Chapter – 4

Combustion in SI and CI Engines

 Air-fuel Requirement in SI Engines
The spark-ignition automobile engines run on a mixture of gasoline and air. The
amount of mixture the engine can take in depends upon following major factors:
 Engine displacement.
 Maximum revolution per minute (rpm) of engine.
 Carburetor air flow capacity.
 Volumetric efficiency of engine.
There is a direct relationship between an engine’s air flow and it’s fuel requirement.
This relationship is called the air-fuel ratio.
 Air-fuel Ratios
 The air-fuel ratio is the proportions by weight of air and gasoline
mixed by the carburetor as required for combustion by the engine.
 This ratio is extremely important for an engine.
 The mixtures with which the engine can operate range from 8:1 to
18.5:1 i.e. from 8 kg of air/kg of fuel to 18.5 kg of air/kg of fuel.
 Richer or leaner air-fuel ratio limit causes the engine to misfire, or
simply refuse to run at all.
 Air Fuel Mixtures
An engine is generally operated at different loads and speeds. For this proper air-fuel mixture
should be supplied to the engine cylinder. Fuel and air are mixed to form three different types of
mixtures.
 Chemically correct mixture: Chemically correct or stoichiometric mixture is one in which there is
just enough air for complete combustion of the fuel. Complete combustion means all carbon in the
fuel is converted to CO2 and all hydrogen to H2O.
For example, to burn one kg of octane (C8H8) completely 15.12 kg of air is required. Hence
chemically correct A/F ratio for octane is 15.12:1; usually approximated to 15:1.
 Rich mixture: A mixture which contains less air than the stoichiometric requirements is called a
rich mixture (example, A/F ratio of 12:1, 10:1 etc.).
 Lean mixture: A mixture which contains more air than the stoichiometric requirements is called a
lean mixture (example, A/F ratio of 17:1, 20:1 etc.).
 Air Fuel Mixtures
There is however, a limited range of A/F ratios (approximately 8:1 (rich) to 18.5:1
(lean)), in which combustion in an SI engine will occur. Outside this range, the
ratio is either too rich or too lean to sustain flame propagation.
 Air Fuel Mixtures (for different throttle operations))
For successful operation of the engine, the carburetor has to provide mixtures
which follow the general shape of the curve ABCD (single cylinder) A'B'C'D'
(multi-cylinder) in Fig.
The three general ranges of
throttle operation are:
 Idling : (mixture must be
enriched)
 Cruising (mixture must
be leaned)
 High Power (mixture
must be enriched)
Air Fuel Ratios (power versus economy)
 Idling
 Idling is running a vehicle's engine when the vehicle is not in
motion.
 This commonly occurs when drivers are stopped at a red light,
waiting in a fast food drive-thru lane, or waiting while parked
outside a business or residence.
 When an engine idles, the engine runs without any loads except the
engine accessories.
 Should I shut off the engine when I‘m Idling my vehicle

 If you're in a drive-through restaurant/business line or waiting for

someone and you'll be parked and sitting for 10 seconds or longer...
turn off your car's engine.
 Why??

 For every two minutes a car is idling, it uses about the same amount
of fuel it takes to go about one mile.
 But you're not going anywhere. Idling gets ZERO km per liter.
 Myths associated with idling
Myth #1: The engine should be warmed up before driving.
 Reality: Idling is not an effective way to warm up your vehicle, even in cold
weather. The best way to do this is to drive the vehicle. With today's modern
engines, you need no more than 30 seconds of idling on winter days before
driving away.
Myth #2: Idling is good for your engine.
 Reality: Excessive idling can actually damage your engine components,
including cylinders, spark plugs, and exhaust systems. Fuel is only partially
combusted when idling because an engine does not operate at its peak
temperature. This leads to the build up of fuel residues on cylinder walls that
can damage engine components and increase fuel consumption.
 Myths associated with idling

Myth #3: Shutting off and restarting your vehicle is hard on the
engine and uses more gas than if you leave it running.
 Reality: Frequent restarting has little impact on engine components like the
battery and the starter motor. Component wear caused by restarting the engine is
estimated to add $10 per year to the cost of driving, money that will likely be
recovered several times over in fuel savings from reduced idling.
 The bottom line is that more than ten seconds of idling uses more fuel than
restarting the engine.
 Air Fuel Mixtures (for different throttle operations) Idling range
Idling range:

