Phase Change

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 o A physical process in which a substance

goes from one phase to another
Module 1: Intermolecular Forces and o Phase is a homogenous part of the system
Liquids and Solids in contact with other parts of the system
but separated from them by well defined
Lesson 1: The Kinetic Molecular Theory of boundary
Liquids and Solids
Lesson 2: Intermolecular forces of
The Kinetic Molecular theory of Matter states attraction
that matter is a package of a large number of
small particles, individual atoms, or molecules, Intermolecular Forces
which are in constant random motion. o Attractive forces between molecules
o Forces that is needed to surpass for the
The distance between the molecules of solid phase change to proceed
and liquid is their primary difference, which is o Mainly responsible for the physical
why solids are less compressible than liquids. characteristics and different properties of
a substance (e.g. melting point and
State of Volume/ Compres Motion of boiling point)
Density
Matter Shape sibility Molecule o A force weaker than intramolecular
Has
Vibrate forces
definite Virtually
about
SOLID volume High compres
fixed
and sible Intramolecular Forces
position
shape
Has a
o Forces hold atoms together
definite o Forces that exist between the bonded
volume atoms of a compound or a molecule
but Only Slide one
assumes slightly past o Stabilizes molecules
LIQUID High
the compres another o e.g. covalent bond, ionic bond, metallic
shape of sible freely
its bond
containe
r
Different types of intermolecular forces (van
Assumes
the Der Waals forces)
volume
Very
and Very free
GAS
shape of
Low compres
motion
o Named after the Dutch physicist
sible
its Johannes van Der Waals
containe
r
London Dispersion Forces
SOLID: There is such a strong attraction in a o or Dispersion Force
solid that it dominates its movement and o Named after Fritz London
particles only jiggle in place. Because the o Temporary attractive force due to the
particles' positions are fixed, they have a formation of temporary dipoles in a non-
distinct shape and do not flow. Solid particles polar molecule
are densely packed together, making o Interaction between non-polar
compression difficult. molecules
o Weakest Intermolecular force
LIQUID: The particles of liquid are in contact o Exists in all particles, polar or non-polar,
that is why it has a stronger attraction of ionic or covalent
particles than in gases. The kinetic energy o Contributes to the overall energy of
allows the particles of liquids to move freely attraction of all substances
and past one another. Liquids resist an applied o Stronger in large molecules such as I2
external force and compressed slightly than and Xe, and weaker in smaller molecules
gases because of the little space between such as H2 and He
particles. They move and diffuse at a slower
rate than gases

GAS: The distance between the molecules of

gases is very great, which is why gases are
readily compressed and has a low density
under normal conditions.
Dipole-Dipole Forces
o Attractive force between polar
molecules (molecules that possess dipole
moments (polar covalent compounds))
o Their origin is electrostatic
o Can only be understood in terms of
Coulomb’s law
o The larger the dipole moment, the
greater the force Induced dipole-Induced dipole forces
o Attraction between a slightly positive
and a slightly negative charged particles
o Common attraction among noble gasses
o Constantly happening

Ion-Dipole Forces
o Attraction between cation or anion and
a polar molecule to each other
o The strength of this interaction depends
on the charge and size of the ion and on
the magnitude of dipole moment and
size of the molecule
o Cations interact more strongly than
anions with dipoles of the same
magnitude because cations are smaller
than anions and their charges are more
Hydrogen Bonding concentrated
o Special type dipole-dipole interaction
between the hydrogen atom in a polar
bond
o Occurs specifically between a hydrogen
atom bonded to either an oxygen,
nitrogen, or fluorine atom

Relative order of
Type of Intermolecular
boiling and
Compound force present
melting point
Ion to ion
attraction
Ionic Compound between ions, 1 (HIGEST)
London
dispersion forces
Dipole-Induced Dipole Forces Covalent
Hydrogen bonds,
o A weak attraction that results when a compounds
London 2
containing
polar molecule induces a dipole in an hydrogen bonds
dispersion forces
atom or in a non polar molecule Dipole-dipole
o A type of attractive force that operates attraction
between dipoles
between a polar molecule that have a Polar Covalent
created by 3
Compounds
permanent dipole and a molecules partially charged
ions, London
lacking permanent dipole dispersion forces
o Induced dipole moment depends on the Non-polar
London
dipole moment of the permanent dipole Covalent 4 (LOWEST)
Dispersion Forces
Compounds
and the polarisability of the electrically
neutral molecule
Polar Molecules
o Have an unequal distribution of charge,
meaning that one part of the molecule is
 slightly positive and the other part is
slightly negative
o The molecule is said to be a dipole
Non-Polar Molecules
o Have an equal distribution of charge

