14 ‘CYLINDER ‘CONE Hollow cylinder A=2nrh ‘Open cone Az=ars Hania: (no ends) (no base) > Ey: / or Sollow W Open eylinder | A= 2xrh + xr? hollow (one end) Solid cone | A = mrs + mr? Ss i (solid) h + 7 solid Solid cylinder | A = 2nrh + 2mr? solid (two ends) . fi eal wr ord —_ZJ A= 4nr? VOLUME FORMULAE Solids of —— uniform — | height V =area of end x length cross-section end ea = height = height /A height atc V = }(area of base x height) ise iseThe binomial theorem Contents: A Factorial notation B Binomial expansions © The binomial theorem16 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM (Chapter 1) OPENING PROBLEM The cube alongside has sides of length (a +6) em. Its volume is (a +)® om’, bom The cube has been subdivided into smaller blocks by ‘making 3 cuts parallel to the cube’s surfaces as shown. Things to think about: acm a How many blocks have been created? How many blocks are: ANIMATION @em i abyabya oom bem bem H abyabyb iil aby bbyd iv bby bby b? € By adding the volumes of the blocks, can you write an expression which is equivalent to (a+ b)3? ‘The sum @ +b is called a binomial as it contains two terms. Any expression of the form (a + 6)" is called a power of a binomial. In this Chapter we derive a concise formula for the binomial expansion of (a +)". However, before we can achieve this, we need some notation associated with combi CNN Factonsat norarion For n> 1, nl is the product of the first n positive integers. nl =n(n—1)(n—2)...3X 2X1 nl is read “n factorial For example, 5x 4x 3x 2x1=5! An alternative definition of factorial numbers is that nn! =n x (n—1)! for n>1 For example, 6! =6 x 5! Under this rule we notice that 1! = 1 x 0! We therefore define OL=1 DISCUSSION © Is the definition 0! =1 “arbitrary”? ¢ Is it logical to extend the definition of factorials to include O!, even though it is not meaningful in the context of the original definition “product of the first n positive integers”? Can you think. of other areas of mathematics in which a definition is similarly expanded?THE BINOMIAL THEOREM (Chapter 1)__17 cl aca Ca Express in factorial form: 10x98 sedated ° pea a On 7a DEERTROXDXAKI INI Gx5x4xax2QKI a WX10x9X8 _ 11x10 9X8xTXOXSX4x3xK2x1_ 1 4x3xK2x1 Ax3x2x1x7x6 a7! EXERCISE 1A 1 Evaluate: a2 b 3! e 4! d 5! e 6! f 10! 2 Express in factorial form: a4x3x2x1 b&b Tx6x5x4x3x2x1 © 6x5 d 8x7x6 e@ 10x9x8x7 f 15x 14x 13x 12 g 2x8x7 hp Bae 10 | xn ax 12901 Band “Txaxaxt ~Sxaxdxaxt 3. Simplify without using a calculator: 1 w 12! 120! tot 100! a ° <0 ¢ tot © aa Be 4 Simplify: nt b (n+2)! e (n+)! (n=)! nt (a=)! Es BiNomiat expansions We have often used the perfect square expansion: (a +b)? = a? + 2ab+0?. We can use this rule to expand (a+ b)® as follows: (a+b)® = (a+b)(a +b)? (a+ b)(a? +2ab +0?) {perfect square expansion} a® + 2a°b + ab? + ab + 2ab? +08 =a) +3a°b + 3ab? +63 {collecting like terms} ‘The binomial expansion of (a+)? is a? +2ab+ 0? ‘The binomial expansion of (a + b)° is a® + 3a7b + 3ab? + B°. In the following Investigation we will discover a method to expand (a+ 6)" for higher integer values, of n.18 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM (Chapter 1) INVESTIGATION 1 What to do: 1 Expand (a+)! using (a+6)* = (a+0)(a +6)’, 2 Hence expand (a +6) using (a+)(a+b)*. 