Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida

Network layer

Unit: 3

Communication Networks
(ACSE0602)
Dr. Prasanna Kumar Singh
Associate Professor
B Tech (CS) 6th Sem
Department of
Electronics and Communication
Engineering

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 Evaluation Scheme

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 Syllabus by University
Course Contents / Syllabus
UNIT-I Introduction 8 Hr
Goals and applications of networks, Categories of networks, Organization of the
Internet, ISP, The OSI reference model, TCP/IP protocol suite, Network devices
and components, Mode of communications
Physical Layer: Network topology design, Types of connections, LAN, MAN and
MAN Transmission media, Signal transmission and encoding, Network
performance and transmission impairments, Switching techniques and
multiplexing, IEEE standards.
UNIT-II Data Link layer 8 Hr
Framing, Error Detection and Correction, Flow control (Elementary Data Link
Protocols, Sliding Window protocols). Medium Access Control and Local Area
Networks: Channel allocation, Multiple access protocols, LAN standards, Link
layer switches & bridges.

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 Syllabus by University
Course Contents / Syllabus
UNIT-III Network Layer 8 Hr
Point-to-point networks, Logical addressing, Basic internetworking (IP, CIDR,
ARP, RARP, DHCP, ICMP), IPv4, Routing, forwarding and delivery, Static and
dynamic routing, Routing algorithms and protocols, Congestion control
algorithms, IPv6.
UNIT-IV Transport Layer 8 Hr
Process-to-process delivery, Transport layer protocols (UDP and TCP),
Connection management, Flow control and retransmission, Window
management, TCP Congestion control, Quality of service.
UNIT-V Application Layer 8 Hr
Domain Name System, World Wide Web and Hyper Text Transfer Protocol,
Electronic mail, File Transfer Protocol, Remote login, Network management,
Data compression, VPN, Cryptography – basic concepts, Firewalls.

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 References

• Text Books:
1. B. A. Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking”, 5th
Edition, TMH, 2017.
• Reference Books:
1. S. Tanenbaum, “Computer Networks”, 4th Edition, Pearson,
2013.
2. W. Stallings, “Data and Computer Communication”, 8th
Edition, Pearson, 2007.

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 Branch Wise Applications
• Fiber optic cables find many uses in a wide variety of industries and applications.
Some uses of fiber optic cables include:
• Medical
Used as light guides, imaging tools and also as lasers for surgeries
• Defense/Government
Used as hydrophones for seismic waves and SONAR , as wiring in aircraft,
submarines and other vehicles and also for field networking
• Data Storage
Used for data transmission
• Telecommunications
Fiber is laid and used for transmitting and receiving purposes
• Networking
Used to connect users and servers in a variety of network settings and help increase
the speed and accuracy of data transmission
• Industrial/Commercial
Used for imaging in hard to reach areas, as wiring where EMI is an issue, as
sensory devices to make temperature, pressure and other measurements, and as
wiring in automobiles and in industrial settings
• Broadcast/CATV
Broadcast/cable companies are using fiber optic cables for wiring CATV, HDTV,
internet, video on-demand and other applications

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Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3
 Course Objective

The objective of this course is to understand introduction of

computer networks with suitable transmission media and
different networking devices. Network protocols which are
essential for the computer network are need to explain such as
data link layer protocols and routing protocols.
A detail explanation of IP addressing , TCP/IP protocols and
application layer protocols are covered in this course.

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 Course Outcome
Outcomes
Cos
After Completion of the Course Student will be able to
Explain basic concepts, OSI reference model, services and role of each layer of
CO1 OSI model and TCP/IP, networks devices and transmission media, Analog and
digital data transmission.
CO2 Apply channel allocation, framing, error and flow control techniques and
describe the functions of Network Layer i.e. Logical addressing, subnetting &
Routing Mechanism.
CO3 Explain the different Transport Layer function i.e. Port addressing, Connection
Management, Error control and Flow control mechanism.

CO4 Explain the functions offered by session and presentation layer and their
Implementation.
CO5 Explain the different protocols used at application layer i.e. HTTP, SNMP, SMTP,
FTP,TELNET and VPN.

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 Program Outcomes

1. Engineering knowledge
2. Problem analysis
3. Design/development of solutions
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems
5. Modern tool usage
6. The engineer and society
7. Environment and sustainability
8. Ethics
9. Individual and team work
10. Communication
11. Project management and finance
12. Life-long learning

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 CO-PO Mapping

CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12

CO1 3 2 2 2 2 2 3

CO2 3 3 2 3

CO3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 3

CO4 3 2 2 2 3

CO5 3 3 2 2 3 2 3

Avg. 3 2.6 2.2 0.6 1.6 0.6 0 0.4 0.8 0 0.8 3

*3= High *2= Medium *1=Low

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 CO-PSO Mapping

Course Outcome
Program Specific
Outcomes CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 C05

2 2 2 2 2
PSO1

2 2 2 2
PSO2
2

2 2 2 3 2
PSO3

AVERAGE 2 2 2 2.3 2

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 Prerequisite and Recap

• Basics of Digital communication

• Knowledge of Computer.

