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POSSIBLE PHYSIOLOGY ESSAY QUESTIONS AND THEIR OUTLINE FOR

2ND MBBS STUDENTS

COMPILED BY
OGBODO ANTHONY EZENWA
(DISTINCTION PHYSIOLOGY)
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TAKE NOTE
- One of the keys of getting a very high score in physiology essays is writing your essay with a
good outline. Good outline makes your point clear and also makes things easier for the
examiner marking your scripts as your points will be clearly made.

- To prepare a good outline is not something difficult. All you need is to study your textbooks and
lecture materials well and you will see how the lecturers organize them. As you go through each
topic, you will notice the way the topics are being divided into sub headings and each
highlighted in most cases. That forms the basis of the outline.

- Illustrations and diagrams make your essay more explanatory. If you are asked a question on
any topic that has a suitable diagram or illustration, try to put it down. It makes your work more
explanatory and may attract you more marks.

- This little work is just to give you guide on how to approach physiology questions. Most
questions here were picked from 2ND MBBS past questions. They are to serve as a guide to you.

- Do not restrict your reading to only what you have here; try to fish out other possible questions
on your own and use this as a guide on how to prepare outlines in such questions.

WISH YOU SUCCESS IN YOUR EXAMS!!!!!!!!!!!

IT WILL SURELY END IN PRAISE!!!!!!!

OGBODO ANTHONY EZENWA

(DISTINCTION IN PHYSIOLOGY)
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GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY

1. Write an essay on active transport mechanism.

OUTLINE

- Introduction
- Definition
- Mechanism of transport
- Types of active transport
o Carrier mediated
 Primary
 Secondary
o Vesicular transport
 Endocytosis
 Pinocytosis
 Phagocytosis
 Exocytosis
- Carriers involved
- Characteristics of active transport
o Uphill transport
o Metabolic energy required
o Exhibit saturation kinetics (write something on each of them)

2. Write an essay on passive form of transport.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Definition
- Mechanism of transport
- Types of passive transport
- Carriers involved
- Characteristics of passive transport
o Downhill transport
o No metabolic energy required (write something on each of them)

3. Write an essay on negative feedback. How does it contrast with positive feedback mechanism?
(1st test 2017)

OUTLINE
- Introduction/definition
- Components of negative feedback
o Sensor
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o Input
o Integration centre
o Output
o effector
- Examples
- Definition of positive feedback and examples
- In a tabular form give up to five differences between the two.

4. Write short notes on the following.

a. Cell membrane
b. Feedforward mechanism ( 1st test 2015)

OUTLINE (CELL MEMBRANE)

- Introduction/definition
- Structure of cell membrane
- Functions of cellmembrane

FEEDFORWARD MECHANISM
- Introduction
- Definition
- Mechanism
- Examples
- Characteristics

5. Write an essay on the role of hypothalamus in temperature regulation.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Normal body temparture range (36.3 – 37.7 degrees)
- Body temperature homeostasis
- Role of hypothalamus
o Themoreceptors and thermoeffectors
o Thermoregulatory centres of the hypothalamus
o Mechanism (make a sketch of the mechanism)
o Thermoregulatory regulatory responses
6. Write an essay on facilitated diffusion.
- Introduction
- Definition
- Characteristics
o Solute concentration
o Specificity
o Inhibition
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o Effects of temperatures
o Effects of drugs
- Examples
7. Write an essay on functions of cell organelles
- Introduction
- Cell organelles and functions
o Nucleus and nucleoli
o Endoplasmic reticulum
o Golgi apparatus
o Lysosome
o Peroxisome
o Centrosome and centrioles
o Secretory vesicles
o Mitochondria
o Ribosome
o Cytoskeleton (give the unique functions of each)
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BLOOD PHYSIOLOGY

1. Discuss the role of T-lymphocytes in immunity. (MAIN 2015,2018)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Development and processing of T-lymphocytes
- Types of T-lymphocytes
- Role of each
Helper T cells or Inducer T cells
Cytotoxic Tcells or Killer T cells
Suppressor T cells
Memory T cells (write extensively on each of them).