3. The cubic expansion (a +8)* = a* +307) + 3ab? +4 contains 4 terms, They are written in order so that the powers of a decrease. We observe that their coefficients are: 1 3 3 1 a With the terms written in this order, what happens to the powers of 6? b Does the pattern in a continue for the expansions of (a+b) and (a +0)°? € Use your results to continue this n=1 ee pattern of coefficients up to the n=2 Flea case n= 5. n=3 1 3 3 1+—row3 4 The triangle of numbers we are considering is called Pascal’s triangle. a How can each row of Pascal’s triangle be predicted from the previous one? b Predict the elements of the 6th row of Pascal’s triangle. € Hence write down the binomial expansion of (a+ 6)°. Check your result algebraically by using (a + b)° = (a+ 6)(a +6) and your results from 2. You should have observed that in Pascal's 11 row 1 triangle, the values on the end of each row are eee 9 row 2 always 1. Bach of the remaining values is found by adding the two values diagonally above it 13 301 row 3 row 4 LA ® A a NANA NANG 1 5 i i 8 1 rows ‘You should have also found that (a+ b)* = a‘ + 4a*b + 676? + dab + 64 = ab? + dab! + 6076? + 4alb5 + abt Notice in this expansion that As we look from left to right across the expansion, the powers of « decrease by 1, while the powers of b increase by 1. # The sum of the powers of a and b in each term of the expansion is 4. © The number of terms in the expansion is 4+ 1=5. © The coetficients of the terms are row 4 of Pascal’s triangle. For the expansion of (a+6)" where n €N: ‘* As we look from left to right across the expansion, the powers of a decrease by 1, while the powers of b increase by 1. © The sum of the powers of « and b in each term of the expansion is n. © The number of terms in the expansion is n+ 1. The coefficients of the terms are row n of Pascal’s triangle.In the following Examples we see how the general binomial expansion (a+})" may be put to use. Gro DRA os Use (a+b)3 = a* +30 + 3ab? + 6% to find the binomial expansion of: (2z + 3)8 (7 -5)5 In the expansion of (a +b)® we substitute a = (2) and b = (3). Brackets are essential! (2x + 3)3 = (2x)? + 3(2x)?(3) + 3(2x)"(3)? + (3) = 8x° + 362? + 54 +27 We substitute a=(z) and b=(—5) (=) (x —5)° = (2)? + 3(@)?(-5) + 3(@)(-5)? + (-5)* 7 2° — 15x? + 75a — 125 ee) CRTs Find the: 5th row of Pascal’s triangle binomial expansion of (« i the 1st row, for (a+)! oo 1331 14641 1 5 10 10 5 1+— the 5th row, for (a+)® Using the coefficients obtained in a, (a + b)® = a° +5a‘b + 10056? + 10a2b* + 5ab4 + 6% Letting a=(x) and b= (=). (-2) = (0) + 5)'(2) + 10@)"(2)° is 202)*(2)" + 5@)(2)' + (2) =2° — 102° 4400-2 432 Zz EXERCISE 1B Use the binomial expansion of (a+ 6)® to expand and simplify (p+a)* @+1* (2+2)8 (3x —1)3 8 — py a (2a ~ by (32 +) (ve—1)* (a? +2)"20 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM (Chapter 1) 2 Use (a + b)* =a* + 4a*b + Gab? + dab* + b* to expand and simplify: a (1+2) & (p-a) © (x-2)4 d (3-2) e@ (14+22)4 f (2r-3) 4 4 3 (2r+)! h (c++) i (20-2) 3a Expand and simplify: i (a-0)* i (a-8)* Compare the expansions in a with those of (a-+)* and (a+b)*. Discuss the signs of the corresponding terms. 4 a Write down the 5th row of Pascal’s triangle. b Hence copy and complete: (a+8)® = sa. ¢ Find the binomial expansion of i (w+2)° i (1—a)> iil (1422) 5 iv (w—2y)® v (a? +1) vi (2 — 3) 5 a Write down the 6th row of Pascal's triangle. b Hence copy and complete: (a+5)® = wn. ¢ Find the binomial expansion of: i i (@w+2° fi (2x1) iii (2 + 3) 6 Expand and simplify: a (1+ v2)" b (v5+2)' © (2-v3)° 7 a Expand (242). b Hence find the value of (2.01)°. 8 Expand and simplify: a (2r+3)(r+1)! b (e-1)(2r +1) 9 Find the coefficient of: 2 ab? in the expansion of (3a+0)° a6 in the expansion of (2a +.36)°. ACTIVITY Suppose “shallow diagonals” are drawn on Pascal’s triangle as shown below: ‘What to do: 1 Find the sum of the numbers in each diagonal. 