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Week no. 14 and 15

Topic: Semantics
Discourse
Meaning

Phrasal /
Sentential
Meaning
SEMANTICS

How do we define semantics? Let us read the following Lexical

definitions. Meaning

Semantics is the study of Lyons (1977)

meaning
Semantics is the study of Hurford & The first step when we give meaning is getting
meaning in language Heasley 1983 the lexical meaning. For example, the word is,
Semantics is the study of Saeed (1997) unpredictable. You understood this word because you
meaning communicated through know the meaning of predictable and un-. In this step, we
language give meaning to a word based on its structure, or
Semantics is the part of linguistics Löbner (2002) combination of morphemes.
that is concerned with meaning
Linguistic semantics is the study Frawley (1992) What if you saw or heard the word pink basket,
of literal, decontextualized, how would that mean to you? In order for us to give
grammatical meaning meaning to this or understand this, we think of first the
Linguistic semantics is the study Kreidler (1998) individual meaning if the two words and then combine it.
of how languages organize and This is phrasal/sentential semantics.
express meanings Your younger sibling is attending her online class
and the teacher discusses the precautions that can be
used against the ongoing pandemic. The teacher then
Based on the definitions, what is the common asked if someone can use the word alcohol in a sentence.
description for semantics? Semantics is the study of You then heard a student saying, “My brother is asleep
meaning. One of the outputs of a semantic study of a today because he drank alcohol last night.” What will be
language is a dictionary. The basic unit of semantics is the your reaction? This comes pragmatics. We should give
lexeme. meaning based on the context of the communication.
For sure, the teacher is not discussing alcoholic
phonology morphology syntax semantics beverages but in fact, the rubbing alcohol that is used for
disinfection.

Lexemes and Semantic Features

phoneme morpheme word lexeme
As the basic unit of semantics, lexemes are like
phonemes in that they are also composed of features or
components that help identify them. This concept of
So semantics deals with meaning, but what breaking down a lexeme into its semantic or meaning
meaning are we thinking? How do we give meaning? components is called Componential Analysis of Meaning
(CAM). Other linguists call this semantic feature analysis.
These features are called semantic features or semantic
components. Lexemes are written with brackets to
identify them as such.

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[ bachelor] lexeme Comparing and Contrasting Lexemes

[+ human ] Lexemes have similarities and differences. In semantics,

[+ male ] Semantic these can be shown through the use of shared features
[+ adult ] features and contrastive features.
[+ never married]
Shared and Contrastive Features
Lexemes are the underlying structure of words:
Shared features are semantic components that are
walking similar among lexemes. Contrastive features are
[ WALK ] walks semantic components that differentiate a lexeme from
Surface
walked another. Contrastive features are also called diagnostic
forms
(underlying walk features.
form: lexeme)
[ bachelor ] [ maiden ]
One characteristic of a good set of semantic features is
that they are sufficient and necessary. This means that if + male - male
a concept possesses all of such semantic features then it + adult + adult
qualifies as that particular lexeme (sufficiency); and, all + human + human
such semantic features are required to qualify that + never married + never married
concept as that particular lexeme (necessity). Removing
one feature disqualifies the lexeme as such.
For the lexemes [ bachelor ] and [ maiden ], the shared
For example, whatever or whoever is human, male, components or features are +adult, +human, +never
adult, and never married is a bachelor. If ever one of married. Their diagnostic features are +male for
these features is removed, the lexeme is no longer a [ bachelor ] and –male for [ maiden ].
bachelor:

[+ human ]
[ - male ] not a bachelor RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WORDS
[+ adult ]
[+ never married] 1. Homophones

There is a special kind of semantic feature / component - Are words with

that is not central to the meaning of a lexeme. This is the same sound
called an incidental component. It lies on the periphery or pronunciation
of meaning of a lexeme. It does not immediately come but different
to mind when the lexeme bachelor is mentioned. meaning and
spelling. If you
[ bachelor] remember,
phones mean
[+ human ] sound and homo
[ - male ] means one.
[+ adult ] - Example: pale – pail two- to –too
[+ never married] Flower- flour right – write
[+ lives away from his parents]
2. Homograph
incidental component - Are words with the same spelling but different
meaning.
-
EL 100- Introduction to Linguistics,1st Semester – 2021-2022
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Example: bank – a. where we put our money are hyponyms, while flower and fruit are
b. part of a river hypernyms

