Int. J. Mech. Eng. Res. & Tech 202 Int. J. Mech. Eng. Res.

& Tech 20221

ISSN 2454 – 535X www.ijmert.com

Vol. 15, Issue. 3, sep 2023

A Comparison Study of Random Forest and Logistic

Regression for Password Strength Classification

To what extent is Random Forest (RF) favourable over Logistic Regression (LR)

based on performance in password strength classification?

By: Ananya Jain

Abstract

Context: Passwords have become the universal method of authentication due to their

simplicity and compatibility across a wide range of systems. However, due to their

wide-spreadness, they have become vulnerable to external attacks like password cracking.

Users are infamously poor at maintaining entropy in their passwords due to their tendency of

including dictionary words, names, places, dates, keyboard patterns and so on in passwords,

making them predictable. Password strength classifiers developed using machine learning

algorithms like Random Forest (RF) and Logistic Regression (LR) can efficiently prevent

attacks by coercing users to create strong passwords.

Subjects and Methods: In this study, I trained two machine learning models to detect the

strength of different passwords. The two models use Random Forest and Logistic Regression

respectively to classify passwords strengths as 0,1 or 2 with 0 being weak and 2 being

strongest. I tested the model on 669,643 independent passwords retrieved from Kaggle and

evaluated the models’ classification against password standards.

Results: Random Forest has higher prediction accuracy whereas Logistic Regression has

better time performance

Keywords: password strength modelling, Random Forest, Logistic Regression, machine

learning

1. Introduction

Password Strength Classifiers are algorithms used to assess the strength or effectiveness of

passwords. They are designed to analyse characteristics of a password like length, use of

diverse character classes, and complexity to compute a score indicating the password’s level

of security. Higher score means the password is more effective against external attacks.

The usefulness of password classifiers however lies in their ability to give real-time feedback

to users regarding the strength of the password they are creating. Through this, users are

forced to use more secure passwords for their accounts1.

Password strength classification is used across a variety of websites during the user

registration process for enforcing strong passwords. These are also extended by password

managers like LastPass2 who use it for assessing the safety of users’ saved passwords and for

suggesting strong passwords. Additionally, password classifiers are paving their way into

education with services like Password Monster that are being used to teach users about good

password habits3.

An approach to creating these algorithms is through machine learning. Random Forest (RF)

and Logistic Regression (LR) are two machine learning models to classify password strength.

However, it is unclear which model is better based on prediction accuracy and prediction

time. Additionally, variation in performance between RF and RS could differ for different

application and development budgets.

1
“Real Time Password Strength Analysis on a Web Application Using Multiple Machine Learning Approaches –
IJERT.” International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology, 24 December 2020,
https://www.ijert.org/real-time-password-strength-analysis-on-a-web-application-using-multiple-machine-learni
ng-approaches. Accessed 2 July 2023.
2
LastPass. "How Secure is Your Password?" LastPass | Something Went Wrong, lastpass.com/howsecure.php.
Int. J. Mech. Eng. Res. & Tech 202 Int. J. Mech. Eng. Res. & Tech 20221

ISSN 2454 – 535X www.ijmert.com

Vol. 15, Issue. 3, sep 2023

Accessed 2 July 2023.

3
PasswordMonster, 3 Mar. 2022, www.passwordmonster.com. Accessed 3 July 2023.
Therefore, this paper seeks to investigate whether Random Forest (RF) outperforms

Logistic Regression (LR) for password strength classification, as measured by prediction

accuracy and prediction time. This research could help developers make comprehensive

decisions on whether a Random Forest or Logistic Regression should be used, which

eliminates investing unnecessary time, computer resources and labour attempting to fit data

into an ‘unsuitable’ machine learning algorithm when a better alternative exists, especially

considering machine learning models can require weeks to develop for real world accuracy.4

2. Theoretical Background

2.1 Password Strength

Password Strength is the measure of a password’s resistance against brute-force attacks and

password cracking. The strength lies in the following characteristics of the password:

complexity, length and unpredictability5. To fulfil these criteria, the following guidelines must

be adhered:

- Password length to be at least 12 characters, preferably more

- Use of both uppercase and lowercase characters

- Avoid dictionary words, keyboard patterns, repetitive characters, and letter sequences

- Avoid using names, addresses, phone numbers, or other personal details

- Avoid common passwords like (password, qwerty, 123456)

- Use a random combination of letters, numbers and symbols6

For this paper, combinations of the above guidelines are grouped together to form the basis of

weak, medium and strong passwords which are numerically represented as 0, 1 and 2

respectively. The nature of each password strength level is described in the table below