2. Discuss the role of complement system in immunity. (MAIN 2011, 2016)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Types of complement pathways
- Role of each
o Classical pathway
o Lectin pathway
o Alternate pathway

3. Write an essay on erythropoiesis.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Areas of the body involved in erythropoiesis
- Stages
o Colony forming unit erythrocyte (CFU-E)
o Pronormoblast
o Basophilic normoblast
o Polychromatic normoblast
o Orthochromatic normoblast
o Reticulocyte
o Mature erythrocyte (Give characteristics of each stage)
- Factors affecting erythropoiesis

4. Write an essay on classification of anaemia. (1st test 2017)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Reference values for anaemia
- Classification based on underlying mechanism
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o Blood loss
o Increased rate of destruction of red blood cells
o Impaired red cell production
- Classification based on morphology
o Microcytic
o Normocytic
o Macrocytic
o Normochromic
o Hypochromic
(write on each of them with good examples)

5. Discuss the body’s natural anti-clotting mechanism.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Ways the body prevents clotting in vivo
o Surface factors
 Smoothness of the endothelial surface
 Layer of glycocalyx
 Thrombomodulin
 Prostacyclin
o Antithrombins (fibrin and AT3)
o Heparin

6. Write an essay on ABO blood grouping.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Brief history
- Types of ABO blood group
- Compatibility of the groups

7. Write short notes on the following

i. Immunoglobulins
ii. Rhesus factor incompatibility
iii. Major histocompatibility complex

OUTLINE
IMMUNOGLOBULINS
- Introduction
- Origin
- Structure
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- Types and functions

RHESUS FACTOR INCOMPATIBILITY

- Introduction
- Rh blood system
- Mechanism of incompatibility
- Risk factors

MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX

- Introduction
- Types of MHC
o Class I MHC molecule
o Class II MHC molecule

8. Write an essay on coagulation cascade.

- Introduction
- Factors involved
- Pathways involved
o Extrinsic pathway
o Intrinsic pathway
o Common pathway (explain each of them with diagram of their pathways)
- Functions of coagulation cascade

9. Write an essay on hemostasis.

- Introduction
- Steps involved
o Vascular constriction
o Platelet plug formation
o Blood coagulation
o Eventual fibrous tissue growth into the blood clot to close the hole permanently. (put up
some notes on each of them)
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EXCITABLE TISSUES

1. Write an essay on neuromuscular transmission.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Anatomy of neuromuscular junction
- Components of neuromuscular junction
o Presynaptic nerve terminal
o Synaptic cleft
o Post synaptic muscle cell
- Mode of transmission
- Fate of acetylcholine
- Properties of EPP
- Neuromuscular disorders
o Myasthenia Gravis
o Lambert Eaton syndrome

2. Write an essay on inhibitory neuronal transmission. (1st test 2017)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Post synaptic inhibition (direct inhibition)
- Presynaptic inhibition (axo-axonal transmission)
o Anatomical arrangement
o Mechanism
o Agonist
o Sketch of the mechanism and explanation
- Functional significance

3. Write an essay on axo- axonal transmission

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Anatomical areangement
- Mechanism
- Agonist
- Sketch of the mechanism and explanation
- Functional significance

4. Write an essay on contraction of skeletal muscle.

OUTLINE
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- Introduction
- Anatomy of the skeletal muscle
- The sarcotubular system
- Mechanism of contraction in skeletal muscle (sliding filament theory)
- Muscle relaxation
- Sources of energy for muscle contraction

5. Write an essay on contraction of cardiac muscle. (1st test 2016)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Physiologic anatomy of cardiac muscle
- Electrical properties of the cardiac muscle (make a sketch of the graph)
- Mechanical properties of the heart
- Metabolism in cardiac muscle
o Energy production
o Energy storing
o Energy utilization

