 𝑛 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 100 𝑐𝑚3 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑘 = 2 × 2.75 × 10−3 × 25

= 5.50 × 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙

The amount of acid used up in the reaction with MO:
𝑛 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑀𝑂 = 6.00 × 10−2 − (5.50 × 10−3 )
= 5.45 × 10−2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
 TITRATION
Back Titrations

ANSWER:
The oxide MO reacts with H2SO4 as follows:
MO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
We know that 5.45 × 10–2 mol of H2SO4 reacted with the oxide.
Since 1 mol of acid reacts with 1 mol of oxide, the amount of oxide used is 5.45 × 10–2
mol, which has a mass of 3.920 g.
𝑊 3.920
𝑀𝑚 = = −2
= 71.9 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
𝑛 5.45 × 10
Since Mm (MO) = Ar(M) + Ar(O) = 72 (to the nearest whole number)
Ar(M) = 72 – 16 = 56
The metal is: iron