Pet. Eng. Dept.-College of Engineering Introduction, 1st Lecture Usama Alameedy, Ph.D.
Gas and Vapor
A gas is the simplest form of matter. In the kinetic theory of matter, a gas is
simply a group of freely moving small spheres whose only interaction with each
other and other matter is via elastic collisions. It is in effect matter having
neither constant shape nor volume, and substantially invisible and intangible.
A gas above the critical point in a process in which it cannot condense. A vapor is
a gas below its critical point in a process in which the phase change about
primary case, it can be condensed.
Some Important Petroleum Gases
There are several important Hydrocarbon gases in petroleum field such as:
Natural Gas (N.G)
The largest natural gas reserves are located in the former USSR, Iran and Qatar.
There are also large reserves in the North Sea. Natural gas stands for
approximately 21% of the world’s energy consumption.
Gas production has been increasing at the rate of about 3% per year. About one-
third of this gas is obtained from oil wells and two-thirds from gas wells.
More Than two-fifths of the gas obtained from oil wells is returned to the ground
to maintain the pressure in the oil pools and thus increase the ultimate
oil recovery.
Crude oil emerging from the well is accompanied by a large volume of natural
gas, about 300 - 600 cu ft (8.5m3) of gas per barrel of oil on the average. The
quantity of natural gas produced per barrel of oil decreases with the age of the
oil field.
GP = OP * GOR
GP : Raw Gas Production (SCFD).
OP : Oil Production (BOPD) or (Barrel/Day).
GOR : Gas Oil Ratio (SCF/Barrel).
Except for being used as fuel, natural gas is the most common feedstock for
hydrogen production or syngas production.
1 lbb of Petroleum = 158.98723 liter = 42 Gallon
1 lbb of Petroleum = 163.908 m3 of Natural Gas
1 lbb of petroleum = 600 ft3 of accompanied natural gas
Million Stander Cubic Foot (MMSCF) = مق مق106 ft3
1 Ton of LPG= 16 lbb petroleum = 500m3 N.G
Price of Natural Gas(Cent/m3)=Price of Petroleum(Cent/lbb)/163.908(m3/
lbb)
Gas Technology, 4th Year |Page1
Usama Alameedy, PhD
Pet. Eng. Dept.-College of Engineering Introduction, 1st Lecture Usama Alameedy, Ph.D.
Hydrogen Gas
Hydrogen is an important raw material for the chemical and refining industries,
and it may play a future role in the energy sector. The annual growth is expected
to be above 4%. Most of this growth is for refineries for their production of
ultra-low sulfur diesel and gasoline.
The present use of manufactured hydrogen is primarily for the production of
ammonia and methanol, then for hydrotreatment in refineries. Other present
uses of hydrogen are related to the food industry, the semi-conductor industry
and the metallurgical industry (for instance the direct reduction of iron ore).
Hydrogen Production Technology
Hydrogen is not available as conventional fossil fuels like natural gas, oil and
coal so it must be produced either from renewable energy driven electrolysis or
from fuel processing of hydrocarbons.
The principal process for converting hydrocarbons into hydrogen is steam
reforming. steam methane reforming reaction takes place accompanied by other
chemical reactions. The general overall reaction for the steam reforming
of hydrocarbons can be formulated as:
CnH(2n+2)+nH2O↔nCO+(2n+1)H2 (Steam Reforming)
or more specifically for methane, usually the major constituent of natural gas
as:
CH4+H2O↔CO+3H2 (Steam Methane Reforming)
Fuel Gases (Methane, Propane and Butane)
Methane is familiar as domestic piped gas in the more urban parts of the world.
Propane is most familiar in liquid form in low-pressure cylinders for domestic
use.
Propane, isobutane and butane are used in propellant mixtures, mixed with
liquid formulations such as hair spray or paint, in aerosol cans and as the fuel for
small domestic burners such as cigarette lighters.