6. Write an essay on sympathetic nervous system. (1st test 2014, 2016)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Organization of autonomic outflow
- Origin
- Preganglionic fibre
- Ganglia
- Post ganglionic fibre
- Transmitter substances
- Effectors
- Distribution

7. Write an essay on parasympathetic nervous system.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Organization of autonomic outflow
- Origin
- Preganglionic fibres
- Ganglia
- Post ganglionic fibres
- Effectors
- Transmitter substances
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- Distribution

8. Write short notes on the following

i. Resting membrane potential (1st test 2013, 2014)
ii. Salutatory conduction
iii. Action potential

i. RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

- Introduction
- Measurement of RMP
- Ionic basis of RMP
ii. SALTATORY CONDUCTION
- Introduction
- Mechanism
iii. ACTION POTENTIAL
- Introduction
- Measurement
- Ionic basis of AP
- Features of a typical action potential
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RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY

1. Write short note on respiratory membrane. (MAIN 2018)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Components of respiratory membrane
o Fluid lining the alveolus
o Alveolar epithelium
o Epithelial basement membrane
o Interstitial space
o Capillary basement membrane
o Capillary endothelium (write something on each of them)
- Factors affecting rate of diffusion through the membrane

2. Write an essay on chemical regulation of respiration. (MAIN 2016)

OUTLINE
- Introduction (talk about the respiratory centres)
- Chemoreceptors involved
o Central chemoreceptos
o Peripheral chemoreceptors
- Regulatory role of PCO2
- Regulatory role of PO2
- Effect of arterial PH

3. Write an essay on neural regulation of respiration.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Medullary respiratory centres
o Dorsal group of neurons
o Ventral group of neurons
- Pontine respiratory centres
- Factors affecting the activities of the respiratory centres

4. Write an essay on the transport of CO2 in the body. (MAIN 2011, 2012, 2017)
OUTLINE
- Introduction
- How it enters the body
- Means in which CO2 is transported in the blood
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o Simple solution
o As bicarbonate
o As carbaminoacid (write extensively on each of them)
- How CO2 leaves the lung
o Haldane effect
o Hamburger effect
o Bohr effect
- Remember to draw the CO2 dissociation curve

5. Write short note on oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Diagram the curve
- Explanation of the curve
- Factors that shifts it to right
- Factors that shifts it to left
- Importance of the curve

6. Write an essay on hypoxia. (1st test 2018)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Types of hypoxia
o Hypoxic hypoxia
o Anemic hypoxia
o Stagnant or ischemic hypoxia
o Histotoxic hypoxia (write on each of them)
- Effects of hypoxia
- Oxygen treatment
- Changes in hypoxia
o Acclimatization to high altitudes
o Respiratory changes
o Enhanced circulation
o Changes in cellular metabolic apparatus
o Endocrine changes
o Hypercapnia

7. Write short notes on

i. Decompression sickness
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ii. Pulmonary compliance

iii. Dead space

DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS

- Introduction
- Pathogenesis
- Manifestations of decompression sickness
- Treatment

PULMONARY COMPLIANCE

- Introduction
- Factors affecting pulmonary compliance
- Role of pulmonary surfactants

DEAD SPACE

- Introduction
- Components of dead space
- Types of dead space
o Anatomical dead space
o Alveolar dead space
o Total or physiologic dead space

8. Write an essay on lung volumes and capacity.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Four static lung volumes
- Four static lung capacities
- Factors affecting lung volumes and capacities
o Environmental factors
o Individual factors
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CARDIOVASCULAR PHYSIOLOGY

1. Write an essay on cardiac output. (MOCK 2017)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Formula for calculating cardiac output
- Ways of measuring cardiac output (do not spend time here. Just one/two sentences)
- Factors affecting cardiac output (write extensively here. The bulk of the essay lies here)
o Heart rate
o Venous return
o Cardiac contractility
- Physiological variations in cardiac output