Lesson 3: Properties of Liquids

Due to intermolecular forces of attraction,

different properties and structural features
Vapor Pressure
of liquids arise.
o Measure of the pressure (force per unit
area) exerted by a gas above a liquid in
These are: surface tension, viscosity, vapor a container
pressure, boiling point, and molar heat of o Stronger intermolecular forces of
vaporization. attraction mean a lower vapor pressure
of liquid
Surface Tension
o Amount of energy required to stretch or
increase the surface of a liquid by a unit
area
o Capillary Action/Capillarity
➢ Rising of a polar liquid through a narrow
space against the pull of gravity
➢ The net result of two opposing sets of
forces: cohesive forces, which are the
intermolecular forces that hold a liquid
together, and adhesive forces, which
are the attractive forces between a
liquid and the substance that
composes the capillary
o Cohesion (Cohesive force)
➢ Intermolecular attraction between like Boiling Point
molecules o Temperature in which the vapor pressure
o Adhesion (Adhesive force) of the liquid is equal to the pressure
➢ Intermolecular attraction between exerted on the liquid (atmospheric
unlike molecules pressure, unless the vessel containing the
➢ Bind a substance to a surface liquid is closed)
o Boiling happens when the vapor pressure
is equal to the atmospheric pressure and
stable bubbles form within the liquid
o The higher the intermolecular force of
attraction, the higher the boiling point of
the compound

Viscosity
o Measure of fluid’s resistance to flow
o The higher the viscosity, the more the
slowly the liquid flows
o Liquids that have stronger intermolecular
forces of attraction have higher
viscosities
Molar Heat of Vaporization
o Heat needed to vaporize a liquid
 o The stronger the intermolecular force, the in which we choose one lattice point at
higher the molar heat of vaporization the same location within each of the
basic units of crystal
Lesson 4: The Structure and Properties of o Crystal lattice and crystal structure is not
Water the same
o Types of Crystals: ionic, covalent,
molecular, and metallic
Solvent Properties of Water
o Water is called the “universal solvent”
because it can almost dissolve any kinds
of substances
o Water’s polarity and unique hydrogen
bonding ability makes it a great solvent
o
Thermal Properties of Water
o Water has a high specific heat capacity
(heat needed to raise the temperature
of 1 kilogram of a substance by 1 Kelvin)
than almost any other liquids
o The same scenario can be also applied
to water`s high heat of vaporization Amorphous Solids
o o Lack regular three-dimensional
Surface Properties of Water arrangements of atoms which means
o The hydrogen bonding of water is the they are non-crystalline
responsible for its high surface tension o They are formed rapidly (they are cooled
and high capillarity quickly), the molecules or the atom
o Water has the highest surface tension of don`t have enough time to align
any liquid except for some molten salts themselves and will be locked in that
and metals position thus forming an irregular pattern
o E.g., charcoal, rubber and glass
Density of Solid and Liquid Water
o Density is defined as the mass per unit
volume of a substance
o The large spaces within ice give the solid
state a lower density than the liquid state

Lesson 5: Crystals and Amorphous Solids

Solids can be divided into two categories:

crystals and amorphous

Crystals
o Have a well-defined shape because Lesson 6: Phase Diagrams
their particle — atoms, molecules, or ions
— occur in an orderly and specific Phase Diagram
arrangement o Scientists use phase diagrams to
o The reason why crystals are stable are represent the relationship between solids,
due to ionic forces, covalent bonds, van liquids, and vapor phases
Der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding or o Summarizes the conditions at which a
combination of these forces substance exists as a solid, liquid, or gas
o The unit cell of crystal is the smallest
boxlike unit (each box having faces that
are parallelograms) from which you can
imagine constructing crystal by stacking
the units three dimensions
➢ Can be: cubic, tetragonal,
orthorhombic, monoclinic, hexagonal,
rhombohedral, triclinic
o Crystal lattice is the geometric
arrangement of lattice points of a crystal,
The graph is divided into three regions and o Substance is in both solid and liquid state
each region represents a pure phase. The lines at the same time
that separate two regions indicate conditions
where two phases can exist in equilibrium. For Boiling Point
example, in the phase diagram of water, the o Temperature at which the vapor pressure
line that separates the liquid and solid phase of a liquid equals the pressure
means that solid water (ice) and liquid water is surrounding the liquid and the liquid
in equilibrium. The triple point is the condition in changes into a vapor
which three all phases can be equilibrium with o Water and vapor coexist with other at
one another. This means that at this point, the same time
water and carbon dioxide is subliming and
depositing, freezing and melting, and When you removed the heat from a
condensing and evaporating at the same time! substance, you will able to graph the cooling
At critical point, the phase boundary between curve of that substance. The cooling curve will
liquid and gas disappears due to extreme heat be the reverse of the heating curve of that
and pressure. Since more liquid vaporizes, the substance.
density will also increase.
Module 2: Physical Properties of Solutions
The only difference in the phase diagram of
water and carbon dioxide is that the slope of Lesson 1: Types of Solutions
the boundary between liquid and solid of
carbon dioxide is positive while in water it is
Solutions
negative
o Homogenous mixtures of two or more
substances
Lesson 7: Heating and Cooling Curve o Can be characterized by their capacity
to dissolve a solute
➢ Unsaturated
▪ Contains less solute than it has the
capacity to dissolve
➢ Saturated
▪ contains maximum amount of a
solute that will dissolve in a given at
a specific temperature
➢ Supersaturated
▪ contains more solute than is
present in saturated solution

Lesson 2: Concentration Units

Concentration
Heating Curve
o Amount of solute present in a given
o Line graph presentation of phase
amount of solution
changes of a substance from solid to
o Chemists use these different expression of
liquid or liquid to gas
concentration units, each with
o It shows at what point of time and
advantage and limitations
temperature does a phase coexist with
each other in equilibrium
Percent by mass (%w/w)

Melting Point
o Point at which materials changes from a
solid to a liquid
 o Also called percent by weight or weight
percent
o Ratio of the mass of a solute to the mass
of the solution multiplied by 100 percent
Sample Problem 1

Percent by volume (%v/v)

Nitric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide in
solution to give sodium nitrate and water.

How many moles of water are formed when

25.0 mL of 0.100 M HNO3 reacts with NaOH?
o Often use in expressing the
concentration of liquids and gases and Step 1 “Always check if the chemical equation
often termed as percent volume is balance. Since the equation above is
balance, we can proceed now step 2”.
Mole fraction
Step 2 “Relate the situation the model in Figure
2.1”.

o Ratio of the number of moles of one

component of a mixture to the total
number of moles of all components
o Denoted by Greek letter chi (X), and with
subscript to indicate the component of Step 3 “We should first get the number of moles
interest of HNO3. This can be done by multiplying the
molarity of HNO3 to the volume of HNO3.
Molarity (M) Convert first the volume to proper unit which is
liters”.

o Number of moles of solute dissolved in 1

liter of solution

Molality (m) Step 4 “Convert moles of HNO3 to moles of

water by using the mole to mole ratio.
According to the balance chemical reaction,
for every 1 mole of HNO3 reacted, one mole of
water is formed. The mole to mole ratio is 1:1”
o Number of moles of solute dissolved in 1
kg of solvent

Parts per million (ppm)

o Commonly used as measures of smaller

Lesson 4: Colligative Properties of
levels of concentration of solutions such
as pollutants in air, water, or body fluids Nonelectrolyte and Electrolyte Solution

Colligative Property
o Are properties that does not depend on
Lesson 3: Stoichiometric Calculations in
the nature of the solute but instead
Solutions
depend on the number of solute
particles in solution
Stoichiometry
➢ vapor pressure lowering
o The relationship between the relative
➢ boiling point elevation
quantities of substances taking part in a
➢ freezing point depression
reaction or compound formation
Vapor Pressure Lowering (ΔP)
 o The vapor pressure of a solution of a Lesson 5: Calculating Molar Mass using
nonvolatile nonelectrolyte is always Colligative Properties
lower than the vapor pressure of the
pure solvent. This relationship can be
quantitatively expressed by Raoult`s Law

Sample Problem 1

“A 7.85 g sample of a compound with the

empirical formula C5H4 is dissolved in 301 g of
benzene. The freezing point of the solution is
Boiling point elevation (ΔTb) 1.50 oC below of that pure benzene. What is
o The presence of nonvolatile solute lowers the molar mass and molecular formula of this
the vapor pressure of the solution, then it compound?”
also affects the boiling point of the
solution. It is defined as the boiling point Step 1 “Calculate first the molality of the
of the solution (Tb) minus the boiling solution by manipulating the formula for
point of the pure solvent (Tob) freezing point depression. We write the new
formula”

ΔTb = boiling point

Kb = molal boiling point elevation constant Step 2 “There is 0.205 mole in 1 kg of solution,
(oC/m) of solvent the number of moles in 301 g or 0.301 kg of
solvent is”
m = molality of the solution

Step 3 “Calculate the molar mass.”