• Fundamental of Digital logic design

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 Brief Introduction About Subject with videos
 An introduction to Computer networks and covers fundamental topics
like data, information to the definition of communication and computer
networks.

 The main objective of data communication and networking is to enable

seamless exchange of data between any two points in the world.

 This exchange of data takes place over a computer network.

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O--
rkQNKqls&list=PLbRMhDVUMngf-peFloB7kyiA40EptH1up

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 Content
• Vision & Mission of Institute & Department
• Course Objective & Course Outcome
• CO-PO & PSO Mapping
• Prerequisite and Recap
• Topic Objective & Mapping
• Introduction
• Networks
• LAN,WAN,MAN
• Goals and Application of Networks
• Network Protocols & Communication
• TCP & OSI Model & Line Coding Review

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 Content(Continue….)
• Quizzes, MCQs & Weekly Assignment

• Video Links

• University Question Paper

• Expected Questions for University Exam

• Summary

• Reference

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 Content

• Design Issues.
• Routing Algorithms.
• Congestion control Algorithms.
• Internetworking –TCP/IP, IP Packet, IPv4 and IPv6
Protocols,
• IPV4 Addresses,
• Connecting Devices,
• Virtual LAN IPV6 Addresses.

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 Course Objective

After completion of the course, student will be able to:

• CO1: Understand basic terminology of networking.
• CO2: Evaluate the functions of various layers and their
roles.

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 Course Outcome

At the end of this course students will able to:

• Identify the issues and challenges in the Architecture of a
network
• Understand the ISO/OSI seven layers in a network.
• Realize protocols at different layers of a network
hierarchy.
• Understand the various multiple access techniques and
channelization.
• Recognize security issues in a network.

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Dr. Prasanna
ElectronicSingh
Switching
CN CS Unit-3 Unit1 18
 CO-PO and PSO Mapping

Sr. Course PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
No Outcome

1 CO 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 - - 1 - - 1
2 CO 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 - - - 1 1 2

3 CO 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 - - 1 - 1 2

4 CO 4 2 1 2 1 2 2 - - 1 1 - 2

5 CO 5 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 - - 1 - 1

AVERAGE 2 1.8 2 1.4 1.4 1.6 0.2 0 0.6 0.6 0.4 1.6

Course Outcome
Program Specific Outcomes
CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5
PSO1 2 1 1 1 2
PSO2 1 2 2 2 1
PSO3 - - - - -
AVERAGE 1 1 1 1 1

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 Prerequisite and Recap

• Basics of networking and telecommunication is required.

• Read unit 1,2 and 3 complete to start this.
Recap :
• Introduction to data communication
• Network structure
• Multiple access techniques
• OSI model
• Physical layer
• Data link layer
• Network layer
• Transport layer
• Session layer

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 TCP/IP Layers with OSI model

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 Layer Protocols

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP

Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
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 Protocols and Network in TCP/IP Model

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 Position of Network Layer

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 Network Layer

Network Layer:

Responsibilities

 Host to Host delivery

 Logical Addressing
 Routing
 Fragmentation
 Congestion control

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Network layer is the third layer in the OSI model and here are some of the
functionalities of the network layer:

 Logical Addressing

In the internet world, there are two kinds of addressing, data link layer
addressing and logical addressing at the network layer. While physical
addressing at the data link layer is defined by the MAC address of a device,
on the other hand, IP addressing is defined at the network layer of the OSI
model. IP addressing is also known as logical addressing.

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 Routing

Routing is a method to route a data packet from source to destination. We can

think of routing as follows:
 When you want to access some data from Facebook, you open your laptop,
type Facebook's URL and send an HTTP request to facebook.com for some
data.
 Since Facebook's server is situated outside your local area network, your
request is forwarded to Facebook through the default gateway or router of your
institution.
 This forwarding of a data request to the destined server or user is known as
routing.
This functionality is done at the network layer of the OSI model.

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 Fragmentation and Reassembly

The network layer must send messages down to the data link layer for
transmission. The data that network layer receives is in the form of a
packet and the data that data link layer forwards is called a frame
Fragmentation and reassembly have to be done by the network layer
because some data link layer technologies have limits on the length of
any message that can be sent. If the packet that the network layer wants
to send is too large, the network layer must split the packet up, send each
piece to the data link layer, and then have pieces reassembled once they
arrive at the network layer on the destination machine.