The fuel gases are nearly always simply burned in air as a source of heat and are,
as a result, largely interchangeable with each other, with other fuels, from
petroleum to coal, and sometimes interchangeable with electrical or other heat
sources. Because of this interchangeability, and because they are often used in
domestic applications, these gases are not ‘industrial gases’ in the same sense as
the gases such as nitrogen, oxygen or acetylene.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
This is a mixture of propane and butane, two hydrocarbons which are gaseous
Gas Technology, 4th Year |Page2
Usama Alameedy, PhD
Pet. Eng. Dept.-College of Engineering Introduction, 1st Lecture Usama Alameedy, Ph.D.
at atmospheric pressure but liquid if higher pressure is applied. They are
obtained from natural gas at natural gasoline plants and also from refinery
gases. A large volume of the gas can be compressed into a small volume of liquid,
simplifying handling problems.
Liquefied petroleum gas, or "bottled gas" as it is sometimes known, is an
important domestic fuel in rural communities and even in small communities
which have a central distributing system, where the LPG is supplied consumers
through the gas lines. LPG is also widely used as an intermediate
material in petrochemical manufacturing, and it is also being used to a
growing extent as motor fuel in trucks and buses.
The presence of ethane is avoided because this light hydrocarbon does not
liquefy under pressure at atmospheric temperatures. If the LPG contains
pentane, a liquid hydrocarbon heavier than butane, this component may
separate in a liquid state in the gas lines. This shows the importance of careful
fractionation of the propane-butane mixture to remove undesirable
hydrocarbons.
Natural gas and natural gasoline contain no unsaturated hydrocarbons, but
these may be present in refinery gas streams. The unsaturated hydrocarbons
have a tendency to polymerize and form gummy deposits, making their presence
undesirable in liquefied petroleum gas.
Care is taken by manufacturers to keep the propane and butane free of hydrogen
sulfide, which is corrosive and on burning produces sulfur dioxide, a
gas having a pungent odor. However, a minute quantity of ethyl mercaptan, a
sulfur compound having an exceptionally strong and disagreeable odor, is added
to the odorless propane and butane to warn the customer of gas leaks.
Natural Gas Liquids (NGLS)
Petroleum products as they are termed may also be supplied in whole or in part
from natural gas. The liquids extracted from gas constitute an important
supplement to our petroleum resources.
Though natural gas is predominantly methane, it contains other saturated
hydrocarbons and gasoline vapors. The heavier hydrocarbons are recovered and
sold as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gasoline, solvents, and raw
materials for the manufacture of plastics and chemicals, among other uses.
Gas Technology, 4th Year |Page3
Usama Alameedy, PhD
Pet. Eng. Dept.-College of Engineering Introduction, 1st Lecture Usama Alameedy, Ph.D.
Origin & Composition
Natural gas (NG) is a fossil fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking,
and electricity generation. Fossil fuel based natural gas is a non-renewable
resource. NG is also used as a fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the
manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals.
For example, natural gas is used:
As a raw material in petrochemical manufacturing. Ethylene, an important
petrochemical.
To produce hydrogen, sulfur, carbon black, and ammonia. The ammonia is
used in a range of fertilizers and as a secondary feedstock for
manufacturing other chemicals, including nitric acid and urea
Methane (CH4)— considers the primary component of natural gas. In addition
to methane, raw natural gas may also contain other hydrocarbons (see Fig. 1), as
well as water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and even
helium as impurities.
Typical hydrocarbon composition of raw natural gas
Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, most, but not all, must be processed to
remove impurities, including water, to meet the specifications of marketable
natural gas. The by-products of this processing include: ethane, propane,
butanes, pentanes, and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide
(which may be converted into pure sulfur), carbon dioxide, water vapor, and
sometimes helium and nitrogen (See Figure 1).
Figure 1
Where is natural gas usually found?
Natural gas exists in nature under pressure in rock reservoirs in the Earth’s
crust, either in conjunction with and dissolved in heavier hydrocarbons and
water or by itself.
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Usama Alameedy, PhD
Pet. Eng. Dept.-College of Engineering Introduction, 1st Lecture Usama Alameedy, Ph.D.
It is produced from the reservoir similarly to or in conjunction with crude oil
accumulated in the past millions of years.
