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124 views26 pagesChapter 03 Work Flow and Batch Processing
Uploaded by
Hamza ShahzadCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
Chapter 3
Work Flow and Batch
Processing
3.1 Sequential Operations and Work Flow
3.1.1 Work Flow Patterns
3.1.2 Bottlenecks in Sequential Operations
3.2 Batch Processing
3.2.1 The Pros and Cons of Batch Processing
3.2.2 Economic Order Quantity Model
3.3 Defects in Sequential Operations and Batch Processing
3.4 Work Cells and Worker Teams
3.4.1 Work Cell Layouts and Material Handling
3.4.2 Determining the Operation Sequence in a Work Cell
3.4.3 Worker Teams
Chapter2 focused on unit operations—single tasks or operations performed at one location
and independently of other operations. However, production of a product or delivery of
a service usually requires more than one unit operation. Multiple operations are typically
needed. They are performed sequentially, usually by multiple workers at multiple work-
stations. Often, the workstations are located separately, which means that the work units
must be moved from one operation to the next in the sequence. In many cases, the most
practical way to accomplish the processing is to perform each unit operation on batches
of work units. Thus we have the following topics to discuss in this chapter:
‘© Sequential operations, which refers to the series of separate processing steps that
are performed on each work unit
* Work flow, which is concerned with the physical movement or transportation of
work units through the sequence of unit operations (the unit operations might be
thought of a: interruptions in the work flow)
* Batch processing, which consists of the processing of work units in finite quanti-
ties or amounts, called batches.
59 60 Work Flow and Batch Processing Chapter 3
The first section of the chapter discusses sequential operations and work flow,
While the second section covers batch processing and the economic order quantity mode},
We then examine the issue of defects in sequential operations and batch processing. The
final section in this chapter is concerned with work cells,a possible alternative to batch
processing, and worker teams who staff the cell. This chapter is important be : ause sequen-
tial operations, work flow, batch processing, work cells, and worker teams are so widely
used in production, logistics, and service operations. Applications can also be found in
office work and knowledge work
3.1 SEQUENTIAL OPERATIONS AND WORK FLOW
‘The term sequential operations refers to a work system in which multiple processing steps
are accomplished in order to complete a work unit, and the processing steps are per-
formed sequentially (rather than simultaneously). The work units may be materials
parts, products, or people. In sequential operations, there are usually limitations on the
order in which the operations can be performed, called precedence constraints. Some
operations must be completed before others can be started. For example, a hole must
be drilled before it can be tapped to cut the threads. The internal components of a prod-
uct must be assembled to the base part before the cover is attached. Passengers must be
checked in and then processed through security at the airport before being allowed to
board an aircraft. A surgery patient must be anesthetized before the scalpel is used.
‘There are many examples of sequential operations in production, logistics, service oper-
ations, and knowledge work.
Sequential operations usually mean that the work units are processed at different
locations. In a manufacturing plant (production work), different locations refer to the
locations of the various processing machines and workstations used in the sequence. In
a distribution center (logistics work), the various locations include the unloading dock.
receiving stations, storage racks, and loading docks through which a product is moved
inside the facility before being shipped to the retail store. In a hospital (service work),
a surgery patient is first admitted and then moved to a waiting room before arriving in
the operating room for the procedure. Because different locations are usually involved
in sequential operations, the work units must be transported between the locations. The
term work flow refers to this physical movement of work units in sequential processing
Associated with the physical flow is an information flow to monitor and control the
movements of work units.
3.1.1 Work Flow Patterns
‘The work flow through a sequence of operations can follow different paths. Two bas”
types of work flow patterns can be distinguished: (1) pure sequential and (2) mixe!
sequential. In a pure sequential pattern, all work units follow the same exact sequen
of workstations and operations. There is no variation in the processing sequence: !"*
mixed sequential pattern, there are variations in the work flow for different work uni'®
‘The different work units are processed through different stations. The two types
depicted in Figure 3.1. The diagram is called a network diagram, which is used here”
show the flow of work units through a series of operations. (Other uses of the neto™
all Section 1 Sequential Operations and Work Flow 61
Het Come Ono
(@)
(b)
Figure 3.1 Network diagrams representing (a) pure sequential work flow
and (b) mixed sequential work flow:
Bypassing
In-sequence
Bye
Backflow
igure 32 Four types of movements in a sequential
work flow: in-sequence, bypassing, back low,
and repeat operation.
diagram are identified in Section 9.2.) The nodes (circles)
arrows indicate the direction of work flow.
Several types of movements experienced by different work units can be distinguished
in a sequential work flow. As illustrated in Figure 3.2, there are four types of moves:
present operations and the
* In-sequence. A transport of the work unit from the current operation (work-
station) to the neighboring operation immediately downstream. It is a move in
the forward direction in the sequence.
* Bypassing. A move in the forward direction but beyond the neighboring work-
station by two or more stations ahead of the current station.
* Backflow. A move of the work unit in the backward direction by one or more
stations.
