Lesson 1 Cont.

Philosophical Perspective of the Self

3. St. Augustine

- He was a philosopher and theologian whose thoughts had a signi cant

in uence on fundamental doctrines of psychology.

- St. Augustine believed that time is not an inherent feature of the world but a
property of the mind. His ideas challenged conventional views on time.
According to him, time is something people measure within their own memory. It
is not an external feature of the world but an internal property of the mind. He
proposed that the times of things past, present, and future coexist within the
soul, each serving a unique purpose: memory, direct experience, and
expectation.
- He emphasized the signi cance of memory in his philosophy. Memory
of the past is vital for anticipating the future and being aware of the
present.
- He believed that introspection, or awareness of one's own mental
processes, is possible through memory. It allows us to think
meaningfully about temporal continuity

- St. Augustine's ideas laid the foundation for the development of psychology. His
inquiries began with the study of the soul, leading to exploration of the mind,
consciousness, and thought.
- He introduced the concept of the self in the context of past, present, and future
time, emphasizing the role of consciousness in determining personal identity.

- In conclusion, St. Augustine's philosophy challenged traditional views on time

and memory. He proposed that time is a property of the mind and that past and
future exist only in our consciousness.’

Assessment:
I. Multiple Choice:
1. St. Augustine believed that time is a property of:
a) The external world
b) The human mind
c) Material objects
d) Natural phenomena

2. St. Augustine argued that the self is represented by the:

a) Physical body
b) Intellectual abilities
c) Eternal soul
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 d) Accumulation of life experiences

II. Explanation
3. Explain the relationship between memory and the perception of time
in St. Augustine's philosophy

4. Rene Descartes

- He is best known for his famous statement, 'Cogito, ergo sum,' which translates
to 'I think, therefore I am.' This statement encapsulates his profound thoughts
on existence.

- For Descartes, the existence of anything perceived through the senses can be
doubted. Even when witnessing a burning building, one can doubt whether it's
real or a product of a dream. However, Descartes argued that the very act of
doubting is undeniable. This is the essence of 'I think, therefore I am.' Doubting
is a thought, and the existence of thought is undeniable.”

- In Descartes' methodic doubt, he highlighted the role of choice and self-

perception. What we choose to think about ourselves shapes our reality. If one
thinks they are bored, strong, busy, or weak, that thought becomes their reality.
Descartes emphasized the power of thought in shaping one's experience.

- Descartes believed that humans possess a unique self-awareness and

consciousness of their own existence. He considered the self as 'a thinking
thing or a substance whose essence is thinking.' This self is distinct from the
body and exists as a mental substance.” He introduced the concept of the
mind-body dichotomy, where thought (mind) always precedes action (body).
Thought sets the direction for human actions, and humans are free to choose
how to act based on their thoughts.

- Descartes believed that humans are self-aware creators of their own reality.
They have the audacity to contemplate the meaning of life and are conscious of
their own existence. This self-awareness places humans at the forefront of the
universe, giving them the ability to create their own reality and master their own
destinies.

- Descartes' ideas have signi cantly in uenced Western philosophy, laying the
foundation for the concept that 'man is a rational animal.’

- In Filipino culture, his ideas are even re ected in the term 'diskarte,' derived
from his surname, which denotes nding creative solutions and making things
possible.
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 - In conclusion, Rene Descartes' philosophical perspective on the self and
existence challenges us to contemplate the power of thought, self-awareness,
and the nature of reality. As we re ect on Descartes' ideas, we gain insights into
the unique role of human consciousness in shaping our perception of the self
and the world around us.

Assessment:
I. Multiple Choice:
1. What is the famous statement by René Descartes that summarizes
his view on the self?
a. ”I exist, therefore I think.”
b. ”I doubt, therefore I exist.”
c. ”I think, therefore I am.”
d. ”I perceive, therefore I exist."

II. Explanation
3. Explain the meaning of Descartes' statement (I think therefore I am)
and how it re ects his view of the self.

4. Describe Descartes' concept of mind-body dualism. How does he

di erentiate the mind from the body?

5. John Locke
- His main philosophy regarding personal identity or the self is grounded in
consciousness and memory.

- For Locke, consciousness is the perception of what occurs in one's own

mind. He challenged the notion that the brain has a direct connection to
consciousness, asserting that the brain and body can change while
consciousness remains constant

- Locke concluded that personal identity resides not in the brain but in
one's consciousness. In his work 'Identity and Diversity' in 'An Essay
Concerning Human Understanding' (1689), he pondered the nature of
personal identity. He proposed that if the thinking substance (the self)
changes, it can still be the same person, or if it remains the same, it can
become a di erent person. This suggests that consciousness can be
transferred from one substance (body and soul) to another.