2. Write an essay on mechanical events of the heart.

OUTLINE
- Introduction (cardiac cycle)
- Phases of the cycle (make a sketch of the cycle if you can)
o Ventricular filling
o Atrial systole
o Ventricular systole
o Early diastole
- Duration of cardiac cycle

3. Write an essay on regulation of arterial blood pressure. (MAIN 2018)

OUTLINE
- Introduction (formula for arterial blood pressure)
- Mean arterial pressure
- Short term neural reflexes for blood pressure regulation
o The baroreceptor reflex (make a sketch of the cycle)
o The chemoreceptor reflex
o CNS ischaemic response
- Short term hormonal mechanism for blood pressure regulation
o Catecholamines
o Renin – angiotensin mechanism
o Atrial natriuretic peptide
- Medium term mechanism
- Long term mechanism
o Direct renal mechanism
o Indirect renal mechanism
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4. Write short notes on causes of hypertension. (MAIN 2018)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Causes (remembered with RECTI)
o Renal
o Endocrine/hormonal causes
o Coarctation of the aorta
o Toxaemia of pregnancy
o Idiopathic

5. Write an essay on circulatory shock. (MAIN 2017)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Common features
- Types of shock
o Hypovolemic shock
o Vasogenic shock
o Cardiogenic shock (write extensively on each of them)

6. Write an essay on cardiac failure. (MAIN 2014)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Causes of heart failure
- Clinical features of heart failure
- Pathophysiology of heart failure
- Compensatory reactions to fall in cardiac output
- Principles of treatment of cardiac failure

7. Write short notes on the following

i. Cerebral circulation
ii. Coronary circulation
iii. Fetal circulation

i. CEREBRAL CIRCULATION
- Introduction
- Peculiarities of the cerebral vessels
- Measurement of cerebral blood flow
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- Stroke
o Hemorrhagic stroke
o Ischemic stroke

ii. CORONARY CIRCULATION

- Introduction
- Peculiarities of coronary blood flow
- Regulation of coronary blood flow
- Coronary artery disease

iii. FETAL CIRCULATION

- Introduction
- Structural peculiarities of fetal circulation
- Circulatory changes after birth.

8. Write an essay on electrical events of the heart (MAIN 2014).

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Initiation of action potential in the heart
- Ventricular action potentials (sketch the graph)
o Phase 0
o Phase 1
o Phase 2
o Phase 3
o Phase 4
- Action potentials of the atria
- Spread of cardiac excitation
- Refractory periods of the heart
9. Write an essay on factors affecting venous return.
OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Factors affecting venous return
o Respiratory pump
o Muscle pump
o Gravity
o Venous pressure
o Venomotor tone (explain each of them)
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GIT PHYSIOLOGY

1. Write an essay on deglutition. (MAIN 2018)

OUTLINE

- Introduction (remember to add that deglutition is also known as swallowing)

- Nerves involved

- Phases of swallowing

- Voluntary phase

- Involuntary phase

- Pharyngeal phase

- Oesaphageal phase

- Control of deglutition

- Disorders of deglutition

Dysphagia

Achalasia

2. Write an essay on vomiting.

OUTLINE

- Introduction

- causes

- vomiting reflex

- control of vomitng

3. Write an essay on gastric emptying.

OUTLINE

- Introduction

- Mechanism
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- Factors that influence gastric emptying

4. Write an essay on enterogastric reflex. (1st test 2017)

OUTLINE

- Introduction

- Mechanism

- Factors influencing enterogastric reflex.