2 Do you recognise the sequence of numbers formed by your answers to 1? Can you explain why this occurs?THE BINOMIAL THEOREM (Chapter 1) 21 For higher powers of a binomial, generating rows of Pascal’s triangle by hand is very tedious. To efficiently expand (a +8)", we need a general formula for each term of the expansion. INVESTIGATION 2 PART 1: COUNTING The mathematical principle of counting is not formally a part of this course. However, it is necessary to understand how the binomial expansion (a +b)" is developed. Suppose there are 10 members in a debating club. 4 members are to be randomly chosen to represent the club in a competition. What to do: 1 Suppose the members ofthe club are listed. There are 10 options for who ea nique be listed first, and 9 options for who can be listed second. ‘Amélie a How many options are there for who can be listed: Francesca i third fi fourth iii fifth? Kristian Betina © Explain why the total number of orders in which the members can be listed is 10 x 9x 8x... x3x2x1=10! 2 Now suppose the top four members on the list are the ones chosen to represent the club. a Explain why the total number of ways in which the first four members can be listed is 10x 9x BX 7. & Write 10% 9% 8x7 inthe form 3, Hl € In how many ways could the 6 people nor in the team be ordered? Complete the sentence: Since the order of the 6 people left out of the team is not important, wwe divided the total number of orders in which the members can be listed by ..... 3 State the number of ways in which the 4 members who are in the team can be ordered. 4 Hence explain why the total number of ways in which the team of 4 can be chosen from 10 members is Ixal 5 Now suppose there are n members in the club and r members are chosen for the team. In how many ways could the team be chosen? PART 2: THE BINOMIAL COEFFICIENT Consider the expansion of (a +)" = (a +b)(a+6)(a+b)...(a +6). What to do: 1 Suppose you expanded the brackets completely without simplifying “like” terms. How many terms would there be?22__THE BINOMIAL THEOREM (Chapter 1) 2 Each of these terms is generated by selecting one term, either a or b, from each of the n sets of, brackets. @ If you choose b r times, how many times do you choose a? In how many ways can you choose r lots of b from the n sets of brackets? ‘€ When you collect the “like” terms, how many terms of the form a”-"b" will there be? This value is called the binomial coefficient. From the Investigation, you should have found that: ‘© If there are n distinct objects and we choose r of them at a time, the total number of possible combinations is We abbreviate this formula as "C, or ("). © The value (") = =o is called the binomial coefficient because ("") is the coefficient of a”-"b" in the expansion of koro (a+0). CE} For a given value of n, we can calculate (") for r= 0,1, 2, 7 We can evaluate (") using the formula = Fie aay oF OU graphies calculator P ceapnics For example, ineraverTons 5) _ BE _ Sx dxax2xt . — = = 10. SAID () = ag = Ptaxaod To find all the values of (") fora particular == aE value of m, you can use a list on your “a : calculator, 7 3 crannies For example, for n =4 we see (11) a 6 INSTRUCTIONS nn n ” ” 1, (1) =4 (2) =6 (5) =4, and (7) INVESTIGATION 3 What to do: 1. Evaluate this triangle of numbers: Ee aa @) © the binomial coefficients ® @ ¢ for cach whole row. ) () @ @ @ @) @ 6) @) 2 Copy and complete: The rth number in the nth row of