- Locke also explored scenarios where consciousness is lost

involuntarily, through forgetfulness, while the soul remains
unchanged. In such cases, he argued that there might be the
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 same soul but a di erent person, emphasizing the role of
consciousness in personal identity.”

- Locke's philosophy becomes clearer through his illustration of 'The Prince

and the Cobbler.' In this scenario, if a prince were to die and have his soul
transferred to the body of a cobbler, the prince would still retain his
thoughts and behaviors, even in a new body. This concept highlights
Locke's belief that the same person can appear in a di erent body,
provided that consciousness remains unchanged.

- Another signi cant contribution by John Locke is the notion of 'tabula

rasa,' which translates to 'blank slate.' According to this concept, every
individual starts with a blank slate at birth, and their experiences over time
ll this slate. Locke believed that the content of a person's mind is
shaped entirely by their experiences and interactions with the world. In
other words, our knowledge and character are not predetermined but are
developed through our life experiences.
- In conclusion, John Locke's philosophy of personal identity, grounded in
consciousness and memory, challenges us to consider the role of
consciousness in de ning the self. Additionally, his concept of 'tabula
rasa' reminds us that we start with a blank slate at birth, and our life
experiences shape our identity and understanding of the world.

Assessment:
1. John Locke's view of the self is based on two principles. Name
these principles:
a. The "I think, therefore I am" principle and the "Cogito, ergo
sum" principle.
b. The "Tabula rasa" principle and the "Empiricism" principle.
c. The "Consciousness" principle and the "Memory" principle.
d. The "Mind-Body" principle and the "Dualism" principle.

2. According to Locke, what is the role of consciousness and memory

in determining personal identity?
a. Consciousness alone is su cient to determine personal
identity.
b. Memory alone is su cient to determine personal identity.
c. Both consciousness and memory contribute to personal
identity.
d. Neither consciousness nor memory is relevant to personal
identity.
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 3. Locke believed that personal identity is shaped by experience.
Which statement best summarizes his perspective?
a. Personal identity is entirely innate and not in uenced by
experience.
b. Personal identity is a result of innate characteristics and is not
in uenced by experience.
c. Personal identity is determined by both innate characteristics
and one's life experiences.
d. Personal identity is solely a product of one's life experiences.

6. David Hume
- He challenged traditional notions of the self, asserting that there is no self
as a distinct mental entity. Hume proposed that what we typically call a
'mind' is simply a collection of di erent perceptions, a bundle of
interrelated mental events. According to him, there is no primordial mental
substance that houses the self. Any concept of the self is a product of
memory and imagination. In essence, Hume's materialism views the soul
as a construct of the mind rather than an enduring entity.
-
- Hume emphasized that there is no stable or enduring self. Instead, the
self is a complex set of successive impressions or perceptions. If you
seek the self, you won't nd it. What you will discover are individual
impressions, such as happiness, sadness, hunger, or love, which
collectively de ne your identity at any given moment.
-
- Hume pointed out that when our perceptions are temporarily removed, as
in sound sleep, we are insensible of ourselves and e ectively do not exist
during that time. He argued that if all perceptions are removed by death,
with no further ability to think, feel, or perceive, then we are entirely
annihilated. Hume likened personality and cognition to a machine that can
be activated or deactivated, with death resulting in the obliteration of
perception.
-
- Hume rejected the idea that personal identity is tied to the association of
the self with an enduring body. For Hume, personal identity is determined
by the continuity of the mind. Two individuals, X and Y, are considered the
same person if they share the same set of memories, represented as Z.”
In simpler terms, a mind is constituted by a collection of private
memories.
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 - In conclusion, David Hume's philosophy challenges conventional notions
of the self by presenting it as a bundle of perceptions, a collection of
mental events rather than a distinct entity.

Assessment:
1. According to David Hume, how does he describe the self or
personal identity?
a. The self is a xed and unchanging entity.
b. The self is a bundle of di erent perceptions and experiences.
c. The self is a dualistic combination of body and soul.
d. The self is a product of innate ideas.

2. Hume argued that the self is nothing but a bundle of perceptions.

Which statement accurately represents his view on this matter?
a. The self is a permanent, unchanging entity.
b. Perceptions are entirely separate from the self.
c. The self is a collection of individual, ever-changing perceptions.
d. The self is an innate, predetermined concept.

3. Hume distinguished between impressions and ideas. How does this

distinction relate to his view of the self?
a. Impressions are permanent, while ideas are temporary.
b. Impressions are sensory experiences, while ideas are abstract
concepts.
c. Impressions form the core of the self, while ideas play no role.
d. Ideas are more real than impressions.