5. Write an essay on defecation.

OUTLINE

- Introduction

- Triggers

- Mechanism

- Control

8. Write an essay on mechanism of HCL secretion. (2nd test 2011, 2017)

OUTLINE

-Introduction

- Mechanism

- use sketch to explain

- Functions of HCL

9. Write an essay on hypersecretion of acid by the stomach..

OUTLINE

- Introduction

- Peptic ulcer

- Mechanism
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- causes

- Treatment

8. Write short note on functions of bile..

OUTLINE

- Introduction

- Constituents of bile

- Bile pigments

- Functions of bile

9. Write short note on steatorrhea.

OUTLINE

- Introduction

- Pathogenesis

- Effects

- Treatment

9. Write an essay on gastric motility.

OUTLINE

- Introduction

- Functions of the stomach

- Mechanism

10. Write an essay on absorption of food across the brush border..

OUTLINE

- Introduction

- Foods that can be absorbed across the brush border

- Enzymes involved
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- Mechanism

- Disorders.
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RENALPHYSIOLOGY

1. Write an essay on measurement of glomerular filtration rate and factors affecting it.
OUTLINE
- Definition
- Measurement of GFR
o Concept of clearance
o Features of substances used for clearance
o Typical substances for clearance
o Formula and values
- Factors affecting GFR
o Nature of glomerular membrane
o Size of capillary bed
o Filtration pressure
o Constriction of afferent arterioles
o Constriction of efferent arterioles
o Renal blood flow ( explain each of them)

2. Write an essay on measurement of renal blood flow.

OUTLINE
- Introduction / definition
- Determination using clearance technique
o Concept of clearance
o Features of substances to be used
o Typical substances used and unique advantages
o Formula and calculation/values

3. Write an essay on regulation of renal blood flow.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Extrinsic regulatory mechanism
- Intrinsic regulatory mechanism
o Tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism of autoregulation
 Afferent arteriolar feedback mechanism
 Efferent arteriolar feedback mechanism
o Myogenic mechanism of autoregulation

4. Discuss the main functions of the various parts of the nephron.

OUTLINE
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- Introduction
- Diagram of the nephron showing its main parts
- Main parts of the nephron and functions
o Glomerulus
o Renal tubule
 Bowman’s capsule
 Proximal tubule
 Loop of Henle
 Cortical tubule
 Distal convoluted tubule
 Connecting tubules
 Cortical collecting ducts
 Medullary collecting duct (write extensively on functions of each)

5. Write an essay on counter current mechanism in the kidney.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Requirements
o High concentration of ADH
o High osmolarity of the renal interstitial fluid
 Counter current multiplier mechanism
 Counter current exchange mechanism
- Role of counter current multiplier
o Steps involved (use diagram to illustrate)
- Role of urea
- Role of counter current exchange mechanism

6. Write an essay on body buffers.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Definition
- Mechanism
- Types of body buffers
o Bicarbonate/carbonic acid buffer
o Disodium hydrogen phosphate/monosodium dihydrogen phosphate
o Plasma protein
o Erythrocyte haemoglobin buffer system (explain each of them with more emphasis on
bicarbonate buffer)
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7. Discuss the role of the kidney in the regulation of acid – base balance.
OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Ways the kidney regulates acid base balance
o Reabsorption of bicarbonate
o Excretion of hydrogen
o Formation of ammonia (write extensively on each of them)

8. Write an essay on endocrine functions of the kidney.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Hormones produced by the kidney
o Rennin
o 1, 25- dihydroxycholecalciferol (vit D)
o Erythropoietin (write extensively on each of them)

9. Write an essay on diuretics.

OUTLINE
- Introduction/definition
- General uses of diuretics
- Types of diuretics
- According to site/mechanism of action
o Osmotic diuretics
o Diuretics which inhibit active reabsorption of electrolytes
o Diuretics which inhibit action of aldosterone
o Diuretics which inhibit activity of carbonic anhydrase
o Diuretics that inhibit seretion of ADH
o Diuretics that inhibit ADH receptors
o Diuretics which increase GFR
- According to potency
o High ceiling diuretics
o Moderate efficacy diuretics
o Low efficacy diuretics ( with examples explain each one)