Figure 1: Password Strength Classification

Password Strength Reason

(i) patty94 Weak (0) + Combination of letters and numbers

− Less than 12 characters
− Use of name
− Only lowercase letters
− No symbols

(ii) alimagik1 Medium (1) + No identifiable dictionary words

+ Combination of letters and numbers
− No uppercase letters
− No symbols
− Less than 12 characters

(iii) TyWM72UNEex8Q8Y! Strong (2) + More than 12 characters

+ Mix of uppercase and lowercase letters
+ Combination of letters and numbers
+ Random arrangement, no identifiable sequences
+ Symbol present

2.2 Drawbacks of Decision Tree

Although decision trees can be used for password strength classification, they may be deemed

unsuitable due to the problem of overfitting, especially when dealing with high-dimensional

data like passwords.

Figure 2: Decision Tree7

A decision tree is generated by recursive splitting of data, based on the most informative

feature, into decision nodes that are used to make decisions and leaf nodes that determine the

result.8 Overfitting occurs during this recursive process when the decision tree catches

random fluctuations or noise in the data instead of learning the underlying patterns. This

overfitting issue can be solved by Random Forest.9 For this reason, Random Forest has been
Int. J. Mech. Eng. Res. & Tech 202 Int. J. Mech. Eng. Res. & Tech 20221

ISSN 2454 – 535X www.ijmert.com

Vol. 15, Issue. 3, sep 2023

chosen instead.

2.3 Drawbacks of Linear Regression

Linear regression cannot be used because it lacks suitability for password strength

classification due its inherent nature of predicting only numerical continuous outcomes,

whereas password classification involves categorisation into discrete classes.

"Decision Tree Classification Algorithm." Www.javatpoint.com,

www.javatpoint.com/machine-learning-decision-tree-classification-algorithm. Accessed 10 July 2023.
8
“What is a Decision Tree.” IBM, https://www.ibm.com/topics/decision-trees. Accessed 10 July 2023.
9
“Decision Tree Algorithm in Machine Learning.” Javatpoint,
https://www.javatpoint.com/machine-learning-decision-tree-classification-algorithm. Accessed 10 July 2023.

Figure 3: Linear Regression10

In Linear Regression, a linear regression is assumed between the inputted feature and output.

In the case of password classification, a complex relationship exists between password

feature and password strength, therefore, the linear regression model will not accurately
capture the relationship11. For this reason, Logistic Regression is used instead, which is better

suited to such classification problems.

2.4 Random Forest Algorithm

Random Forest is a supervised machine learning algorithm built on the concept of ensemble

learning, where multiple classifiers are combined to solve complex problems12. Like the name

suggests, a random forest is a collection of multiple decision trees that are trained on various

data subsets through a technique known as bootstrapping. Multiple decision trees enhance

10
"Linear Regression in Machine Learning - Javatpoint." Www.javatpoint.com,
www.javatpoint.com/linear-regression-in-machine-learning. Accessed 10 July 2023.
11
"Linear Regression in Machine Learning - Javatpoint." Www.javatpoint.com,
www.javatpoint.com/linear-regression-in-machine-learning. Accessed 10 July 2023.
12
"Random Forest Algorithm." Www.javatpoint.com,
www.javatpoint.com/machine-learning-random-forest-algorithm. Accessed 10 July 2023.
accuracy as instead of relying on a single decision tree, the algorithm takes the prediction

from each tree. In order to compute a result, a majority voting is done with each tree’s

prediction13.

Since each tree is generated independently with different data and attributes, Random Forest

allows parallelisation, meaning the CPU can fully be used to create random forests.

Moreover, as majority voting is carried out, the model’s performance is not heavily affected

by minor changes in the dataset, improving stability of the model. The majority vote also has

the added advantage of resistance to overfitting.

2.4 a Working of Random Forest for Password Strength Classification

Figure 4: Random Forest for Password

Int. J. Mech. Eng. Res. & Tech 202 Int. J. Mech. Eng. Res. & Tech 20221

ISSN 2454 – 535X www.ijmert.com

Vol. 15, Issue. 3, sep 2023

13
R, Sruthi E. "Random Forest | Introduction to Random Forest Algorithm." Analytics Vidhya, 21 June 2022,
www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2021/06/understanding-random-forest/. Accessed 10 July 2023.

During Training: Random data points are selected without replacement from the training data

to build individual decision trees. During construction of the trees, at each node the algorithm

partitions the data until a certain stopping criteria is met.