* Repeat operation. An operation that is repeated at the same workstation, This
might imply that several attempts are required to complete the operation, or that 62 Work Flow and Batch Processing Chapter
two (or more) operations are performed at the same station and the operation,
must be separated for some reason (e.g.,a different setup is required fo:
operations). In any case, the part does not move between stations.
the two,
In addition to the network diagram, the From-To chart is useful for displaying ang
analyzing work flows in sequential operations. Illustrated in Table 3.1,a From-To char
is a table that can be used to indicate various quantitative relationships between open
ations or workstations in a multistation work system, Possible variables (and the corre,
sponding symbols for the values) that can be displayed in a From-To chart include the
following:
* Quantities of work units (or other measures of material quantity,
©8., pallet
loads) moving between operations or workstations (Q,)
Flow rates of materials (e.g., quantities per hour) moving between operations or
workstations (Ry,)
* Distances between workstations (L,,)
* Combinations of these values (¢.2., RyjL)
The subscripts used in Q,, Ry, and L, indicate the “from” and “to” operations
involved. For example, Q, indicates quantities of work units moving from operation jt
operation j. In Table 3.1, Qj2 = 40 indicates the daily quantity of units moving from oper,
ation I to operation 2. If operations | through 5 are laid out in an in-line arrangement,
TABLE 3.1 From-To Chart Showing Daily Quantities Q, of Work Units Moving
Between Five Workstations
To operation j
[ge Ree gthie deal og
1 40 1s
2 i 0
From operatic 3 0 = 20
4 25 50
5
Figure 3.3. Network diagram of the data in the From-To chart of Table 3.1
ao Section 1 Sequential Operations and Work Flow 63
as shown in Figure 3.3, then we can make the following interpretations with respect to
our previous definitions of the four types of moves:
* Repeat operations are represented by values along the main diagonal—that is,
Qi, Q2>, Oss, Qus, and Oss. For example, Q,, = 25 is a repeat operation.
+ In-sequence moves are indicated by values immediately above the main diagonal—
that is, Q12, Qos, Oss, and Qys. For example Q,) = 40, Qos = 30, Qs, = 20, and
Qss = 50 are alll in-sequence moves.
Bypassing moves are indicated by values located above the in-sequence moves—
that is, Q13, Q14, Q1s, Qos, Qos. and Qys. For example, Q), = 15 is a bypassing move.
* Backflow moves are indicated by values below the main diagonal—that is, 22, Qs,
Qs1, Osi, O32, Qs2, Os. Qa. Osx, and Qss. For example, O32 = 10 is a backflow move.
3.1.2 Bottlenecks in Sequential Operations
In a work system consisting of a sequence of processing operations, the overall produc-
tion rate of the system is limited by the slowest operation in the sequence. That is,
Rp
Min{R,,} for i=1,2,....7 (3.1)
where R,, = overall production rate of the system, pe/hr; R,, = production rate of oper-
ation i, pc/hr; and n = the number of operations in the sequence. Because the overall
production rate is limited by the slowest operation, it is called the bortleneck operation.
Ultimately, the slowest process limits the output of the other operations in the
sequence. It may be technologically possible to run the other operations faster, at least
those that are upstream from the bottleneck, but this would only cause an accumulation of
parts in front of the bottleneck. Accumulating work-in-process inventory before the bot
tleneck station makes no sense, except on a temporary basis. In the long run, the upstream
operations must produce at a rate that is no greater than the bottleneck operation. The
upstream operations are said to be blocked. Blocking means that the production rate(s) of
one or more upstream operations are limited by the rate of a downstream operation.
‘The downstream operations can work no faster than the rate at which the bottle-
neck feeds work units to them. The operations downstream from the bottleneck are said
to be starved for work. Starving means that the production rate(s) of one or more down-
stream operations are limited by the rate of an upstream operation (e.g.,the bottleneck).
The reasons why one workstation is the slowest are usually due to (1) technolog-
ical factors, (2) work allocation decisions, and (3) ergonomic limitations. Technological
‘factors include limits on the speed of the equipment in the workstation—for example,
the upper limit on the rotational speed of the motor that drives the machine at the work-
station, Also included in this category are equipment breakdowns representing relia-
bility problems. Work allocation decisions refer to the ways in which the total work
content in the sequence is divided among the workstations. For instance, should the
drilling operation included in the sequence be performed at the milling station, or should
it be performed at a separate drilling station? Work allocation decisions are often influ-
enced by technological factors. For example, the drilling operation cannot be performed
at the milling station because that machine does not have a feed capability for drilling. 64 Work Flow and Batch Processing Chapter 3
and mental) restrictions of the human worker
e allowed to manually load and
he worker to accomplish load-
Ergonomic limitations are the physical (
at the workstation, How much time should the worker b
unload a work unit into the machine? We cannot expect r
ing and unloading at a pace so fast that it leads to physiological injury.