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 Path determination

Between two computers on the internet, thousands of path topology may

exist to connect the one device to another. Some of the networks might be
private networks; to use some of the networks to send your data you
might have to pay; some of the networks en route might be very busy. But
network layer is so smart to find out these things within milliseconds.
Some of the other functionalities of the network layer which can be
regulated using different protocols working at the network layer are:
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): It is used by network
devices, like routers, to send error messages indicating, for example,
that a requested service is not available or that a host or router could
not be reached.
 IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol): IGMP protocol is
used by hosts and adjacent routers on IPv4 networks to establish
multicast group memberships

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  IPsec (Internet Protocol Security): Internet Protocol Security is a
protocol suite for secure Internet Protocol (IP) communications by
authenticating and encrypting each IP packet of a communication
session.
 RIP (Routing Information Protocol): The Routing Information Protocol
(RIP) is a routing protocol which employs the hop count as a routing
metric.

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 Network Layer Protocols

There are several network layer protocols in existence; however,

only the following two are commonly implemented:

• Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)

• Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6)

Other legacy network layer protocols that are not widely used
include:
• Novell Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX)
• AppleTalkConnectionless Network Service (CLNS/DECNet)

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 IP Datagram

• The term 'datagram' or 'packet' is used to describe a chunk

of IP data.
• Each IP datagram contains a specific set of fields in a
specific order so that the reader knows how to decode and
read the stream of data received.
• The description of the IP datagram format in this tutorial is
suitable for most purposes.

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 IPv4 Datagram Header

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 IPv4

• The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is a delivery

mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.
• IPv4 is an unreliable and connectionless datagram protocol-
which operates on a best effort delivery model.
• The term best-effort means that IPv4 provides no error
control or flow control.
• If reliability is important, IPv4 must be paired with a reliable
protocol such as TCP.
• IPv4 uses 32-bit (4 bytes) addressing, which gives
232 addresses and IPv4 addresses are written in the dot-
decimal notation, for example: 192.168.1.5.

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 Routing

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 IP

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 IP

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 Example 19.6
IPv4 address : classless addressing

Classless
addressing

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 IPv4 address : classless addressing

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 IPv4 address : classless addressing

No .of Host id= 2^(32-n) bits

Let n=28, Block id=28 bits
and Host id=32-28 bits=4 bits
(32-n) bits No .of Host id= 2^(4) bits
(n always be n bits =16 bits
fixed ) (28) (4)
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 IPv4 address : classless addressing

Host id

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 How to find Home Network
One of the IP add. in a network

Host id bits

Mask Mask

255.255.224.0
Perform
AND
Host id bits
operation

(Home Network or Block Id)

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 IPv4 address : classless addressing

Three-level hierarchy in an IPv4 address

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 (Dividing into small
networks)

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 IP -Subnetting

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 Subnetting

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 Subnetting

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 Subnetting

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 Subnetting

Class A- 11111111 /8 CIDR -By default

Class A- 11111111 11000000 /10 Subnetting

Class B- 11111111 11111111 /16 CIDR -By default

Class B- 11111111 11111111 11110000 /20 Subnetting

Class C- 11111111 11111111 11111111 /24 CIDR -By default

Class C- 11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000 /28 Subnetting

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 Subnetting

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 Subnetting

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 Subnetting

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 Subnetting

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 AND operation

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 AND operation

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 IPv4 address

Addresses in a NAT

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 IPv6 address

Objective: Study about basic concept of IPv6 and its function

Despite all short-term solutions, address depletion is still a long-term

problem for the Internet. This and other problems in the IP protocol
itself have been the motivation for IPv6

An IPv6 address is 128 bits long.

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 IPv6 address

IPv6 address in binary and hexadecimal colon notation

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 IPv6

• IP version 6 is the new version of Internet Protocol, which is

way better than IP version 4 in terms of complexity and
efficiency.
• Range increased from 32 bits to 128 bits.
• 2^128
• A new type of address called an “Any cast address" is
defined,
• It is used to send a packet to any one of a group of nodes.
• Authentication and Privacy Capabilities Extensions to
support authentication, data integrity, and (optional) data
confidentiality are specified for IPv6.

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 IPv6 Header Format

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 IPv6 address

Expand the address 0:15::1:12:1213 to its original.

Solution
We first need to align the left side of the double colon to the left of the
original pattern and the right side of the double colon to the right of the
original pattern to find how many 0s we need to replace the double
colon.