10. Write an essay on micturition reflex.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Definition
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- Stimulants
- Mechanism
- Role of higher centres
- Abnormalities of micturition
11. Write an essay on edema formation.
OUTLINE
- Introduction/definition
- Forces involved
- Mechanism
- Causes
o Factors that increase capillary hydrostatic pressure
o Factors that decrease osmotic gradient
o Inadequate tissue drainage (explain each)

ENDOCRINOLOGY

1. Write an essay on the synthesis and functions of thyroid hormones

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OUTLINE

- Introduction

- Synthesis

- Iodine trapping

- Oxidation

- Organification

- Iodine coupling

- Secretion

- Functions

Growth

Metabolism of CHO, lipid protein

Body temperature

Etc. (Explain each of them)

2. Write an essay on hormonal regulation of normal glucose homeostasis (MAIN 2016)

OUTLINE

- Introduction

- Normal glucose level

- Hormones involved in regulation of glucose

Glucagon

Insulin

Cortisol

Epinephrine

- write on effect of each of them on glucose but emphasis should be on glucagon and insulin..

3. Write an essay on synthesis, storage, release, and functions of insulin. (MAIN 2018)
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- Introduction/origin

- Synthesis

- Storage

- Release

- Functions

4. Write an essay on calcium balance in the body.

- Introduction

- Calcium distribution

- Hormones involved

Parathyroid hormone

Calcitonin

Vitamin D

Write on each of them.

5. Write short note on role of vitamin D in calcium homeostasis.

- Introduction

- Synthesis

- Role in calcium balance

6. A 19yr old girl had an accident and lost a large volume of blood, write an essay on how the body
will respond to this..

- Introduction

- Effect of the blood loss to the body.

- Body's compensatory mechanism

- Renal RAAS response

- Hypothalamus response
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7. Write an essay on the renal response to severe vomiting and diarrhea.

- Introduction

- Effect of the vomiting and diarrhea to the body ( isotonic dehydration and consequently reduced blood
volume)

- Renal response

Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone system

Renal intrinsic autoregulation (write extensively on each of them)

8. Write short note on aldosterone escape.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Mechanism involved

RERPODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGY

1. Write short note on female sexual characteristics.

OUTLINE
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- Introduction
- Characteristics
- Associated abnormalities

2. Write short note on male sexual characteristics. (MAIN 2018)

- Introduction
- Characteristics
- Associated abnormalities

3. Discuss in details the physiology of puberty in females and highlight its differences with that
of male.
- Introduction
- Definition
- Pubertal changes in females
- In a tabular form give the differences between that of the females and males (as much as you
an but at least five)

4. Write an essay on physiology of human sexual act. (2nd test 2017)

OUTLINE
- introduction
- male sexual act
o source of sensory signals
o psychic stimuli
o stages
 erection
 emission and ejaculation
 resolution
- female sexual act
o source of sensory signals
o psychic stimuli
o stages
 erection and lubrication
 female orgasm
 resolution
5. Write an essay on parturition.
OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Definition
- Onset of labour
- Stags of parturition
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o First stage
o Second stage
o Third stage

6. Write an essay on milk ejection reflex. ( 2nd test 2017)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Definition
- Mechanism (make a sketch of the mechanism)
- Suppression of menstrual cycle during breast feeding
- Associated abnormalities

7. Write an essay on contraception.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Methods
o Rhythm method
o Chemical method
o Oral contraceptives
o Intrauterine contraceptive device
o Surgical method

8. Write an essay on lactation.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Definition
- Processes
o Milk secretion
o Milk ejection

9. Write short notes on the following

i. Menopause
ii. Menstruation
iii. Endocrine functions of testis

i. MENOPAUSE
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- Introduction
- Definition
- Hormones involved
- Features
ii. MENSTRUATION
- Introduction
- Definition
- Phases
o Ovarian cycle
o Uterine cycle
iii. ENDOCRINE FUNCTIONS OF TESTIS
- Introduction
- Hormones produced by the testis
o Testosterone
 Synthesis
 Actions
o Associated abnormalities