3.2 BATCH PROCESSING
Work units are often processed in batches. We briefl
context of setup time in Section 2.4.2. Batch processing consist:
work units—materials, products, information, or people, dependin,
processes—in finite quantities or amounts. Batch processing is common in many pro-
duction, logistics, and service operations. In low and medium quantity production, it is
common to process parts in batches. Passengers who travel by airplane are transported
in batches. Freight is moved in batch loads by truck or railway train. Teachers grade
reports and exams one at a time in batches, Personal laundry is washed as a batch ina
washing machine.
Batch processing is accomplished in either of two ways: (1) sequential batch
processing, in which the members of the batch are processed one after the other: and
(2) simultaneous batch processing. in which the members of the batch are processed all
at the same time. Both types of processing are represented in our preceding list of exam-
ples. Table 3.2 presents more examples illustrating the two categories.
y discussed batch processing in the
s of the processing of
g on the nature of the
3.2.1 The Pros and Cons of Batch Processing
Batch processing is discontinuous because there are interruptions between the batches.
The interruptions represent times when the equipment is not being productive, which
adversely affects productivity. In production, the machine tool must be changed over
for the next part style; we referred to this interruption as the setup time in Chapter 2.
In air travel, the airplane must remain at the terminal to discharge passengers, be cleaned
and refueled, and load passengers for the next flight. In book publishing, the plates on
the printing presses must be changed for the next book
When viewed as an operation sequence, delays occur between processing steps
because multiple batches are competing for the same equipment. Queues of batches
TABLE 3.2. Examples of Sequential and Simultaneous Batch Processing
Sequential Batch Processing Simultaneous Batch Processing
Production machining operations. Other Production electroplating operations. Other examples
examples include sheet metal stamping, include many chemical batch processes and
injection molding, casting, welding, and powder-metal sintering.
powder-metal pressing.
Batch assembly Passenger air travel
Book publishing Cargo transportation
Payroll checks Entertainment in movie theaters
Grading of student papers Laundry a
Section 2. Batch Processing ee
form in front of workstations, resulting in long lead-times to complete the work units
and the accumulation of large quantities or amounts of work units in the sequential pro-
cessing system. In production this accumulation of inventory is called work-in-process
(WIP). Neither long lead-times nor high work-in-process are desirable. Yet these are
typical characteristics of batch processing.
Despite the disadvantages cited above, batch production is nevertheless widely
used for the following reasons:
* Work unit differences. There are differences in work units between batches, and it
is necessary to make changes in the methods, tooling, and equipment to accom-
modate the differences.
* Equipment limitations. The size capacity of the equipment restricts the amount of
material or quantity of work units that can be processed at one time (¢.g., the
equipment capacity imposes an upper limit on the batch size).
* Material limitations. The material in the operation must be processed as a unit,
and that unit will be later divided into multiple work units (c.g. the processing of
silicon wafers into individual integrated circuit chips).
Batch processing is widely used in production operations.' It is probably the most
common form of production. In barch production. a batch of one type of part (or prod-
uct) is completed, and then the work system is changed over to produce a batch of a dif-
ferent type of part, and then another, and so on. The changeover takes time, because the
physical setup for the second product is different from the first. Tooling has to be changed,
equipment settings must be adjusted, and workers need to familiarize themselves with
the new part or product. This setup time is lost production time, which is a disadvantage
of batch production. Thus, a work system used for batch production experiences a
sequence of setups followed by production runs, as illustrated in Figure 3.4.
While the work system is producing, its production rate is greater than the demand
rate for the current product type. This has two effects. First, it means that the same work
system can be shared among multiple products, which has economic benefits in terms
of equipment investment. Second, it means that the units in a batch of items must be held
in inventory for extended periods of time, while demand gradually reduces the stock
level down to the point at which another production run will be made. This is the typi-
cal make-to-stock situation, in which items are manufactured to replenish inventory
Production
No production [Setup]
Setup Setup] Setup] Setup] l
Time
Figure 3.4 The alternating cycles of setup and production run experienced by a work system engaged in
batch production.
The discussion that follows is based on Section 26.5 in [3]. Sea
66 Work Flow and Batch Processing Chapter 3
that has been gradually depleted by demand. An important question arises in make-to-
stock situations and in batch production: How many units should be produced ina given
batch? The answer involves achieving a balance between inventory costs and setup costs,
Holding items in inventory is an expense in the form of storage costs and investment
interest. And each time the work system must be changed over, the resulting downtime
1s also an expense. From the viewpoint of items that are produced in batches and car.
tied in inventory, the sudden increase and gradual depletion causes the inventory level
over time to have the sawtooth appearance shown in Figure 3.5.
3.2.2 Economic Order Quantity Model
A total cost equation can be derived for the sum of carrying cost and setup cost for the
inventory model in Figure 3.5. The figure assumes that demand rate is constant, so that
inventory is gradually depleted over time and then quickly replenished to some maxi-
mum level determined by the order quantity. Because of the triangular shape of inven.
tory cycle, the average inventory level is one-half the maximum level Q in our figure,
and this average is multiplied by the inventory carrying cost per item. The annual setup
cost is determined as the number of setups per year multiplied by the cost per setup, The
total annual inventory cost is therefore given by
CnQ Cw Da
1