This means that the original address is.

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 Routing Algorithm

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 Routing Algorithm

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 Routing Algorithm

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 Routing Algorithm

Routing Algorithms-

•Routing algorithms are meant for determining the routing of packets in a node.
•Routing algorithms are classified as-

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 Routing Algorithm

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 (Border
Gateway
Protocol)

(Routing Information Protocol) (Open Shortest Path First)

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 Routing Algorithm

Desired Properties of Routing Algorithm

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 Routing

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 Routing

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 Routing

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 Routing

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 Routing

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 Routing

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 Routing

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 Routing

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 Routing

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 Routing

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 Routing

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 Routing

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 Routing

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 Routing

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 Routing

It solves the problem of count to infinity of Distance vector Algorithm

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 Routing

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 Routing

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 ’s
(Single Source Shortest Path)

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 Relaxation
• Maintaining this shortest discovered distance d[v] is called
relaxation:
Relax (u, v, w)
{
if (d[v] > d[u]+w) then
d[v]=d[u]+w;
}
where, w= c(u,v)

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 Dijkstra’s Algorithm

• In Dijkstra’s algorithm, take the next unvisited vertex which

has the current shortest path from the starting vertex in the
table.
• To keep track of those vertices to which no path has reached,
we can assign those vertices an initial distance of either
• infinity (∞ ),
• a number larger than any possible path, or
• a negative number
• For demonstration purposes, we will use ∞
• As well as finding the length of the shortest path, we’d like to find
the corresponding shortest path
• Each time we update the shortest distance to a particular vertex,
we will keep track of the predecessor used to reach this vertex on
the shortest path.
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 Example of Dijkstra’s algorithm
Graph with 2
B D
edge weights: 10
8
A 1 4 7 9

Dijkstra’s Algorithm:-
3
C 2 E
• Minimization Method- Optimization
• Optimization problem can be solve by Greedy Approach gives Optimum result
• So, it’s a predefined procedure – solve in stages like vertex to vertex approach
• Shortest path from One vertex to every vertices either direct path or via other
vertices
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 Example of Dijkstra’s algorithm
 
Initialize: 2
Note- Select any vertex as source one B D
10
Let A be the source vertex
8
0 A 1 4 7 9
Source Destination
3
Q: A B C D E C 2 E
0      

S: {}

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 Example of Dijkstra’s algorithm
 
“A”  EXTRACT-MIN(Q): 2
B D
10
8
0 A 1 4 7 9

3
Q: A B C D E C 2 E
0      

S: { A }

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 Example of Dijkstra’s algorithm
10 
Relax all edges leaving A: 2
B D
10
8
0 A 1 4 7 9

3
Q: A B C D E C 2 E
0     3 
10 3  

S: { A }

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 Example of Dijkstra’s algorithm
10 
“C”  EXTRACT-MIN(Q): 2
B D
10
8
0 A 1 4 7 9

3
Q: A B C D E C 2 E
0     3 
10 3  

S: { A, C }

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 Example of Dijkstra’s algorithm
Relax all edges leaving C: 7 11
2
B D
10
8
0 A 1 4 7 9

3
Q: A B C D E C 2 E
0     3 5
10 3  
7 11 5
S: { A, C }

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 Example of Dijkstra’s algorithm
“E”  EXTRACT-MIN(Q): 7 11
2
B D
10
8
0 A 1 4 7 9

3
Q: A B C D E C 2 E
0     3 5
10 3  
7 11 5
S: { A, C, E }

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 Example of Dijkstra’s algorithm
Relax all edges leaving E: 7 11
2
B D
10
8
0 A 1 4 7 9

3
Q: A B C D E C 2 E
0     3 5
10 3  
7 11 5
7 11 S: { A, C, E }

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 Example of Dijkstra’s algorithm
“B”  EXTRACT-MIN(Q): 7 11
2
B D
10
8
0 A 1 4 7 9

3
Q: A B C D E C 2 E
0     3 5
10 3  
7 11 5
7 11 S: { A, C, E, B }

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 Example of Dijkstra’s algorithm
Relax all edges leaving B: 7 9
2
B D
10
8
0 A 1 4 7 9

3
Q: A B C D E C 2 E
0     3 5
10 3  
7 11 5
7 11 S: { A, C, E, B }
9
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 Example of Dijkstra’s algorithm
“D”  EXTRACT-MIN(Q): 7 9
2
B D
10
8
0 A 1 4 7 9

3
Q: A B C D E C 2 E
0     3 5
10 3  
7 11 5
7 11 S: { A, C, E, B, D }
9
4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 160
 Summary

• Given a weighted directed graph, we can find the shortest

distance between two vertices by:
– starting with a trivial path containing the initial vertex
– growing this path by always going to the next vertex which
has the shortest current path

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 Routing
Forming shortest path three for router A in a graph

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 Routing

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 Routing

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 Routing

To show that the shortest path tree for each node is different, we found
the shortest path tree as seen by node C.