Freezing point depression (ΔTf)
o Defined as the difference between
freezing point of the pure solvent (Tof)
and the freezing point of the solution (Tf). Step 4 “Calculate the molecular formula by
Mathematically written as comparing the molar mass to the molar mass
of the empirical formula.”

ΔTf = freezing point depression

Therefore, the molecular formula is C10H8
Kf = molal freezing-point depression constant (naphthalene).
(oC/m) of solvent
Osmotic Pressure
m = molality of the solution o Defined as the minimum pressure that
must be applied to a solution to halt the
flow of solvent molecules through a
semipermeable membrane (osmosis)
ΔTf = is proportional to the concentration of o FORMULA:
the solution.
Module 3: Thermochemistry o Helps us understand the relationship
between heat, work, and chemical
Lesson 1: The First Law of Thermodynamics changes, which has practical
applications in various industries
Energy content of matter will change if it
undergoes physical or chemical change. This FORMULA:
means that almost all chemical reactions may
produce or absorb energy in the form of heat.

Heat
o Transfer of thermal energy between two Enthalpy change (ΔH) can be categorized
bodies that are at different temperature into different types based on the process:
o When describing energy changes that
occur during processes, we described it Heat of Reaction (ΔH_rxn):
as "heat absorbed" or "heat released"
o This refers to the enthalpy change
that occurs during a chemical
Thermodynamics
reaction, which can either be
o The study of the interconversion of heat
and other kinds of energy exothermic (releases heat) or
endothermic (absorbs heat). It is
First Law of Thermodynamics crucial for predicting whether a
o Based on the law of conservation of reaction will occur spontaneously, as
energy, which states that energy can be well as understanding the energy
converted from one form to another, but requirements of various reactions
cannot be created or destroyed. We
can see every day the application of Heat of Formation (ΔH_f):
this law
o This is the enthalpy change when one
mole of a compound is formed from
its elements in their standard states.
These values are tabulated and used
to calculate the overall enthalpy
change for a reaction using Hess's
FORMULA: Law, which states that the total
enthalpy change for a reaction is the
sum of the enthalpy changes for
each step in the reaction
Q= Heat
W= Work Heat of Combustion (ΔH_c):
ΔU= Change in Internal Energy
o This is the enthalpy change when one
mole of a substance is completely
Lesson 2: Enthalpy
burned in oxygen, producing carbon
dioxide and water as products. It is an
Enthalpy
important value for understanding
o Fundamental concept in
the energy content of fuels and
thermodynamics and is denoted by the
letter 'H comparing their efficiency
o Measure of the total energy of a
thermodynamic system, which includes Heat of Solution (ΔH_sol):
the internal energy (heat energy stored o This refers to the enthalpy change
within the system) and the product of when a solute dissolves in a solvent.
pressure and volume This value can help us understand the
o Can be thought of as the "heat content" energetics of dissolution and how
of a system different solutes interact with solvents

Thermochemistry
Heat of Fusion (ΔH_fus) and Heat of
o Study of heat transfer during chemical
Vaporization (ΔH_vap):
reactions
 o These values represent the enthalpy
changes when a substance
undergoes a phase change, such as
melting (fusion) or boiling
(vaporization). They are essential for
understanding the energetics of
phase transitions and designing
processes involving heating and
cooling

Standard enthalpy
o Denoted as H, is the heat content of
a system at constant pressure. It is an
extensive thermodynamic property
that depends on the amount and
composition of a substance

Standard Enthalpy Change

o Refers to the change in enthalpy
during a reaction under standard
conditions (1 atm pressure and 298
K). It is usually reported in units of
kJ/mol

Standard enthalpy is important because it

helps us understand and predict the
energy changes that occur during
chemical reactions, which is essential for
various applications in chemistry,
engineering, and other fields.

Lesson 3: Hess Law

Hess’s Law
o States that the overall enthalpy change
of a reaction is the sum of the enthalpy
changes of its individual steps, regardless
of the path taken
o Based on the principle of conservation of
energy and the state function property
of enthalpy. It allows us to calculate the
enthalpy change for a reaction even if it
cannot be measured directly