Natural gas is found also associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal
beds which is another source of natural gas.
Natural gas has been formed by the degradation of organic matter
buried in layers of sedimentary rocks created over eons (Fig. 2). The
organic matter changes to oil and gas under the influence of
temperature and pressure, and a portion of the hydrocarbons migrate
through the rock to eventually collect in geologic structures called
traps.
Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms: biogenic and
thermogenic. Biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in
marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the earth, at
greater temperature and pressure, thermogenic gas is created from buried
organic material.
Natural gas also may contain heavier hydrocarbons in the gaseous
state, such as pentane, hexane, and heptane. At surface conditions,
these will condense out of the gas to form natural gas condensate.
Condensate resembles gasoline in appearance and is similar in
composition
to some volatile light crude oils.
Figure 2
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Usama Alameedy, PhD
Pet. Eng. Dept.-College of Engineering Introduction, 1st Lecture Usama Alameedy, Ph.D.
Conventional and Unconventional Natural Gases
There are several types of geological formations that trap naturally occurring
gas. They are categorized as either “conventional” or “unconventional” gas
reserves.
Conventional Natural Gas
Conventional gas is trapped in naturally porous reservoir formations that are
capped with impermeable rock strata. When intercepted by a well, gas is able to
move to the surface without the need to pump. Conventional natural gas
generally occurs in deep reservoirs and produced as associated gas and non-
associated gas.
Associated Gas: Is conventional gas that is produced during the
extraction of crude oil. This gas is separated at the casing head or
wellhead. Gas produced in this fashion is also referred to as
casinghead gas, oil well gas, or dissolved gas.
Nonassociated Gas: Nonassociated gas is sometimes referred to as
gas-well gas or dry gas in reservoirs that contain little or no crude oil.
Unconventional Natural Gas
Is gas that cannot be economically produced unless one or more technologies
are used to stimulate the gas-bearing formation and to expose more of the
formation to the wellbore. An unconventional gas reservoir can be deep or
shallow, of high or low pressure and temperature, and can contain single or
multiple layers.
Unconventional gas is formed in more complex geological formations which
limit the ability of gas to migrate and therefore different methods are required
to extract the gas.
Today, there are six main categories of unconventional natural gas:
• Deep gas
• Tight gas
• Shale gas
• Coal-bed methane
• Gas in geopressurized zones
• Methane hydrate
Deep gas:
Deep gas is typically found 15,000 feet or deeper underground, considerably
deeper than conventional gas. Therefore, deep gas is relatively expensive to find
and produce.
Tight gas:
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Usama Alameedy, PhD
Pet. Eng. Dept.-College of Engineering Introduction, 1st Lecture Usama Alameedy, Ph.D.
Tight gas is trapped in unusually impermeable hard rock or in sandstone or
limestone that is highly nonporous (tight sand). Extraction of gas from tight
formations typically requires expensive techniques such as fracturing and
acidizing.
Figure 3
Shale gas
It is natural gas exist in deposits of shale, a fine-grained and soft sedimentary
rock that breaks easily into thin, parallel layers. Gas is typically found in sections
where two thick, black shale deposits “sandwich” a thinner area of shale. This
gas can be held in naturally occurring fractures or in pore spaces, or it can be
adsorbed onto the surface of the organic components of the shale.
Ordinarily, shales are not permeable enough to let significant amounts of gas or
other fluids flow to a wellbore; for this reason, most shales are not commercially
viable sources of natural gas.
Coal-bed methane
Historically, methane was a nuisance and a safety hazard in the coal-mining
industry.
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Usama Alameedy, PhD
Pet. Eng. Dept.-College of Engineering Introduction, 1st Lecture Usama Alameedy, Ph.D.
Coal-bed methane is a popular form of unconventional natural gas source where
the methane held within the coal leaks out into the coal mine as a coal mine is
being built and coal extracted.