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4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 167
 Routing

(Border
(Routing (Open Shortest Path First)
Gateway
Information
Protocol)
Protocol)

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 Distance Vector Routing Algorithm

Distance Vector Routing is a dynamic routing algorithm.

(Updating of Routing table )
It works in the following steps-

Step-01:

Each router prepares its routing table. By their local knowledge. each router knows
about-

•All the routers present in the network

•Distance to its neighboring routers

Step-02:

•Each router exchanges its distance vector with its neighboring routers.
•Each router prepares a new routing table using the distance vectors it has
obtained from its neighbors.
•This step is repeated for (n-2) times if there are n routers in the network.
•After this, routing tables converge / become stable.
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 Distance Vector Routing

Distance Vector Routing Example-

Consider-
•There is a network consisting of 4 routers.
•The weights are mentioned on the edges.
•Weights could be distances or costs or delays.

At Router A- At Router B-
Destination Distance Next Hop Destination Distance Next Hop

A 0 A A 2 A
B 2 B B 0 B
C ∞ – C 3 C
D 1 D D 7 D

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 Distance Vector Routing

Step-01:

Each router prepares its routing table using its local knowledge.
Routing table prepared by each router is shown below-

At Router A-
At Router B-
Destination Distance Next Hop Destination Distance Next Hop

A 0 A A 2 A
B 2 B B 0 B
C ∞ – C 3 C
D 1 D D 7 D

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 Distance Vector Routing

At Router C- At Router D-
Destination Distance Next Hop Destination Distance Next Hop

A ∞ – A 1 A
B 3 B B 7 B
C 0 C C 11 C
D 11 D D 0 D
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 Distance Vector Routing
Step-02:

•Each router exchanges its distance vector obtained in Step-01 with its neighbors.
•After exchanging the distance vectors, each router prepares a new routing table.

This is shown below-

At Router A-

•Router A receives distance vectors from its neighbors B and D.

•Router A prepares a new routing table as-

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 Distance Vector Routing
•Cost of reaching destination B from router A = min { 2+0 , 1+7 } = 2 via B.
•Cost of reaching destination C from router A = min { 2+3 , 1+11 } = 5 via B.
•Cost of reaching destination D from router A = min { 2+7 , 1+0 } = 1 via D.

Explanation For Destination B

•Router A can reach the destination router B via its neighbor B or neighbor D.
•It chooses the path which gives the minimum cost.
•Cost of reaching router B from router A via neighbor B = Cost (A→B) + Cost
(B→B)= 2 + 0 = 2
•Cost of reaching router B from router A via neighbor D = Cost (A→D) + Cost (D→B)
=1+7=8
•Since the cost is minimum via neighbor B, so router A chooses the path via B.
•It creates an entry (2, B) for destination B in its new routing table.
•Similarly, we calculate the shortest path distance to each destination router at every
router.
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 Distance Vector Routing

Thus, the new routing table at router A is-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 0 A
B 2 B
C 5 B
D 1 D

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 Distance Vector Routing

At Router B-

•Router B receives distance vectors from its neighbors A, C and D.

•Router B prepares a new routing table as-

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 Distance Vector Routing

•Cost of reaching destination A from router B = min { 2+0 , 3+∞ , 7+1 } = 2 via A.
•Cost of reaching destination C from router B = min { 2+∞ , 3+0 , 7+11 } = 3 via C.
•Cost of reaching destination D from router B = min { 2+1 , 3+11 , 7+0 } = 3 via A.

Thus, the new routing table at router B is-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 2 A
B 0 B
C 3 C
D 3 A

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 Distance Vector Routing

At Router C-

•Router C receives distance vectors from its neighbors B and D.

•Router C prepares a new routing table as-

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 Distance Vector Routing

•Cost of reaching destination A from router C = min { 3+2 , 11+1 } = 5 via B.

•Cost of reaching destination B from router C = min { 3+0 , 11+7 } = 3 via B.
•Cost of reaching destination D from router C = min { 3+7 , 11+0 } = 10 via B.

Thus, the new routing table at router C is-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 5 B
B 3 B
C 0 C
D 10 B

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 Distance Vector Routing

At Router D-

•Router D receives distance vectors from its neighbors A, B and C.