During Testing: For the same password instance from the training set, every tree individually

predicts based on its individual criteria, as seen in the image above, different trees give

different predictions. These predictions are then considered as votes and the class with the

most votes is then declared as the final predicted class.

2.5 Logistic Regression Algorithm

Logistic Regression is a supervised learning classification algorithm capable of predicting a

target variable’s probability based on dependent variables. The main purpose of the model is
 to find the best fitting model to describe a relationship between an independent variable and a

dependent variable14. A logistic function is used to model the dependent variable, hence, the

name logistic regression. This logistic function is represented the sigmoid function as below:

𝑆(𝑥) = 1
−𝑥
1+𝑒

Logistic Regression calculates its output using this equation to return a probability value

(between 0 and 1) determining its classification15. Although logistic regression is traditionally

used for binary classification, it can be extended further to classify three or more classes,

known as Multinomial Binary Classification16, which is used in this case.

14
"Logistic Regression in Machine Learning." Www.javatpoint.com,
www.javatpoint.com/logistic-regression-in-machine-learning. Accessed 10 July 2023.
15
Pant, Ayush. "Introduction to Logistic Regression." Medium, 22 Jan. 2019,
towardsdatascience.com/introduction-to-logistic-regression-66248243c148#:~:text=Logistic%20regression%20t
ransforms%20its%20output,to%20return%20a%20probability%20value. Accessed 10 July 2023.
16
"Just a Moment..." Just a Moment..,
machinelearningmastery.com/multinomial-logistic-regression-with-python/#:~:text=Logistic%20regression%20i
s%20a%20classification,to%20as%20binary%20classification%20problems. Accessed 10 July 2023.
A Comparison Study of Random Forest and Logistic Regression for Password Strength Classification

As Logistic Regression carries out relatively simple calculations in comparison to other

models, it is extremely quick at classifying unknown records. Moreover, as it draws linear

boundaries between the different classes, the risk of overfitting is minimised.

2.5 a Working of Logistic Regression for Password Strength Classification

Figure 5: Logistic Regression for Password Strength Classification

In order to classify the passwords, a One-Vs-Rest classification strategy has been used17.

17
GeeksforGeeks | A Computer Science Portal for Geeks,
www.geeksforgeeks.org/one-vs-rest-strategy-for-multi-class-classification/. Accessed 10 July 2023.
A Comparison Study of Random Forest and Logistic Regression for Password Strength Classification

During Training: Three different binary classifiers are trained for each output class (Weak,

Medium and Strong). All three models are trained on the same test data, however the labels

of positive or negative differ in each case. Through this, a threshold is calculated of ‘Weak’

or ‘Not Weak’, ‘Medium’ or ‘Not Medium’ and ‘Strong’ or ‘Not Strong’, as seen in the

image above.

During Testing: The password is passed through all three models and each model gives out an

output score indicating the probability of the password belonging to that class. The password

is then predicted to belong to the class with the highest probability.

3. Methodology

3.1 Dataset and Pre-processing

The two models were developed with Google Collaboratory18 using Python. To train and test

the models, the Password Strength Classification dataset from Kaggle was used19. The dataset

contains a total of 669643 passwords. The CSV file contains the password along with a

strength measure equal to 0, 1 or 2, with 0 being weak. There are 496,801 medium (1)

passwords, accounting for about 74% of all the passwords in the dataset.

Figure 6: Distribution of Dataset

Class Labelled As Count Ratio

Weak 0 89,702 13.395%

Medium 1 496,801 74.189%

Strong 2 83,137 12.415%

Total 669643

18
“Welcome To Colaboratory - Colaboratory.” Google Research, https://colab.research.google.com. Accessed 20
July 2023.
19
"Password Strength Classifier Dataset." Kaggle: Your Machine Learning and Data Science Community,
www.kaggle.com/datasets/bhavikbb/password-strength-classifier-dataset. Accessed 20 July 2023.
A Comparison Study of Random Forest and Logistic Regression for Password Strength Classification

As the data set is unbalanced with an approximately 1:6:1 ratio, the the accuracy is not

enough to establish which algorithm performs better due to the problem of overfitting, hence,

the confusion matrix is further used to calculate the F1-score in order to accurately evaluate

the models’ performances. Additionally, each model’s testing time was also noted.

During the pre-processing, the CSV file is loaded into a DataFrame. Then, the number of

missing values (NaNs) is identified and hence all missing values are deleted. The remaining

data is now converted into a numpy array and shuffled to avoid any biases that may exist in

the ordering of the dataset. Using a function for tokenization and the ‘fit_transform’ method,

the list of passwords is converted into a matrix of TF-IDF features.