7. Immanuel Kant
- Kant theorized that consciousness is shaped by our inner and outer senses.
The inner sense encompasses our psychological state and intellect, while
the outer sense involves our senses and interactions with the physical
world.
-
- Kant introduced two types of self-consciousness: empirical self-
consciousness and transcendental apperception.
- Empirical self-consciousness relates to our awareness of our
psychological state through inner sense, encompassing emotions,
feelings, and sensations.”
- Transcendental apperception involves our consciousness of
ourselves and our state through acts of apperception, allowing us
to synthesize and make sense of our experiences.”
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 - Kant identi ed the inner sense as the source of empirical self-
consciousness. All representational states, such as moods and sensations,
reside in the inner sense. To be aware of something within the inner sense,
one must be phenomenally conscious.
-
- Apperception - is the faculty that enables us to apply concepts and
synthesize our experiences into a uni ed object.
- Transcendental apperception - is fundamental in making our experiences
coherent and allowing the self and the world to come together.”
-
- Kant emphasized that the unity of consciousness is a central feature of the
mind. The mind must perform both the unity of consciousness and the unity
of apperception.
-
- Consciousness plays a crucial role in organizing sensations and thoughts
into a coherent picture, forming the 'you' at the center of your universe.
-
- Kant described the self as a subject and an organizing principle that
synthesizes sensations into a uni ed whole.
-
- The ability of the mind to regulate these experiences and create a single
coherent experience grants the self a transcendental status, existing
independently of individual experiences.
-
- In contrast to philosophers like Hume, Kant believed in the existence of God
and the soul. He stressed that while humans acquire knowledge through
experience, there remain metaphysical questions beyond our grasp.
-
- In conclusion, Immanuel Kant's philosophy emphasizes the role of
consciousness and the self in shaping our experiences and understanding
of the world

Assessment:

1. According to Immanuel Kant, how does he di erentiate between

di erent types of consciousness?
a. Kant identi es three types: empirical self-consciousness,
transcendental self-consciousness, and subjective self-
consciousness.
b. Kant identi es two types: subjective self-consciousness and
objective self-consciousness.
c. Kant identi es one type of consciousness, which is empirical
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 self-consciousness.
d. Kant believes there is no distinction between types of
consciousness.

2. Kant introduced the concept of transcendental apperception. What

does transcendental apperception refer to in Kant's philosophy?
a. It is the consciousness of one's psychological state.
b. It is the consciousness of one's relationship with the physical
world.
c. It is the consciousness of one's role in society.
d. It is the consciousness of one's individuality and unique
experiences.

3. Kant emphasized the unity of consciousness as a central feature of

the mind. What does he mean by the "unity of consciousness"?
a. It refers to the harmony between subjective and objective
consciousness.
b. It is the ability to maintain multiple, con icting perspectives
simultaneously.
c. It means that consciousness is always aware of the external
world.
d. It involves synthesizing various sensations and thoughts into a
coherent experience.

4. According to Kant, how does the self relate to the organization of

experiences?
a. The self has no role in organizing experiences; it is a passive
observer.
b. The self actively organizes sensations and thoughts into a
coherent picture.
c. The self only organizes external experiences, not internal
thoughts.
d. The self is entirely dependent on external experiences for
organization.

8. Sigmund Freud
- He made signi cant contributions to psychology through his psychoanalytic
theory, which provided a new understanding of the philosophy of the mind.
Freud proposed that the self is not a single entity but is composed of three
distinct structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego.
- The id is the earliest structure, existing since birth. It is closely
related to instinct and serves as a storeroom for our most primal
wishes and obsessions. Operating on the pleasure principle, the id
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 seeks immediate grati cation, ignoring concepts of reality, morality,
or reason. It is driven by the libido, or sexual energy.
-
- The ego operates based on the reality principle. Its role is to
maintain equilibrium between the demands of the id and superego
by making practical decisions in line with reality. The ego borrows
some of the id's energy to navigate the demands of the external
environment. It develops through personal experiences, reason,
and logic.
-
- The superego is the nal layer to develop and operates on the
morality principle. It serves as the reservoir of moral standards and
ensures compliance with societal norms.
- The superego has two components: the conscience, which can
induce feelings of guilt when the ego deviates from moral
standards, and the ideal self, an imaginary self-image rewarded by
the superego for conforming to societal standards.
-
- The dominance of these structures in uences an individual's behavior and
personality. If the id is dominant, we may see an egoistic and impulsive
individual.