bat - a. a winged animal f. Meronymy

b. used in sports to hit a ball - Pertains to words used that is part of a whole
race - a. pertaining to competition for speed - Example: using finger instead of car
b. cultural ethnicity using wheels instead of car
- Finger and wheels are meronyms
b. Homonyms
- You might get confused with this one. Some
references may explain that homonyms and SEVEN TYPES OF MEANING
homograph are the sub-class of homonyms. In some
references, they defined it as word relation with
same sound and spelling.
- a) “Ball” as a round object used in game, “ball” as a
gathering of people for dancing;
- b) “Bay” v is to bark; “bay” n is a part of the sea or
the lake filling wide mouth opening of the land
- You should remember, that homonyms are distinct
words – not different meanings within one word.
1. CONCEPTUAL OR DENOTATIVE MEANING
- This refers to cognitive or dictionary meaning
c. Synonyms
- Are words with the same or almost related meaning. 2. CONNOTATIVE MEANING
- Example: big – huge small – tiny - Is the communicative value of an expression
Answer- reply broad – wide over and above its purely conceptual content. It
is something that goes beyond mere referent of
d. Antonyms a word and hints at its attributes in the real
- Are words with opposite meaning. world.
- Two types: A. gradable antonyms – can be rank or
graded or degree 3. SOCIAL
Example: small and big hot and cold MEANING
- The meaning
B. non- gradable antonyms- specific or fixed conveyed by the piece
Example: present – absent happy –sad of language about the
Married – single fast - slow social context of its
use;
e. Hyponymy and Hypernymy - Social meaning
- Are words that are words that are designated as is related to the
type of a broader situation in which an
classification utterance is used. This
- Hypernymy from the is because styles show the geographical region
term hyper which mean social class of the speaker. Style helps us to know
upper is the upper about the period, field and status of the
classification while discourse.
hyponymy from the word - Example: ‘steed ’, ‘horse and ‘nag’ are
hypo means lower synonymous. They all mean a kind of animal i.e.
- Example: flower – rose, sunflower Horse. But they differ in style and so have various
fruit – apple , banana social meaning. ‘Steed’ is used in poetry; ‘horse’
- The rose and sunflower and apple and banana is used in general, while ‘nag’ is slang.
EL 100- Introduction to Linguistics,1st Semester – 2021-2022
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4. AFFECTIVE OR EMOTIVE MEANING Week no. 16 and 17

- It refers to emotive association or effects of
words evoked in the reader and the listener. It is
Topic: Pragmatics
what is conveyed about the personal feelings or
attitude towards the listener.
- Affective meaning refers to what is convey about
the feeling and attitude of the speaker through
use of language (attitude to listener as well as
attitude to what he is saying).

5. REFLECTED MEANING
- Arises when a word has more than one
conceptual meaning or multiple conceptual
meaning.
- Example : intercourse – is often thought or
associated with sexual intercourse and drives
away from its innocent meaning which is
communication
Have you been in the same situation as the
- Example: gay – is often thought as the
homosexual person but is disregarded as happy conversation above? If we can analyze it, the servant
understood his boss that is why he responded. The only
6. COLLOCATIVE MEANING thing is that, he understood differently the message that
- is the meaning which a word acquires in the his boss wanted him to understand. There is meaning,
company of certain words. Words collocate or but, the understanding of that meaning is different to
co-occur with certain words only both involved in the communication process. We know
example :
that Semantics is for meaning, but, how can we explain
big business – you cannot hear large or huge
business what happened in the conversation between the boss
stroll and wander – they may mean the same but and the servant?
wander is used in animals and
stroll is to humans

7. THEMATIC MEANING Pragmatics is the study of how individuals

- It refers to what is communicated by the way in use language. It studies the purposes and functions of
which a speaker or a writer organizes the language and how individuals negotiate identity,
message in terms of ordering focus and
relationships through language. It also studies how
emphasis.
individuals express attitudes and views towards the
- Example: 1) Mrs. Smith donated the first prize
2) The first prize was donated by Mrs. world they live in through language. For example, a
Smith. person may say, “I’m coming with you, bastard,” to a
- In the first sentence “who gave away the prize person close to him but would never say the same to an
“is more important, but in the second sentence acquaintance or a stranger. The idea is that because of
“what did Mrs. Smith gave is important”. Thus their closeness, they tolerate or even expect such speech
the change of focus change the meaning also.
from each other. A more common instance of this in the
United States is for Black people to call each other,
“nigger”. However, they will react strongly when a white
person says the same thing to any of them.

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According to Yule (1996) in Hidayat (2016) states 2. Constatives

that there are four areas which pragmatics is concerned are utterances that do need any action to do;
with: these utterances may be true or false . Ex. The cat is on
the mat. The person only stated where the cat, in which
1. Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning. is, it may be true or false.
2. Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning.
3. Pragmatics is the study of how to get more TYPES OF SPEECH ACTS
communicated than it is said.
4. Pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative
distance.
LOCUTIONARY

Given these four areas, we can actually see the

broadness of pragmatics and its difference to semantics.
ILLOCUTIONARY

SPEECH ACT THEORY

PERLOCUTION
In speech act, it is believed that there is a Locutionary act are the words said or written
corresponding act in every utterance that we do. This while illocutionary is the intended meaning of the
theory’s proponent is John L. Austin and he later speaker or the writer. Perlocutionary is the effect of
discussed this in his book "How to Do Things With the utterance to the listener or reader.To understand
Words." Which was published in 1975. This theory was this, let us look at the situation below.
later broaden by Austin’s student, John Searle.
Locutionary act are the words said or written
Speech act has a simple idea – saying something while illocutionary is the intended meaning of the
is doing something. It can also be said that speech acts speaker or the writer. Perlocutionary is the effect of the
are acts that refer to the action performed by produced utterance to the listener or reader. To understand this,
utterances (Hidayat, 2016). Example of this is apologizing let us look at the situation below.
(I am sorry for judging you.), complaining (This bread is
tasteless, I’d prefer another one), promise ( I will bring My dear daughter,
you some cookies.), request (Would you hand me that would you like to
pitcher?), etc. make some coffee?