•Router D prepares a new routing table as-

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 Distance Vector Routing

•Cost of reaching destination A from router D = min { 1+0 , 7+2 , 11+∞ } = 1 via A.
•Cost of reaching destination B from router D = min { 1+2 , 7+0 , 11+3 } = 3 via A.
•Cost of reaching destination C from router D = min { 1+∞ , 7+3 , 11+0 } = 10 via B.

Thus, the new routing table at router D is-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 1 A

B 3 A

C 10 B

D 0 D

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 Distance Vector Routing
Step-03:

•Each router exchanges its distance vector obtained in Step-02 with its neighboring
routers.
•After exchanging the distance vectors, each router prepares a new routing table.

This is shown below-

At Router A-

•Router A receives distance vectors from its neighbors B and D.

•Router A prepares a new routing table as-

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 Distance Vector Routing

•Cost of reaching destination B from router A = min { 2+0 , 1+3 } = 2 via B.

•Cost of reaching destination C from router A = min { 2+3 , 1+10 } = 5 via B.
•Cost of reaching destination D from router A = min { 2+3 , 1+0 } = 1 via D.

Thus, the new routing table at router A is-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 0 A

B 2 B

C 5 B

D 1 D

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 Distance Vector Routing

At Router B-

•Router B receives distance vectors from its neighbors A, C and D.

•Router B prepares a new routing table as-

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 Distance Vector Routing

•Cost of reaching destination A from router B = min { 2+0 , 3+5 , 3+1 } = 2 via A.
•Cost of reaching destination C from router B = min { 2+5 , 3+0 , 3+10 } = 3 via C.
•Cost of reaching destination D from router B = min { 2+1 , 3+10 , 3+0 } = 3 via A.

Thus, the new routing table at router B is-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 2 A

B 0 B

C 3 C

D 3 A

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 Distance Vector Routing

At Router C-

•Router C receives distance vectors from its neighbors B and D.

•Router C prepares a new routing table as-

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 186

 Distance Vector Routing

•Cost of reaching destination A from router C = min { 3+2 , 10+1 } = 5 via B.

•Cost of reaching destination B from router C = min { 3+0 , 10+3 } = 3 via B.
•Cost of reaching destination D from router C = min { 3+3 , 10+0 } = 6 via B.

Thus, the new routing table at router C is-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 5 B

B 3 B

C 0 C

D 6 B

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 Distance Vector Routing

At Router D-

•Router D receives distance vectors from its neighbors A, B and C.

•Router D prepares a new routing table as-

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 188

 Distance Vector Routing

•Cost of reaching destination A from router D = min { 1+0 , 3+2 , 10+5 } = 1 via A.
•Cost of reaching destination B from router D = min { 1+2 , 3+0 , 10+3 } = 3 via A.
•Cost of reaching destination C from router D = min { 1+5 , 3+3 , 10+0 } = 6 via A.

Thus, the new routing table at router D is-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 1 A

B 3 A

C 6 A

D 0 D

These will be the final routing tables at each router.

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 189
 Distance Vector Routing

Identifying Unused Links-

After routing tables converge (becomes stable),

•Some of the links connecting the routers may never be used.
•In the above example, we can identify the unused links as-

We have-
•The value of next hop in the final routing table of router A suggests that only edges
AB and AD are used.
•The value of next hop in the final routing table of router B suggests that only edges
BA and BC are used.
•The value of next hop in the final routing table of router C suggests that only edge
CB is used.
•The value of next hop in the final routing table of router D suggests that only edge
DA is used.

Thus, edges BD and CD are never used.

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 190

 Distance Vector Routing

Important Notes-
Note-01:
n Distance Vector Routing,
Only distance vectors are exchanged.
“Next hop” values are not exchanged.
This is because it results in exchanging the large amount of data which consumes more
bandwidth.

Note-02:

While preparing a new routing table-

A router takes into consideration only the distance vectors it has obtained from its
neighboring routers.
It does not take into consideration its old routing table.

Note-03:

The algorithm is called so because-

It involves exchanging of distance vectors between the routers.
Distance vector is nothing but an array of distances.
4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 191
 Distance Vector Routing

Note-04:

The algorithm keeps on repeating periodically and never stops.

This is to update the shortest path in case any link goes down or topology changes.

Note-05:

Routing tables are prepared total (n-1) times if there are n routers in the given
network.
This is because shortest path between any 2 nodes contains at most n-1 edges if there
are n nodes in the graph.

Note-06:

Distance Vector Routing suffers from count to infinity problem.

Distance Vector Routing uses UDP at transport layer.