- When the ego successfully balances the demands, it can lead to the
emergence of a creative and emotionally balanced person. And if the
superego dominates, we observe a law-abiding and morally upright individual.

- In conclusion, Freud's psychoanalytic theory introduced the concept of a

multi-layered self, where the id, ego, and superego play distinct roles in
shaping our thoughts and behaviors.

Assessment:
1. According to Sigmund Freud, how many structures make up the
human mind?
a. Two: the conscious mind and the unconscious mind.
b. Three: the id, the ego, and the superego.
c. Four: the intellect, emotions, instincts, and ego.
d. Five: the rational mind, the emotional mind, the subconscious
mind, the unconscious mind, and the conscious mind.

2. Which of the following best describes the id in Freud's theory?

a. It operates according to the reality principle.
b. It is responsible for moral standards and values.
c. It seeks immediate grati cation and operates on the pleasure
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 principle.
d. It is the conscious awareness of the self.

3. The ego, in Freud's theory, operates according to:

a. The pleasure principle.
b. The morality principle.
c. The reality principle.
d. The subconscious mind.

4. What is the role of the superego in Freud's theory?

a. It represents the instincts and desires.
b. It seeks immediate pleasure.
c. It contains moral standards and ensures compliance with
societal norms.
d. It is responsible for conscious awareness.

5. How does Freud describe the id's approach to seeking pleasure?

a. It ignores reality and pursues pleasure without regard to
consequences.
b. It carefully weighs the pros and cons of every decision.
c. It is solely focused on satisfying societal norms.
d. It is indi erent to pleasure and pain.

6. According to Freud, the id is driven by:

a. Logical reasoning.
b. The pleasure principle.
c. The superego's moral standards.
d. Conscious awareness.

9. Gilbert Ryle
- Gilbert Ryle disagreed with René Descartes' notion of the self as a
'thinking thing' and the separation of the mind from the body. Ryle
believed that the mind is not separate from the body but consists of
dispositions based on knowledge, feelings, desires, and more.

- Ryle's theory, known as logical behaviorism or analytical behaviorism,

suggests that mental concepts can be understood through observable
events. He emphasized that understanding the mind involves studying
how people behave and the dispositions that in uence their actions.

- Ryle described Descartes' mind-body dualism as the 'ghost in the

machine,' a category mistake. Descartes believed in an immaterial mind
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 within a material body, while Ryle argued that the properties of a person
are better understood as adjectives modifying a body.

- Ryle used kindness as an example to illustrate his point. Kindness is not a

separate entity but a collection of properties exhibited through behavior.
Someone is considered kind because they exhibit traits like generosity,
humility, courtesy, loyalty, and honesty.

- According to Ryle, the mind's operation is visible in activities such as

singing, running, and walking. Knowing and believing are dispositions that
in uence a person's actions, serving as evidence of the mind's presence.

- Ryle's concept of the self di ers from dualist views that separate the mind
and body. For Ryle, the self is a combination of the mind and the body.

- He expressed this idea with the maxim, 'I act, therefore I am,' suggesting
that the self is de ned by behavior, not by the immaterial mind.

- In conclusion, Gilbert Ryle's philosophy challenges traditional dualism

and emphasizes the role of behavior in understanding the self and the
mind.

Assessment:
1. Gilbert Ryle's theory of the self can be described as:
a. A dualist perspective.
b. A behaviorist perspective.
c. A materialist perspective.
d. A spiritual perspective.

2. According to Ryle, how should the mind be understood?

a. As a separate entity from the body.
b. As a collection of mental states and behaviors.
c. As an immaterial substance.
d. As an unobservable phenomenon.

3. Ryle criticized Descartes' view of the mind and body by using the
term "ghost in the machine." What did he mean by this critique?
a. Ryle believed in the existence of an immaterial soul.
b. Ryle argued that the mind is a separate, immaterial entity within
the body.
c. Ryle suggested that Descartes' view created a false dualism
between mind and body.
d. Ryle supported Descartes' perspective on the self.
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 4. According to Ryle, mental states and behaviors:
a. Are separate from one's bodily actions.
b. Cannot be observed or understood.
c. Are interrelated and constitute the self.
d. Are entirely determined by the brain.

10. Paul and Patricia Churchland

- introduced a theory known as eliminative materialism, which challenges
common-sense understandings of the mind.

- Eliminative materialism asserts that our everyday understanding of mental

states, such as beliefs, attitudes, and feelings, is fundamentally awed
and that some or all of these mental states do not actually exist.

- Many people adhere to folk psychology, which is the belief that we

possess a stream of consciousness lled with mental states like joy,
sorrow, and anxiety. Folk psychology also holds that our sense of the
world and ourselves directly represents how the world functions, making
our bodies a re ection or adaptation of the external world.