This coal-bed methane is trapped underground, and poses a safety threat
because too high a concentration of methane creates dangerous conditions for
coal miners. Thus, in the past, accumulating methane was intentionally vented to
the atmosphere. Today, with many projects put in place around the world to
extract and market it. In April 2011, the Potential Gas Committee (PGC)
estimated that about 158.6 trillion cubic feet (tcf) of technically recoverable
(probable, possible, and speculative) coal-bed methane existed in the United
States at the end of 2010.
Geopressurized Gas:
It is a source of unconventional natural gas which presents in the
geopressurized zones or natural geologic (underground) formations in which
the pressure is higher than would be expected for a given depth.
These zones are formed by layers of clay that are deposited and compacted very
quickly on top of more porous, absorbent material such as sand or silt. Water
and natural gas that are present in this clay are squeezed out by the rapid
compression of the clay, and enter the more porous sand or silt deposits. The
natural gas, due to the compression of the clay, is deposited in this sand or silt
under very high pressure. In addition to having these properties, geopressurized
zones are typically located at great depths, usually 10,000-25,000 feet below the
surface of the earth. The combination of all these factors makes the extraction of
natural gas in geopressurized zones quite complicated. However, of all of the
unconventional sources of natural gas, geopressurized zones are estimated to
hold the greatest amount of gas.
Methane hydrate
Another unconventional gas resource under evaluation for potential production
in the longer term is methane hydrate. Hydrate is typically a cold, slush like,
crystalline structure consisting of methane molecules trapped in a lattice of
water molecules.
Such hydrates are abundant in the Arctic (where they were first discovered) and
in marine sediments, below the seabed.
Estimates of the worldwide methane hydrate resource vary from 7,000 to more
than 73,000 tcf; however, these numbers are far from certain.
In summary, unconventional natural gas constitutes a large proportion of the
natural gas that is left to be extracted in North America and is playing an ever-
increasing role in supplementing the U.S. natural gas supply.
Gas Technology, 4th Year |Page8
Usama Alameedy, PhD
Pet. Eng. Dept.-College of Engineering Introduction, 1st Lecture Usama Alameedy, Ph.D.
A study conducted by ICF International concluded that, in 2007, about 42% of
total U.S. natural gas production was from unconventional sources, and this
figure is expected to rise to 64% in 2020.
Figure 2: Geology of natural gas resources
GLOSSARY
Raw gas (natural gas) is the untreated gas obtained from reservoirs either as
free gas or gas associated with crude oil. It generally contains large amounts of
methane (CH4) along with decreasing amounts of other hydrocarbons.
Impurities such as H2S, N2, and CO2 are often found with the gas. It also
generally comes saturated with water vapor.
Pipeline Gas: It is the gas which has the quality to be used as a domestic or
industrial fuel. It meets the specifications set by a pipeline transmission
company, and/or distributing company. It is also known as sales gas.
Sour Gas: Gas that contains more than 1 grain of H2S/100 SCF. Grain, unit of
weight equal to 0.065 gram. SCF (Standard Cubic Foot)
Sweet Gas: Gas in which the H2S content is less than 1 grain /100 SCF
Gas Technology, 4th Year |Page9
Usama Alameedy, PhD
Pet. Eng. Dept.-College of Engineering Introduction, 1st Lecture Usama Alameedy, Ph.D.
Condensates: The hydrocarbon liquid fraction obtained from a gas stream
containing essentially pentanes.
Wet Gas: Gas that contains more than 0.1 US gallons of condensates per 1000 CF
of gas.
Dry Gas: Gas that contains less than 0.1 US gallons of condensates per 1000 CF
of gas.
Rich Gas: Gas containing more than 5 to 7 US gallons of compounds heavier than
ethane (C3+) per 1000 CF of the gas.
Lean Gas: Gas containing 1 US gallons or less of compounds heavier than ethane
(C3+) per 1000 CF of the gas.
Pentanes+: The pentane and heavier fraction of hydrocarbon liquid.
LNG: Liquefied natural gas, or methane which has been converted to liquid
phase by cooling it to -163°C. LNG is shipped in special carriers.
LPG: Liquefied petroleum gases consist of propane and butanes which have
been converted to liquid phase through a pressure of roughly seven-eight bar or
through some cooling.
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