Engineering Chemistry Notes (21CHE12/22)

Module-IV: POLYMERS AND GREEN FUELS

Polymers Green Fuels

• Introduction • Introduction
• Weight average and Number • PV cells, Construction, working,
average molecular weight advantages and disadvantages
• Kevlar Fibers • Generation of Green energy
• Graphene Oxide (Green Hydrogen)
• Polyacetylene • Disadvantages

Polymers

Introduction
Polymers are high molecular weight compounds obtained by the repeated union of simple molecules
(Monomers). Ex: Starch, silk, wool, Polyvinyl chloride, Polyethylene, Nylon 6,6 etc.
Classification of polymers.
Polymers are classified into two types as follows:
i) Natural polymers: These are naturally obtained by plants and animals.
Ex: Silk, wool, natural rubber, protein, starch, cellulose, etc.
ii) Synthetic Polymers: These are artificially prepared polymers also known as manmade polymers.
Ex: PVC, Nylon 6.6, Polyethylene, Phenol formaldehyde resin etc.,
Important Terms used:
• Monomer: These are the simple molecules, which combine with each other to form polymers.
These are the building blocks of Polymer.
• Polymerization: The process of linking of monomers to form polymers with or without the
elimination of by-products is called as polymerization.
• Degree of Polymerisation (n): The total number of monomers present in a single polymer chain is
called the degree of polymerisation.
• Functionality: The total number of bonding sites or functional groups present in a monomer is
called the functionality of the monomer
Number Average Molecular weight [Mn] & Weight Average Molecular weight [Mn]
Since polymer samples contain molecules of different sizes, we cannot give the exact molecular
weight of the polymer. Therefore, we use averages of different parameters to indicate the molecular
weight of the polymer.
 Engineering Chemistry Notes (21CHE12/22)

Number Average Molecular weight [Mn]: The number average molecular weight is the total
weight of the sample divided by the number of molecules in the sample. It is obtained by dividing
the total weight of dispersed material with the number of molecule present i.e

Where
• n1, n2, n3, are the number of molecules having masses M1, M2, M3, respectively.
• The above equation may also be written as,

Weight Average Molecular weight [Mn]: It represents various molecular species in proportion
to their average weight in the given material. Light scattering and sedimentation equilibrium
techniques, not only depends upon the number of particles in a given mass or volume but also on
the molecular size given a weight average molecular weight of the macromolecules. Hence in the
averaging process, the molecular weight of each individual species is multiplied by the weight and
not only the number. I.e..

Where
• n1, n2, n3, denotes the number of molecules having masses M1, M2, M3…, Then m1=
n1M1, m2 = n2M2, m3 = n3M3……The above equation may also be written as,

3.4 Kevlar fibers:

Kevlar fiber is a heat-resistant and strong synthetic fiber; it is typically spun into ropes or fabric sheets that
can be used as such, or as an ingredient in composite material components. Kevlar is synthesised in solution
from the monomers of 1,4 benzene dicarbonyl chloride & 1,4-phenylenediamine in a condensation reaction
yielding hydrochloric acid as a by-product.
 Engineering Chemistry Notes (21CHE12/22)

Properties Applications
Kevlar is crystalline, lightweight and nonflammable. Used in reinforcement material for some tyres.
Resistant to heat, impact and scratch. Used in boat hulls and the aerospace industry.
Good Chemical resistance. Used in formula one racing car tanks.
Good tensile strength. Used in bulletproof vests and combat helmets.

Preparation, properties and commercial applications of graphene oxide.

Introduction

Graphene oxide comprises a single-layer graphene sheet, covalently bonded to oxygen

functional groups such as hydroxyl and epoxy.
These oxygenated functional groups bind covalently with the carbon atoms in GO, creating
oxidised regions of sp3- hybridised carbon atoms that disrupt the non-oxidized regions of the
original sp2 honeycomb network.
 Engineering Chemistry Notes (21CHE12/22)

They are generally prepared by Hummer’s method, as shown below.

1. Strong oxidising agents KMnO4 and H2SO4 are used for graphite to form graphite oxide.
2. Exfoliation of Graphite oxide with organic Sonification provides single-layer graphene oxide
sheets.

H SO /K S O
2 4 2 2 8

Graphite Graphene Graphene oxide

Properties
• They are highly flexible.
• High mechanical strength.
• High electrical and thermal conductivity.
• They are light in weight.