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 192

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 193
 DHCP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 194

 DHCP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 195

 DHCP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 196

 DHCP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 197

 DHCP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 198

 DHCP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 199

 DHCP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 200

 DHCP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 201

 DHCP

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 DHCP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 203

 ARP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 204

 ARP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 205

 ARP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 206

 ARP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 207

 ARP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 208

 ARP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 209

 NAT

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 210

 NAT

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 211

 NAT

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 212

 ICMP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 213

 ICMP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 214

 ICMP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 215

 ICMP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 216

 ICMP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 217

 ICMP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 218

 ICMP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 219

 NAT

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 220

 Congestion Control

• Congestion is an important issue that can arise in packet

switched network.
• Congestion is a situation in Communication Networks in
which too many packets are present in a part of the
subnet, performance degrades.
• Congestion in a network may occur when the load on the
network (i.e. the number of packets sent to the network)
is greater than the capacity of the network (i.e. the
number of packets a network can handle.).
• Network congestion occurs in case of traffic overloading.

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 221

 Congestion Control

Congestion in a network may occur if the load on the network—

the number of packets sent to the network—is greater than the
capacity of the network—the number of packets a network can
handle. Congestion control refers to the mechanisms and
techniques to control the congestion and keep the load below
the capacity.
Queues in a router

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 222

 Congestion Control

Packet delay and throughput as functions of load

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 223

 Congestion Control

Factor that causes Congestion

• Packet arrival rate exceeds the outgoing link capacity.

• Insufficient memory to store arriving packets.
• Bursty traffic.
• Slow processor.

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 224

 Congestion Control Techniques

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 225

 Congestion Control

Congestion control categories

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 226

 Congestion Control

Open- Loop Congestion Control

 Open loop congestion control policies are applied to

prevent congestion before it happens. The congestion
control is handled either by the source or the destination.
 Policies adopted by open loop congestion control
• Retransmission Policy
• Window Policy
• Discarding Policy
• Acknowledgment Policy:
• Admission Policy

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 227

 Congestion Control

Closed- Loop Congestion Control

 Closed loop congestion control technique is used to treat

or alleviate congestion after it happens.
 Several techniques are used by different protocols; some
of them are:
• Backpressure
• Choke packet technique
• Implicit Signaling
• Explicit Signaling
• Forward Signaling
• Backward Signaling

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 228

 Congestion Control

Backpressure method for alleviating congestion

Choke packet

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 229

 Congestion Control

Closed- Loop Congestion Control

Backpressure:
• Backpressure is a technique in which a congested node
stop receiving packet from upstream node.
• This may cause the upstream node or nodes to become
congested and rejects receiving data from above nodes.
• Backpressure is a node-to-node congestion control
technique that propagates in the opposite direction of
data flow.
• The backpressure technique can be applied only to virtual
circuit where each node has information of its above
upstream node.

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 230

 Congestion Control

Closed- Loop Congestion Control

Backpressure:

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 231

 Congestion Control

Closed- Loop Congestion Control

Choke packet technique:
• It is applicable to both virtual networks as well as
datagram subnets.
• A choke packet is a packet sent by a node to the source
to inform it of congestion.
• Each router monitors its resources and the utilization at
each of its output lines.
• Whenever the resource utilization exceeds the threshold
value which is set by the administrator, the router directly
sends a choke packet to the source giving it a feedback
to reduce the traffic.

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 232

 Congestion Control

Closed- Loop Congestion Control

Choke packet technique:

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 233

 Congestion Control

• `

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 234

 Congestion Control

• `

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 235

 Congestion Control

• `

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 Congestion Control

• `

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 237

 Congestion Control

• `

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 238

 Congestion Control

FIFO queue

Priority queuing

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 239

 Congestion Control

Weighted fair queuing

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 240

 Congestion Control

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 241

 Congestion Control

Leaky bucket
A leaky bucket
algorithm
shapes busty
traffic into
fixed-rate
traffic by
averaging the
data rate. It
Leaky bucket implementation
may drop the
packets if the
bucket is full.

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 242

 Congestion Control

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 243

 Congestion Control

Token bucket

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 244

 Congestion Control

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 245

 Congestion Control

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 246

 Congestion Control

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 247

 Faculty Video Links, Youtube & NPTEL Video Links and Online
Courses Details

• YouTube/ other Video Links:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ThdO9beHhpA : IP address

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vdc8TCESIg8 : TCP and UDP

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G5bhSs-s1cw: TCP/IP

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PT06TsYJDsM&t=17s: ATM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ef4ztFwzBW0: ATM layers

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 248

 Daily Quiz

• The network layer is concerned with __________ of data.

a) bits
b) frames
c) packets
d) bytes

• Which one of the following is not a function of network layer?