???
TYPES OF UTTERANCES

1. Performatives
are utterances that needs an action that is
rather felicitous (appropriate) or infelicitous
(not appropriate) Ex. I promised my sister
chocolates. In this sentence, the action What would you do when you hear your mother ask
done was promised. you the question above? How would you react to
her question? Is that a question, request or order?

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LOCUTIONARY ILLOCUTIONARY/ PERLOCUTION/ Commissives. 'The whole oaths, pledges, threats,

/Intention Meaning Effect on the point of a vows.
listener/reader commissive', Austin Ex: I am going to stay.
I like coffee. Make a coffee for I want/my tells us, 'is to commit I will call you later.
me/us. mom want the speaker to a
coffee so I’ll certain course of
make some. action.' Some of the
obvious examples are:
promise, vow, pledge,
CLASSIFICATION OF SPEECH ACTS covenant, contract,
guarantee, embrace,
and swear.
Austin and Searle has produced their own Expositives are used in Declarations: blessings,
versions of speech acts classifications. acts of exposition firings, baptisms,
involving the arrests, marrying,
AUSTIN’S TAXONOMY SEARLE’S TAXONOMY expounding of views, juridial speech acts
the conducting of such as sentencings,
Verdictives. These Representatives: This
arguments and the declaring a mistrial,
'consist in the delivering acts is the speakers’ or
clarifying of usages declaring s.o.out of
of a finding, official or the writer’s belief or
and reference'. Austin order, etc.
unofficial, upon evidence opinion that can be true
gives many examples Ex: I may now pronounce
or reasons as to value or or false. Examples
of these, among them you, husband and wife.
fact so far as these are statements are
distinguishable'. assertions, statements, are: affirm, deny, I will resign.
emphasize, illustrate,
Examples of verbs in this claims, hypotheses,
answer, report,
class are: acquit, hold, descriptions,
calculate, describe, suggestions. accept, object to,
concede, describe,
analyze, estimate, date, Ex: I am pretty.
class, identify and call.
rank, assess, and She is my best friend.
Ex: I disagree with
characterize.
your idea.
Exercitives. Are acts that Directives: these acts
Behabitives. This class Expressives: Speech acts
needs a decision attempts the speaker or
includes the notion that make assessments
regarding an action, the the writer to get his/her
speaker or the writer listener or reader to do of reaction to other of psychological states
people's behavior or attitudes/ the
exemplify power or something. Example
and fortunes and of speaker expresses
influence over the statements would be
listener or reader. Some commands, requests, attitudes and her/his feelings.
expressions of Example statements
examples are: order, challenges, invitations,
attitudes to are greetings,
command, direct, plead, orders, summons,
someone else's past apologies,
beg, recommend, entreaties, dares.
conduct or imminent congratulations,
entreat and advise. Ex: Ex: Sit down.
conduct'. Among the condolences,
You need to come
examples Austin lists thanksgivings.
with me tomorrow.
are: apologize, Ex: This soup is
Commissives: promises,

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thank, deplore, disgusting.

commiserate, She looks awful.
congratulate,
felicitate, welcome, MAXIM OF RELEVANCE
applaud, criticize, This maxim explains that
bless, curse, toast one tries to be relevant,
and says things that are
and drink. But also,
pertinent to the
curiously: dare, defy, discussion.
protest, and
challenge.
Ex: I like your dress today.
You looked fresh.

MAXIMS OF CONVERSATIONS
MAXIM OF
MANNER
Another topic under Pragmatics is Paul Grice’s This maxim deals on when
maxims of conversation. Grice came up his observations one tries to be as clear, as
brief, and as orderly as
of these maxims or like a rule of conduct that follow
one can in what one says,
intuitively when people converse to one another. These and where one avoids
are like rules so that people can communicate obscurity and ambiguity.
understandably. We have four maxims: quality, quantity,
relation, and manner.

MAXIM OF QUALITY
Do you know this character? YES,
this is Pinocchio. Maxim of Quality
deals with one tries to be truthful.
MAXIM OF QUANTITY
Also, that person gives
This maxim deals on one tries to
information that is not supported be as informative as one possibly
by any proof. can, and gives as much
information as is needed, and no
more.

EL 100- Introduction to Linguistics,1st Semester – 2021-2022