 An idling engine is one which operates at

no load and with nearly closed throttle.
Under idling conditions, the engine requires
a rich mixture. This is due to the existing
Pressure conditions within the combustion
Chamber and the intake manifold which
cause exhaust gas dilution of the fresh charge.
 Cont.….
Cruising Range:
 In the cruising range from B to C the exhaust gas
dilution problem is relatively insignificant. The primary
interest lies in obtaining the maximum fuel economy.
Power Range: During peak power operation the engine
requires a richer mixture, as indicated by the line CD
for the following reasons:
 To provide best power: Since high power is desired usually in the range of 12:1.
 To prevent overheating of exhaust valve and the area near it:
 Combustion in SI engine
The combustion is defined as a rapid chemical reaction between the hydrogen and carbon
with oxygen in the air and liberates energy in the form of heat.
 Stages of Combustion in SI engine
A typical pressure-crank
angle diagram, during the
compression (a  b),
combustion (b  c) and
expansion (c  d) in an
ideal four stroke spark-
ignition engine is shown in
Fig. In an ideal engine the
entire pressure rise during
combustion takes place at
constant volume i.e., at
TDC. However, in an actual
engine it does not happen.
 Stages of Combustion in SI engine

The pressure variation due

to combustion in a practical
engine is shown in the fig.
In this figure, A is the point
of passage of spark (say 20°
bTDC), B is the point at
which the beginning of
pressure rise can be detected
(say 8° bTDC) and C the
attainment of peak pressure.
Thus AB represents the first
stage, BC the second stage
and CD the third stage.
 Stages of Combustion in SI engine
1. Ignition lag stage
2. Flame propagation stage
3. After burning stage
 Ignition Lag
 Ignition lag is very small and lies
between 0.00015 to 0.0002 seconds.
 An ignition lag of 0.002 seconds
corresponds to 35 degree crank
Rotation when the engine is running
at 3000 RPM.
This is a chemical process
depending upon:
 the nature of fuel,
 temperature and pressure,
 proportions of exhaust gas, and
 rate of oxidation or burning.
 Flame propagation stage:
 The second stage is concerned
with spread of the flame
Throughout the combustion
chamber.
 During the second stage the flame
propagates practically at a constant
velocity.
 Heat transfer to the cylinder wall
is low
 After burning
 The starting point of the third stage is
usually taken as the instant at which the
maximum pressure is reached on the
indicator diagram (point C).

 The flame velocity decreases this stage

 The rate of combustion becomes low
due to lower flame velocity and reduced
flame front surface.
 Factors influencing the flame speed
The study of factors which affect the velocity of flame propagation is
important since the flame velocity influences the rate of pressure rise in
the cylinder and it is related to certain types of abnormal combustion
that occur in spark-ignition engines.
Turbulence:
The flame speed is quite low in non-turbulent mixtures and increases
with increasing turbulence.
Fuel-Air Ratio:
 The fuel-air ratio has a very significant influence on the flame speed.
 The highest flame velocities (minimum time for complete
combustion) are obtained with somewhat richer mixture which shows
the effect of mixture strength on the rate of burning as indicated by the
time taken for complete burning in a given engine.
 When the mixture is made leaner or richer the flame speed decreases.
 Factors influencing the flame speed
Temperature and Pressure:
Flame speed increases with an increase in intake temperature and pressure.
Compression Ratio:
 A higher compression ratio increases the pressure and temperature of the
working mixture which reduce the initial phase of combustion and hence
less ignition advance is needed.
 Thus engines having higher compression ratios have higher flame speeds.
 Factors influencing the flame speed
Engine Output:
 The cycle pressure increases when the engine output is increased.
With the increased throttle opening the cylinder gets filled to a higher
density. This results in increased flame speed.

 The main disadvantages of SI engines are the poor combustion at low

loads and the necessity of mixture enrichment which causes:
 wastage of fuel,
 discharge of unburnt hydrocarbon, and
 the products of incomplete combustion like carbon monoxide etc. in
the atmosphere.
 Factors influencing the flame speed
Engine Speed:
 The flame speed increases almost linearly with engine speed since the increase in
engine speed increases the turbulence inside the cylinder.
 The time required for the flame to traverse the combustion space would be halved,
if the engine speed is doubled.

Engine Size:
 large sized engines are designed to operate at low speeds.
 Abnormal Combustion
 In normal combustion, the flame initiated by the spark travels across
the combustion chamber in a fairly uniform manner.
 Under certain operating conditions the combustion deviates from its
normal course leading to loss of performance and possible damage to
the engine.
 This type of combustion can be termed as an abnormal combustion or
knocking combustion.
 The consequences of this abnormal combustion process are the loss of
power, recurring pre-ignition and mechanical damage to the engine.
 Phenomenon of knock in SI engines