a) routing
b) inter-networking
c) congestion control
d) error control

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 249

 Daily Quiz

• A 4 byte IP address consists of __________

a) only network address
b) only host address
c) network address & host address
d) network address & MAC address

• The network layer protocol for internet is __________

a) Ethernet
b) internet protocol
c) hypertext transfer protocol
d) file transfer protocol

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 250

 Daily Quiz

• Which one of the following algorithm is not used for

congestion control?
a) traffic aware routing
b) admission control
c) load shedding
d) routing information protocol

• Which of the following are transport layer protocols used in

networking?
a) TCP and FTP
b) UDP and HTTP
c) TCP and UDP
d) HTTP and FTP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 251

 Weekly Assignment

• Explain IPv4 and IPv6 addressing.

• What is the difference between network layer delivery and
transport layer delivery?
• Explain the congestion control techniques.
• Define connectionless and connection oriented services.
Explain header format of TCP protocol.
• What do you understand by ATM(Asynchronous Transfer
Machine)? Explain cell header format in ATM and briefly
describe the four services classes of ATM.
• Can a host have more than one IP Address? Explain.
• List the features of UDP & Calculate the size of largest
possible UDP message.

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 252

 MCQ s

• Transmission control protocol ___________

a) is a connection-oriented protocol
b) uses a three way handshake to establish a connection
c) receives data from application as a single stream
d) all of the mentioned

• Which of the following is not applicable for IP?

a) Error reporting
b) Handle addressing conventions
c) Datagram format
d) Packet handling conventions

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 253

 MCQ s

• Which one of the following is a version of UDP with

congestion control?
a) datagram congestion control protocol
b) stream control transmission protocol
c) structured stream transport
d) user congestion control protocol

• Which of the following field in IPv4 datagram is not related to

fragmentation?
a) Flags
b) Offset
c) TOS
d) Identifier

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 254

 MCQ s

• Transport layer protocols deals with ____________

a) application to application communication
b) process to process communication
c) node to node communication
d) man to man communication

• The size of an IP address in IPv6 is _________

a) 4 bytes
b) 128 bits
c) 8 bytes
d) 100 bits

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 255

 MCQ s

• The header length of an IPv6 datagram is ___________

a) 10bytes
b) 25bytes
c) 30bytes
d) 40bytes

• If the value in protocol field is 17, the transport layer protocol

used is _____________
a) TCP
b) UDP
c) ICMP
d) IGMP

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 256

 Old Question Papers

• Describe the ATM protocol layers and compare them to OSI protocol
hierarchy.
• Explain the frame format of IPv4? What are the advantages of IPv6 and
IPv4?
• Explain the header format of TCP? How connection is established in TCP?
• Explain the following?
(i) Leaky bucket algorithm (ii) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• What are the various causes of Congestion?
• What are the desired properties of routing algorithm?
• Compare IPv4 and IPv6.
• What do you understand by TCP and UDP . Explain.
• Define the terms: MAC address, IP address, Hardware/ Physical address
• What do you understand by ATM? Explain cell header format in ATM and
briefly Describe the four services classes of ATM

4/7/2023 Dr. Prasanna Singh CN CS Unit-3 257

 Expected Questions for University Exam

• What do you understand by ATM? Explain cell header format

in ATM and briefly Describe the four services classes of ATM.
• Explain the Transmission control protocol with their header
format.
• What is IP datagram? In how many categories IP address are
defined. Explain them.
• Differentiate between TCP and UDP
• What do you mean by Congestion control? Explain the
various Congestion control techniques.
• List the various design issues related to session layer.
• List the features of UDP & Calculate the size of largest
possible UDP message.

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 Summary

This unit is devoted to network layer, transport layer and

session layer of Internet model. This unit covers IP
addresses : IPv4 and IPv6 and various network layer
protocols such as IP, ARP, ICMP, IGMP for the delivery
and routing of packets over the internet. Overview of
transport layer services and protocols used in this layer:
UDP and TCP are also covered in this unit. A brief
introduction of ATM, congestion control, quality of service
and issues related to session layer is also presented in
this unit.
.

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 References

• Forouzan, Data Communication & Networking, McGrawhill

Education
• Lathi, B. P. & Ding, Z., (2010), Modern Digital and Analog
Communication Systems,Oxford University Press
• Stallings, W., (2010), Data and Computer Communications,
Pearson.
• Andrew S. Tanenbaum, “Computer Networks” Pearson.
• Ajit Pal, “Data Communication and Computer Networks”,
PHI
• Dimitri Bertsekas, Robert G. Gallager, “Data Networks”,
Prentice Hall, 1992

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