- The Churchlands argue that the concept of mental states will eventually
be abandoned in favor of a completely di erent understanding of brain
function, one that is not tied to mental states. For them, the self is not
some separate entity but is entirely contained within the physical brain.

- In Patricia Churchland's book 'Touching a Nerve: The Self as Brain,' she

emphasizes the inseparable connection between herself and her brain.
She acknowledges thinking about her brain di erently from thinking about
herself but recognizes that her memories and experiences are all
intricately linked to the neurons in her brain. The Churchlands'
perspective suggests that to truly comprehend the self, one must study
the brain, as it is the physical substrate that underlies all mental
processes.

- This challenges traditional notions of the mind and self, encouraging us to

explore the self as an intricate product of brain functions.

- In conclusion, eliminative materialism and the Churchlands' views on the

self provide a thought-provoking perspective on the nature of the mind
and the self.
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Assessment:
1. Paul and Patricia Churchland are known for advocating:
a. Dualism
b. Idealism
c. Eliminative materialism
d. Behaviorism

2. According to the Churchlands, what is the primary problem

with folk psychology?
a. It provides a complete and accurate understanding of the
mind.
b. It ignores mental states and behaviors
c. It relies too much on empirical evidence
d. It posits mental concepts that do not exist

3. Paul and Patricia Churchland argue that mental states:

a. Are well-understood by folk psychology.
b. Are immaterial and distinct from physical states.
c. Should be abandoned in favor of a di erent view of the
mind.
d. Are directly observable through scienti c methods.

4. In Patricia Churchland's perspective, what is the relationship

between herself and her brain?
a. Her brain and herself are entirely separate entities.
b. Her brain is a direct representation of herself.
c. Her brain and herself are inseparable.
d. Her brain is unrelated to her self.

5. According to the Churchlands, to understand the self, one must

primarily study:
a. Folk psychology.
b. The mind's inner workings.
c. The brain.
d. Religious concepts.
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 11. Maurice Merleau-Ponty

- Merleau-Ponty, a French phenomenological philosopher, introduced

unique ideas about the relationship between the body and the self.
- He distinguished between two types of body: the subjective body, as
lived and experienced, and the objective body, as observed and
scienti cally investigated. He emphasized that these are not two separate
bodies but rather two aspects of the same bodily existence.

- Merleau-Ponty famously stated, 'I am not in front of my body; I am in my

body, or rather I am my body.' He saw the self as embodied subjectivity.

- He viewed human beings as living creatures whose subjectivity or

consciousness is realized through their physical engagement with the
world.

- The objective body is the body that others see, admire, imitate, criticize,
or even study scienti cally. This is the body known to the external world,
and it's the body that can be dissected and analyzed.

- For phenomenological philosophers like Merleau-Ponty, being a subject,

or having a self, fundamentally requires a body. He argued that
consciousness cannot be purely immaterial; it must be embodied. The 'I
think' implies 'I can,' indicating that our self, possessing a body, can
engage with the world.”

- Merleau-Ponty rejected dualist accounts of subjectivity, which separate

the mind and body. He also challenged Descartes' famous 'cogito, ergo
sum' ('I think, therefore I am’).

- According to Merleau-Ponty, consciousness is not just thinking; it's also

perceiving and engaging with the world.

- In conclusion, Maurice Merleau-Ponty's philosophy emphasizes the

inseparable connection between the body and the self.

Assessment:
1. According to Merleau-Ponty, what are the two types of bodies
he distinguishes in relation to the self?
a. Physical body and mental body.
b. Objective body and subjective body.
c. Material body and spiritual body.
d. Public body and private body.
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2. Merleau-Ponty’s idea that "I am my body" emphasizes:
a. The separation of the mind from the body.
b. The disembodied nature of consciousness.
c. The inseparability of the self and the body.
d. The self as an abstract entity.

3. How does Merleau-Ponty view the relationship between the

self and the body?
a. The self is a purely intellectual entity, separate from the
body.
b. The self is entirely based on mental experiences.
c. The self is embodied subjectivity, and it cannot exist
without the body.
d. The self is a separate entity from the body but closely
related to it.

4. Merleau-Ponty’s perspective implies that consciousness:

a. Exists independently of bodily experiences.
b. Can be understood solely through intellectual reasoning.
c. Is always intertwined with bodily experiences.
d. Can be completely separated from the physical world.

5. Merleau-Ponty’s philosophy emphasizes that to understand the

self, one must consider:
a. The self as an abstract concept.
b. The separation of mind and body.
c. The self's relationship with society.
d. The body and its interactions with the world.