Pascal s triangle is...From the Investigation, you should have observed that the rth number of the nth row of Pascal’s triangle is (") where n,r€N, r a Write down the first 5 rows of Pascal’s triangle. b Find the sum of the numbers in: i rowl li row 2 iii row3 iv row4 wv row 5, © Copy and complete: “The sum of the numbers in row n of Pascal’s triangle is...” Show that (1+ 2)" = (2) +() at (B)a? + ant (qty) att + (2a, © Hence deduce that E(G)+G)+G)+- H (S)-G)FG)-G) +--+ an) =e By considering the binomial expansion of (1-+:2)", find J°.2"(") = +O)4 0) =2 na 14 a Write down the first four and last two terms of the binomial expansion (3 +2)" & Hence simplify 3" + (7)3"-1+ (5) 3" 2+ (q) 3" 94... 4 3n+ 1,26 _THE BINOMIAL THEOREM (Chapter 1) DST @) G @) @) @ @) (@) @) @ @ G @~ &) These altemative representations of Pascal's triangle allow us to deduce some properties of the binomial coefficient (”). 1 6 M 8 i (3) For example: ‘© The values of the coefficients at the end of each row are 1, suggesting that (") = 1 and (2) =1 forall neN. ‘The remaining values in each row are found by adding the two values diagonally above it, giving us Pascal’s Rule (") +(,",) = (7f1). © The symmetry of Pascal’s triangle suggests that (( ")=(,,) forall rneN, ren Can you explain, in the context of combinations, why these properties are true? HISTORICAL NOTE ‘The binomial theorem is one of the most important results in mathematics. ‘The process of multiplying out binomial terms dates back to the beginning of algebra. Mathematicians had noticed relationships between the coefficients for many centuries, and Pascal’s triangle ‘was certainly widely used long before Pascal. Sir Isaac Newton discovered the binomial theorem in 1665, but he did not publish his results until much later. Newton was the first person to give a formula for the binomial coefficients. He did this because he wanted to go further, Newton's ground-breaking result included a ‘generalisation of the binomial theorem to the case of (a-+6)” where ‘nis a rational number, such as 3. In doing this, Newton was the first person to confidently use the exponential notation that we recognise Sama today for both negative and fractional powers. 7a 1 Express in factorial form: a 8x 7X6xX5xKAx3xK2x1 b 10x9x8 2 Simplify: 2! p wtment 2 a‘THE BINOMIAL THEOREM (Chapter 1) 27 10 " Use the binomial expansion to expand and simplify: a (e+3) b& (r—25 Without simplifying, write down: a the Sth term of (2x +3)° & the 8th term of (32 Expand and simplify: a (5+v3)° Use the expansion of (4+:x)* to find the exact value of (4.02). +3)(r—1)! Use Paseal’s triangle to expand (a+b)°. 6 Hence find the binomial expansion of: a (x —3)° b (2 + +) 2 2) Find the coefficient of x° in the expansion of (2r + 3)(a —2)°. Find the coefficient of ~® in the expansion of (22 Find ¢ given that the expansion (1+ er) (1+:r)* includes the term 222° @ Write down the first four and last two terms of the binomial expansion (2 +2)” © Hence simplify 2" + (7) 2"-7 + (3) 2"? + (g)2"-S +... + 2n+1. 2 Find the possible values of a if the coefficient of «* in (2« + =z) is 288. Baa aiaseeee at a Simplify: a 3 + Express in factorial form: a 7x6x5x4 p Lawns x2xT Use the binomial expansion to find: a (x—2y)" b (3r+2)! Find the coefficient of «® in the expansion of (22+ 5)°. Find the eonstant term in the expansion of (2? — ae Expand and simplify: a 2-v9° & (+3)(2r +1) Write down the first three and last two terms of the following binomial expansions. Do not simplify your answers. 4 a (2-7) b (s+4)°