Figure 7: Data preprocessing code

A Comparison Study of Random Forest and Logistic Regression for Password Strength Classification

3.2 Programming the Models

For this experiment, the training/testing split had to be the same for a fair comparison. Hence,

the train/test split was 80/20% for both models, meaning 535,711 passwords were used for

training and the remaining 133,928 for testing.

While programming the Random Forest model, the number of decision trees used in this

investigation is 10, specified through the ‘n_estiamtors’ parameter. The criterion is set as

‘entropy’, meaning that the algorithm will be using information gain based on entropy of

class labels to evaluate splits. With ‘random_state = 0’ the algorithm sets the random seed to

ensure reproducibility.

Figure 8: Programming the Random Forest model

Similarly, an instance of the ‘LogisticRegression’ class from scikit-learn20 is used to develop

the Logistic Regression model. This instance, named as ‘log_class’, is the logistic regression

classifier used for predictions

Figure 9: Programming the Logistic Regression model

In each model’s program, I measured the performance as follows:

scikit-learn: machine learning in Python — scikit-learn 1.3.0 documentation, https://scikit-learn.org/stable/.

20

Accessed 21 July 2023.

A Comparison Study of Random Forest and Logistic Regression for Password Strength Classification

1) F1 Score: calculated so that a single value can be used for comparison of the

algorithms to take into account a good average of the precision and recall21. Hence,

the F1 Score indicates a good balance between correctly identifying positive cases and

avoiding false positives. A higher F1 Score means better performance22. It is

calculated for each password strength classification for both the models

2 × (𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙)
𝐹1 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙
=

2) Prediction Time (seconds): Measured by the difference between the end and start

time for each model’s program. The values were calculated through the use of

Python’s time library, using the time.time() method23. The start time was computed

after the training and the end time was computed after the testing. Therefore, the

lower the prediction time in seconds, the better the performance. The prediction time

was calculated as whole for both the models.

3.3 Experimental Procedure

1. Complete TF-IDF vectorisation to transform passwords into a numerical matrix.

2. Execute the code for Random Forest, listing the resultant prediction time and

confusion matrix in the observation tables

3. Clear the Google Compute Engine’s memory to prevent lower time values in later

trials by having the training data in memory

4. Repeat steps 2-3 two more times for trial 2 and trial 3

21
"F1 Score in Machine Learning: Intro & Calculation." V7 - AI Data Platform for Computer Vision, 1 2023,
www.v7labs.com/blog/f1-score-guide. Accessed 20 July 2023.
22
Allwright, Stephen. “What is a good F1 score? Simply explained (2022).” Stephen Allwright, 20 April 2022,
https://stephenallwright.com/good-f1-score/. Accessed 20 July 2023.
23
“time — Time access and conversions — Python 3.11.4 documentation.” Python Docs,
https://docs.python.org/3/library/time.html. Accessed 21 July 2023.
A Comparison Study of Random Forest and Logistic Regression for Password Strength Classification

5. Calculate the F-1 score for each password strength using the confusion matrix from

the three trials and list in the observation tables

6. Repeat steps 2-5 for the Logistic Regression programme

Figure 10: Annotated code corresponding to particular steps in my procedure

A Comparison Study of Random Forest and Logistic Regression for Password Strength Classification

4. Experimental Results

4.1 F-1 Score

The table below compares the classification performances of the Random Forest and Logistic

Regression with respect to the password strength. All values observed from the program were

rounded off to 4 decimal places for higher precision. Three trials were conducted because

both the models have randomness in their initialisation and training process; therefore

conducting three trials ensures that the evaluation is representative and not influenced by a

specific randomisation. This averaged result will, thus, be more indicative of expected

real-world performance.

Figure 11: F-1 Score Results

Strength Random Forest Logistic Regression

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Avg. Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Avg.

Weak 0.9492 0.9484 0.9511 0.9495 0.3825 0.3963 0.3893 0.3893

Medium 0.9864 0.9856 0.9867 0.9862 0.8854 0.8844 0.8860 0.8852

Strong 0.9703 0.9685 0.9699 0.9695 0.7530 0.7389 0.7560 0.7493

A Comparison Study of Random Forest and Logistic Regression for Password Strength Classification

4.2 Prediction Time

The table below compares the prediction time of the Random Forest and Logistic Regression.