NEUROPHYSIOLOGY

1. Write an essay on anterolateral pathway.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
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- First order neuron

- Second order neuron
- Third order neuron
- Diagram of the pathway
- Injury to anterolateral system

2. Write an essay on the physiology of pain.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Types of pain
- Benefits of pain
- Components of pain
- Pain pathway

3. Write short note on functions of thalamus.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Classification
- Functions

4. Write an essay on dorsal column lemniscal pathway. (MAIN 2016)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- First order neuron
- Second order neuron
- Third order neuron
- Draw the pathway
- Functions
- Injury to the pathway

5. Write short note on Brown-Sequard syndrome.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Pathogenesis
- Effects.
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6. Write an essay on basal ganglia. (MAIN 2017)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Structures that made up basal ganglia
- Diagram of the pathway
- Functions of basal ganglia
- Effects of lesions of the basal ganglia

7. Describe the anatomy, function and effects of lesions of the cerebellum.

- Introduction
- Anatomy of cerebellum
- Functional divisions
o Archicerebellum/vestibulocerebellum
o Spinocerebellum
o Neocerebellum/cerebrocerebellum
- Functions of cerebellum
- Effects of lesions of cerebellum

8. Write an essay on electroencephalogram (EEG). (MAIN 2018)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Recording of EEG
- Records obtained from EEG
o Alpha wave
o Beta wave
o Theta wave
o Delta wave
- Factors that increase frequency of alpha wave
- Factors that decrease frequency of alpha waves
- Alpha block
- Clinical uses of EEG

9. Write an essay on human sleep.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Sleep patterns
o REM sleep
o Non – REM sleep (write extensively on the two)
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10. Write short note on withdrawal reflex. (MAIN 2016)

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Stimulus
- Receptors
- Afferents
- Integration centre
- Efferent
- Effectors
- Responses
- Characteristics of withdrawal reflex
11. Write an essay on extrapyramidal tract.
OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Types of fibres involved
o Fibres from motor cortex to brain stem
o Fibres from brain stem to spinal cord (write on each of them)
- Their terminations
- Functions of the extrapyramidal tract

SPECIAL SENSES

1. Write an essay on middle ear cavity.

OUTLINE
- Introduction
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- Boundaries
- Major components
o The ossicles
o The ossicular muscles
o The Eustachian tube (write on each of them)
- Tympanic reflex

2. Describe the visual pathway with a diagram.

- Introduction
- Visual field and types
- Components of visual pathway
o Optic nerve
o Optic chiasma
o Lateral geniculate body
o Optic radiation
o Visual cortex
- Diagram of the visual pathway
- Explanation of the diagram
- Associated disorders

3. With a well labeled diagram, describe refraction errors

OUTLINE
- Introduction
- Refraction errors
- Diagrammatic representation of refraction errors
- Possible treatments

4. Describe the auditory pathway.

- Introduction
- Components
o First order neuron
o Second order neuron
o Third order neuron
o Fourth order neuron
- Diagram of the pathway
- Special features of auditory pathway
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5. Write short notes o the following
COMPILED BY OGBODO ANTHONY EZENWA

i. Organ of corti (MOCK 2016)

ii. Near response
iii. Phototransduction

i. ORGAN OF CORTI
- Introduction
- Location/physiologic anatomy
- Special features
- Functions
ii. NEAR RESPONSE
- Introduction
- Reflexes involved
o Accommodation of lens
o Pupillary constriction
o Convergence of the eye balls (write on each of them)
iii. PHOTOTRANSDUCTION
- Introduction
- Definition
- Role of rods
o Mechanism
o Membrane potential changes generated by photo activation of rhodopsin
o Regeneration of rhodopsin
- Role of cones
- Remember to make a sketch of the mechanism