 If the temperature of the unburnt mixture exceeds the self-ignition

temperature of the fuel and remains at or above this temperature during
the period of pre-flame reactions (ignition lag), spontaneous ignition or
auto ignition occurs at various pin-point locations. This phenomenon is
called knocking.
 The process of auto ignition leads towards engine knock.
Normal combustion
• If the temperature of the end charge had not reached its self-ignition
temperature, the charge would not auto ignite and the flame will advance
further and consume the charge BB‘D.
 Phenomenon of knock in SI engines
Abnormal Combustion
 However, if the end charge BB'D reaches its auto ignition temperature and
remains for some length of time equal to the time of preflame reactions the charge
will auto ignite, leading to knocking combustion.
 Phenomenon of knock in SI engines
 Because of the auto-ignition, another flame front starts traveling in the
opposite direction to the main flame front.
 When the two flame fronts collide, a severe pressure pulse is
generated.
 The gas in the chamber is subjected to compression and rarefaction
along the pressure pulse until pressure equilibrium is restored.
 This disturbance can force the walls of the combustion chambers to
vibrate at the same frequency as the gas. This also creates knocking is
said to be detonation.
 Effect of engine variables on knock (Density Factors)
Density Factors:
 Any factor which reduces the density of the charge tends to reduce
knocking by providing lower energy release.

• Compression Ratio:
• Mass of Inducted Charge:
• Inlet Temperature of the Mixture:
• Temperature of the Combustion Chamber Walls: etc.
 Effect of engine variables on knock (Time Factors)
Time Factors
 Turbulence: Turbulence depends on the design of the combustion chamber and on
engine speed. Increasing turbulence increases the flame speed and reduces the time
available for the end charge to attain auto-ignition conditions thereby decreasing
the tendency to knock.
 Engine Speed: An increase in engine speed increases the turbulence…
 Flame Travel Distance:
The three important factors governing the flame travel distance are:
 Engine size, and
 combustion chamber size
 spark plug position
 Effect of engine variables on knock (Composition Factors)
Composition Factors
 Once the basic design of the engine is finalized, the fuel-air ratio
and properties of the fuel, particularly the octane rating, play a
crucial role in controlling the knock.
 Combustion Chamber Design

 The design of the combustion chamber for an SI engine has

an important influence on the engine performance and its
knocking tendencies.
 The design involves the shape of the combustion chamber,
the location of spark plug and the location of inlet and
exhaust valves.
Combustion chambers must be designed carefully, keeping
in mind the following general objectives.
Smooth Engine Operation
The aim of engine design is to have a smooth operation and a good
economy. These can be achieved by the following:
Moderate rate of pressure rise:
• The rate of pressure rise can be regulated such that the greatest force
is applied to the piston as closely after TDC on the power stroke as
possible, with a gradual decrease in the force on the piston during
the power stroke.
• The forces must be applied to the piston smoothly, thus limiting the
rate of pressure rise as well as the position of the peak pressure with
respect to TDC.
 Combustion Chamber Design

Reducing the Possibility of Knocking:

Reduction in the possibility of knocking, in an engine can be achieved by,
i. Reducing the distance of the flame travel by centrally locating the
spark plug.
ii. Satisfactory cooling of the spark plug and of exhaust valve area.
iii. Reducing the temperature of the last portion of the charge.
 Combustion Chamber Design
High Power Output and Thermal Efficiency
The main objective of the design and development of an engine is to
obtain high power as well as high thermal efficiency. This can be
achieved by considering the following factors:

 A high degree of turbulence is needed to achieve a high flame front

velocity.
 High volumetric efficiency
 improves its antiknock characteristics
 Types of Combustion chambers
Different types of combustion chambers
have been developed over a period of time.

T-Head Type: This was first introduced by

Ford Motor Corporation in 1908. This design
has following disadvantages.
 Requires two cam shafts (for actuating the
in-let valve and exhaust valve separately) by
two cams mounted on the two cam shafts.
 L-Head Type
L-Head Type:
 This was first introduced by Ford
motor in 1910-30 and was quite popular
for some time.
 A modification of the T-head type of
combustion chamber is the L-head type
which provides the two valves on the
same side of the cylinder and the valves
are operated by a single camshaft.
 This design has an advantage both
from manufacturing and maintenance
point of view.
 Ricardo’s Turbulent Head-Side Valve Combustion
Chamber
 Ricardo developed this head in
1919.
 His main objective was to obtain
fast flame speed and reduce
knock in L design.
 In Ricardo’s design the main
body of combustion chamber
was concentrated over the
valves, leaving slightly restricted
passage communicating with
cylinder.
 Over head valve or I head combustion chamber

 Diesel engines, with high compression

ratios.
 Since 1950 or so mostly overhead
valve combustion chambers are used.
Over head valve or I head combustion chamber

 This type of combustion

chamber has both the inlet
valve and the exhaust valve
located in the cylinder head.
 An overhead engine is
superior to side valve engine
at high compression ratios.
F- Head combustion chamber
 F- Head combustion chamber

Advantages
 High volumetric efficiency
 Maximum compression ratio for fuel of given octane rating
 High thermal efficiency
 It can operate on leaner air-fuel ratios without misfiring.

Disadvantages
 This design is the complex mechanism for operation of valves
and expensive special shaped piston.
Thanks