Each value in the table has been recorded in seconds elapsed during the program execution,

these lower values are more favourable as they indicate quicker predictions by the model. For

the same reasons as stated under ‘Prediction Accuracy’, four decimal places have been used

and three trails have been conducted.

Figure 12: Prediction Time Results

Time Random Forest Logistic Regression

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Avg. Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Avg.

0.4374 0.6834 0.9799 0.7002 0.0443 0.0440 0.0436 0.0439

4.3 Consolidated Performance Results

Figure 13: Consolidated results

Random Forest Logistic Regression

Macro F-1 Score Time/s Macro F-1 Score Time/s

0.9684 0.7002 0.6746 0.0439

A Comparison Study of Random Forest and Logistic Regression for Password Strength Classification

4.4 Analysing Random Forest Performance

Figure 14: Random Forest Performance

Prediction Time: 0.7002 seconds

My experiment indicates that Random Forest can predict password strength with very good

accuracy with a Macro F1 Score of 0.9684. The accuracy seems to increase as password

strength increases, however after medium strength there seems to be diminishing return in

accuracy, this may be due to the imbalance in the dataset. Nevertheless, the overall accuracy

from weak to strong increases from 0.9495 to 0.9695, therefore, the impact of the unbalanced

dataset on the model is minor. This may be the case as Random Forest can effectively handle

imbalanced data by assigning higher weights to the minority class24 during training, thus

improving classification of weak passwords. This property combined with its ensemble

nature are likely the reason for high accuracy.

24
“Surviving in a Random Forest with Imbalanced Datasets | by Kyoun Huh | SFU Professional Computer
Science.” Medium, 13 February 2021,
https://medium.com/sfu-cspmp/surviving-in-a-random-forest-with-imbalanced-datasets-b98b963d52eb.
Accessed 3 August 2023..
A Comparison Study of Random Forest and Logistic Regression for Password Strength Classification

However, the pros of the Random Forest are also likely the reason for its poor time

performance25 of 0.7002 seconds, a 16 times slower performance in comparison to Logistic

Regression. Its ensemble nature constructs 10 decision trees, each which requires time for

optimisation and growth followed by a voting process.

4.5 Analysing Logistic Regression Performance

Figure 15: Logistic Regression Performance

Once again, the results indicate the same pattern of increasing and decreasing accuracy,

however the variations in Logistic Regression are much more significant. With a macro F1

score of 0.6746, the Logistic Regression model has an average accuracy. This may be due to

the fact Logistic Regression handles categorical features by encoding them26, however, in the

case of passwords, the categorical variables have complex relationships, making it difficult

for the model to encode them. The unbalanced dataset may also be a huge contributor to

diminishing performance as unlike Random Forest, Logistic Regression can be biassed

25
“Random forest Algorithm in Machine learning: An Overview.” Great Learning,
https://www.mygreatlearning.com/blog/random-forest-algorithm/. Accessed 3 August 2023.
26
Roy, Baijayanta. “All about Categorical Variable Encoding | by Baijayanta Roy.” Towards Data Science,
https://towardsdatascience.com/all-about-categorical-variable-encoding-305f3361fd02. Accessed 3 August
2023.
A Comparison Study of Random Forest and Logistic Regression for Password Strength Classification

towards the majority class27 and struggle to predict the minority classes as seen with the

lower F1 score for weak (0.3893) and strong passwords (0.7493). Despite its accuracy

limitations, Logistic Regression took the lead in prediction time with just 0.0439 seconds.

5. Conclusion

In this paper, the performance of Random Forest and Logistic Regression was compared

using the prediction accuracy and prediction time for classification of password strength.

While the inputted dataset for both the models was identical, differences in general trends for

prediction accuracy and prediction time emerged.

Overall, my experiment shows that Random Forest performs with better accuracy whereas

Logistic Regression performs with better prediction time. Therefore, a performance-time

tradeoff exists in both the models for password strength classification. Hence, the selection of

the model depends on the stakeholder’s priority. In case of lower computational resources and

large time constraints, Logistic Regression would be a better choice, whereas where accuracy

is the deciding factor, Random Forest should be used. Hopefully, this paper will prove useful

to developers who are looking to incorporate machine learning models for password strength

classification in their projects.

27
“Issues using logistic regression with class imbalance, with a case study from credit risk modelling.” American
Institute of Mathematical Sciences, https://www.aimsciences.org/article/doi/10.3934/fods.2019016. Accessed 3
August 2023.
A Comparison Study of Random Forest and Logistic Regression for Password Strength Classification

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