ALBERT EİNSTEİN

He was born in Ulm, the German Empire, to

an Ashkenazi Jewish family, Einstein spent
the first
years of his
life in
Munich. He
completed
his high
school and
higher
education in
Switzerland;
however, due
to difficulties
in finding a
job at a
university, he started working as an
inspector in a patent office. 1905 was a
miracle year for Einstein, and although his
theories were not immediately adopted at
that time, he published four articles that
would revolutionize physics in the future.
He returned to Germany in 1914 at Max
Planck's personal request. He was awarded
the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for his
work on the photoelectric effect. Due to the
rise of the Nazi Party to power, he left
Germany in 1933 and settled in the United
States. He died in Princeton County, New
Jersey, where he spent the rest of his life.
Albert Einstein, with his special relativity
and general relativity theories,
revolutionized the understanding of space
dominated by Newtonian mechanics for two
centuries. His theories, which he formed
with only mathematical calculations and
equations, were experimentally verified
over and over again. The mass-energy
equivalence formulated by the E = mc2
equation explained how stars generate
energy and paved the way for nuclear
technology. The photoelectric effect and
mathematical explanations for Brownian
motion are among his other contributions
to modern physics. He spent most of his life
trying to create a unified field theory that
unified all theories, but these efforts were
fruitless. Einstein was very skeptical of
some of the results of quantum mechanics,
especially the uncertainty principle, but
these approaches were widely accepted in
the future.
Einstein sent a letter to US President
Franklin D. Roosevelt, fearing that the Nazis
would develop nuclear bombs, and advised
the US to start nuclear studies. He defended
the idea that Jews should have their own
country after the Holocaust and supported
the establishment of Israel. In various
interviews, he stated that he did not believe
in Judaism and other holy books, and
published an article that sympathized with
socialism. He also published a manifesto
against nuclear weapons with Bertrand
Russell.
 In the millennium voting held with 100
leading physicists in late 1999, Einstein
ranked 1st among the greatest physicists of
all time.
Einstein
published
more
than 300
scientific
articles
during
his
lifetime,
and he
also had
more
than 150 unscientific works. Because of his
achievements and works, the word Einstein
began to be used as a synonym for "genius".
Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics

Einstein's first paper submitted in 1900 to Annalen der Physik

was on capillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the
title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which
translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena".
Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics)
attempted to interpret atomic phenomena from a statistical
point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905
paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian
movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules
exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned
with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.

Theory of critical opalescence

Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic
fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a
fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations
are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy
with respect to the density. At the critical point, this
derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of
density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is
scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates
this to Rayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the
fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and
which explains why the sky is blue. Einstein quantitatively
derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density
fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and
Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution
of matter.

Gravitational waves

In 1916, Einstein predicted gravitational waves, ripples in

the curvature of spacetime which propagate as waves,
traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as
gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is
possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz
invariance which brings the concept of a finite speed of
propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By
contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtonian
theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical
interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed.

Hole argument and Entwurf theory

While developing general relativity, Einstein became

confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He
formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a
general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up
looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and
searched for equations that would be invariant under general
linear transformations only.
In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of
these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a
theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity,
with the equations of motion supplemented by additional
gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of
intensive work, Einstein realized that the hole argument was
mistaken and abandoned the theory in November 1915.

Theory of relativity

Albert Einstein published the theory of special relativity in

1905, building on many theoretical results and empirical
findings obtained by Albert A. Michelson, Hendrik
Lorentz, Henri Poincaré and others. Max Planck, Hermann
Minkowski and others did subsequent work.
Einstein developed general relativity between 1907 and 1915,
with contributions by many others after 1915. The final form
of general relativity was published in 1916.
The term "theory of relativity" was based on the expression
"relative theory" (German: Relativtheorie) used in 1906 by
Planck, who emphasized how the theory uses the principle of
relativity. In the discussion section of the same paper, Alfred
Bucherer used for the first time the expression "theory of
relativity" (German: Relativitätstheorie).
By the 1920s, the physics community understood and
accepted special relativity. It rapidly became a significant and
necessary tool for theorists and experimentalists in the new
fields of atomic physics, nuclear physics, and quantum
mechanics.
By comparison, general relativity did not appear to be as
useful, beyond making minor corrections to predictions of
Newtonian gravitation theory. It seemed to offer little
potential for experimental test, as most of its assertions were
on an astronomical scale. Its mathematics seemed difficult
and fully understandable only by a small number of people.
Around 1960, general relativity became central to physics and
astronomy. New mathematical techniques to apply to general
relativity streamlined calculations and made its concepts
more easily visualized. As astronomical phenomena were
discovered, such as quasars (1963), the 3-kelvin microwave
background radiation (1965), pulsars (1967), and the
first black hole candidates (1981), the theory explained their
attributes, and measurement of them further confirmed the
theory.

E = mc2

Einstein demonstrated the link between mass and energy

that paved the way for nuclear energy today.
Albert Einstein Quotes

• “Two things are infinite: the universe and human

stupidity; and I'm not sure about the universe.”
• “There are only two ways to live your life. One is as
though nothing is a miracle. The other is as though
everything is a miracle.”
• “If you can't explain it to a six year old, you don't
understand it yourself.”
• “If you want your children to be intelligent, read
them fairy tales. If you want them to be more
intelligent, read them more fairy tales.”
• “Life is like riding a bicycle. To keep your balance,
you must keep moving.”