Applications
• Energy Storage: Graphene oxide supercapacitors and lithium-ion batteries due to its
excellent electrical conductivity.
• Water Purification: Effective for removing various pollutants and heavy metals from
water.
• Biomedical Applications: Graphene oxide has shown potential in drug delivery.
• Sensors: Graphene oxide-based sensors have been developed for detecting gases.
• Composite Materials: Graphene oxide can be incorporated into polymers, metals, and
ceramics to enhance their mechanical strength.
• Flexible Electronics: Graphene oxide's water dispersibility and mechanical flexibility are
used in displays, touchscreens, and wearable devices.
 Engineering Chemistry Notes (21CHE12/22)

3.5 Conducting polymers

Polyacetylene is one of the polymers in the study that resulted in the Chemistry Nobel Prize in
2000.
Synthesis: The polymer is synthesised by the reaction of the acetylene, with the Ziegler-Natta
catalyst. The resulting structure is shown below.

Mechanism of conduction in Poly acetylene

Conducting mechanism of polyacetylene: The alternating double and single bond in the
polymer structure allows the polymer to resonate. The following steps occur when oxidative dopant
A (I2) is added to the polymer.
1. The partial oxidation in the polymer results in the gain of electron from the π- Carbon atom

creating a Positive center (Holes) in the carbon backbone called a polaron.

2. The second oxidation of polaron forms another positive center on the carbon backbone called
Soliton.
 Engineering Chemistry Notes (21CHE12/22)

3. As dopants are inserted in the polymer, the chains of polymers present charges. When a
potential is applied, the movement of this charge, by resonance, gives rise to the material’s
conductivity.
Green Fuels
Green fuels are carbon-neutral or even carbon-free alternatives to fossil fuels. Produced from
hydrogen and electricity from renewable sources.
Various green fuels on earth can be used instead of non-renewable energy sources,
effectively decreasing their usage and exploitation.
Some of the types of green fuels are as follows.
• Biomass,
• Wind power,
• Solar energy,
• Hydro energy,
• Biofuels and many more.

Green Fuel: Solar Energy

Introduction: The radiation reaching the earth from the sun and converting it into different useful
forms of energy is called solar energy.
Photovoltaic cell: “These are the semiconductor device, which converts light energy directly to
electrical energy”.
The most common material used for solar cells is crystalline silicon, the second member in group
IV A in the periodic table. It never occurs free in the nature, but occurs as oxides and silicates. Silicon is the
second abundant element found in world.
Construction and working of photovoltaic cell

Solar radiation
(Photon-light) Electron flow
e-

+
e-
n-type
Depletion layer
p-type

- e-
Glass sheet made up of
Sodium nitride
e-
Figure: Schematic diagram of the construction of PVC
 Engineering Chemistry Notes (21CHE12/22)

Construction: PV cells mainly consist of a p-n junction diode made up of Si semiconductor,

as shown in fig. Two electrical contacts construct it; one is a metallic grid over n-type and the
second layer of sodium nitride or silver metal at the back of the p-type semiconductor. An anti-
•
reflective layer (silver nitride) or TiO2 is coated between the metal grids to prevent the reflection
of solar light.
Working: when sunlight with (photon of energy E=hv) required energy falls on p-n junction,
electrons are ejected from the electron-hole pair in the p-n junction. The ejected electrons move to
n-type since the movement in n- type is one way, these ejected electrons must flow through external
circuit to combine with holes. These movements of electrons from n side to the p side generates an
electric current. Electrical energy is directly proportional to area of cell exposed to light radiation
and intensity.
Applications: Telecommunication repeater stations/tower • Water pumps • Navigational aids
• Laptop computers • Cottages and remote residences • Parks in remote regions • Supplying
occasional power • Satellites • Toys, watches
Advantages: Environmentally friendly, no need for recharging, Does not corrode, Operate at
low temperature, No emission, no combustion, High public acceptance and excellent record, Low
operating cost, No moving parts, and so no wear and tear.
Disadvantages: High Installation cost, Energy can be produced only during day time, Sun light
is a diffuse source.
Generation of Green Energy: Electrolysis of Water
1. Electrolysis of water
Electrolysis of water using electricity to split water into oxygen (O2) and hydrogen (H2) gas by
electrolysis. Hydrogen gas released in this way can be used as hydrogen fuel.
Construction: A DC electrical power source is
connected to two electrodes, or two plates (typically made
from an inert metal such as platinum or iridium) that are
placed in the water. Hydrogen appears at the cathode (where
electrons enter the water), and oxygen at the anode.
Working: A reduction reaction produces hydrogen gas in
pure water at the cathode. The net cell reactions are shown
below
 Engineering Chemistry Notes (21CHE12/22)

Anode (oxidation): 2 H2O → O2 + 4 H+ + 4e-

Cathode (reduction): 2 H+ + 2e- → H2
Overall reaction: 2 H2O → 2 H2 + O2

Advantages of Electrolysis of water

1. Used to produce Hydrogen
2. Renewable energy storage
3. Grid balancing.
4. Environmentally friendly
5. Energy independence