PHYSICS

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Physics

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Licensing

1: The Basics of Physics

1.1: The Basics of Physics
1.2: Units
1.3: Significant Figures and Order of Magnitude
1.4: Solving Physics Problems

2: Kinematics
2.1: Basics of Kinematics
2.2: Speed and Velocity
2.3: Acceleration
2.4: Problem-Solving for Basic Kinematics
2.5: Free-Falling Objects

3: Two-Dimensional Kinematics
3.1: Motion in Two Dimensions
3.2: Vectors
3.3: Projectile Motion
3.4: Multiple Velocities

4: The Laws of Motion

4.1: Introduction
4.2: Force and Mass
4.3: Newton’s Laws
4.4: Other Examples of Forces
4.5: Problem-Solving
4.6: Vector Nature of Forces
4.7: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws

5: Uniform Circular Motion and Gravitation

5.1: Introduction to UCM and Gravitation
5.2: Non-Uniform Circular Motion
5.3: Velocity, Acceleration, and Force
5.4: Types of Forces in Nature
5.5: Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
5.6: Kepler’s Laws
5.7: Gravitational Potential Energy
5.8: Energy Conservation
5.9: Angular vs. Linear Quantities

6: Work and Energy

6.1: Introduction
6.2: Work Done by a Constant Force
6.3: Work Done by a Variable Force

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 6.4: Work-Energy Theorem
6.5: Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy
6.6: Power
6.7: CASE STUDY: World Energy Use
6.8: Further Topics

7: Linear Momentum and Collisions

7.1: Introduction
7.2: Conservation of Momentum
7.3: Collisions
7.4: Rocket Propulsion
7.5: Center of Mass

8: Static Equilibrium, Elasticity, and Torque

8.1: Introduction
8.2: Conditions for Equilibrium
8.3: Stability
8.4: Solving Statics Problems
8.5: Applications of Statics
8.6: Elasticity, Stress, Strain, and Fracture
8.7: The Center of Gravity
8.8: Torque and Angular Acceleration

9: Rotational Kinematics, Angular Momentum, and Energy

9.10: Conservation of Energy
9.1: Quantities of Rotational Kinematics
9.2: Angular Acceleration
9.3: Rotational Kinematics
9.4: Dynamics
9.5: Rotational Kinetic Energy
9.6: Conservation of Angular Momentum
9.7: Vector Nature of Rotational Kinematics
9.8: Problem Solving
9.9: Linear and Rotational Quantities

10: Fluids
10.1: Introduction
10.2: Density and Pressure
10.3: Archimedes’ Principle
10.4: Cohesion and Adhesion
10.5: Fluids in Motion
10.6: Deformation of Solids

11: Fluid Dynamics and Its Applications

11.1: Overview
11.2: Flow in Tubes
11.3: Bernoulli’s Equation
11.4: Other Applications
Index

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12: Temperature and Kinetic Theory
12.1: Introduction
12.2: Temperature and Temperature Scales
12.3: Thermal Expansion
12.4: Ideal Gas Law
12.5: Kinetic Theory
12.6: Phase Changes
12.7: The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
12.8: Thermal Stresses
12.9: Diffusion

13: Heat and Heat Transfer

13.1: Introduction
13.2: Specific Heat
13.3: Phase Change and Latent Heat
13.4: Methods of Heat Transfer
13.5: Global Warming
13.6: Phase Equilbrium

14: Thermodynamics
14.1: Introduction
14.2: The First Law of Thermodynamics
14.3: The Second Law of Thermodynamics
14.4: Entropy
14.5: The Third Law of Thermodynamics

15: Waves and Vibrations

15.1: Introduction
15.2: Hooke’s Law
15.3: Periodic Motion
15.4: Damped and Driven Oscillations
15.5: Waves
15.6: Wave Behavior and Interaction
15.7: Waves on Strings

16: Sound
16.1: Introduction
16.2: Sound Intensity and Level
16.3: Doppler Effect and Sonic Booms
16.4: Interactions with Sound Waves
16.5: Further Topics

17: Electric Charge and Field

17.1: Overview
17.2: Shelding and Charging Through Induction
17.3: Coulomb’s Law
17.4: The Electric Field Revisited
17.5: Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law
17.6: Applications of Electrostatics

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18: Electric Potential and Electric Field
18.1: Overview
18.2: Equipotential Surfaces and Lines
18.3: Point Charge
18.4: Capacitors and Dielectrics
18.5: Applications

19: Electric Current and Resistance

19.1: Overview
19.2: Electric Current
19.3: Resistance and Resistors
19.4: Electric Power and Energy
19.5: Alternating Currents
19.6: Electricity in the World

20: Circuits and Direct Currents

20.1: Overview
20.2: Resistors in Series and Parallel
20.3: Kirchhoff’s Rules
20.4: Voltmeters and Ammeters
20.5: RC Circuits

21: Magnetism
21.1: Magnetism and Magnetic Fields
21.2: Magnets
21.3: Magnetic Force on a Moving Electric Charge
21.4: Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field
21.5: Magnetic Fields, Magnetic Forces, and Conductors
21.6: Applications of Magnetism

22: Induction, AC Circuits, and Electrical Technologies

22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law
22.2: AC Circuits
22.3: Applications of Induction and EM Waves
22.4: Magnetic Fields and Maxwell Revisited

23: Electromagnetic Waves

23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
23.2: Electromagnetic Waves and their Properties
23.3: Applications of EM Waves

24: Geometric Optics

24.1: Overview
24.2: Reflection, Refraction, and Dispersion
24.3: Lenses
24.4: Mirrors

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25: Vision and Optical Instruments
25.1: The Human Eye
25.2: Other Optical Instruments

26: Wave Optics

26.1: Superposition and Interference
26.2: Diffraction
26.3: Further Topics
26.4: Applications of Wave Optics

27: Special Relativity

27.1: Introduction
27.2: Consequences of Special Relativity
27.3: Relativistic Quantities
27.4: Implications of Special Relativity

28: Introduction to Quantum Physics

28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities
28.2: Applications of Quantum Mechanics

29: Atomic Physics

29.1: Overview
29.2: The Early Atom
29.3: Atomic Physics and Quantum Mechanics
29.4: Applications of Atomic Physics
29.5: Multielectron Atoms

30: Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

30.1: The Nucleus
30.2: Radioactivity
30.3: Quantum Tunneling and Conservation Laws
30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics

Index

Glossary
Detailed Licensing

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Licensing
A detailed breakdown of this resource's licensing can be found in Back Matter/Detailed Licensing.

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 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

1: The Basics of Physics

Topic hierarchy
1.1: The Basics of Physics
1.2: Units
1.3: Significant Figures and Order of Magnitude
1.4: Solving Physics Problems

This page titled 1: The Basics of Physics is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Boundless.

1
1.1: The Basics of Physics
Introduction: Physics and Matter
Physics is a study of how the universe behaves.

learning objectives
Apply physics to describe the function of daily life

Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts
such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the study of nature in an attempt to understand how the universe behaves.

What is Physics?

What is Physics?: Mr. Andersen explains the importance of physics as a science. History and virtual examples are used to give the
discipline context.
Physics uses the scientific method to help uncover the basic principles governing light and matter, and to discover the implications
of those laws. It assumes that there are rules by which the universe functions, and that those laws can be at least partially

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understood by humans. It is also commonly believed that those laws could be used to predict everything about the universe’s future
if complete information was available about the present state of all light and matter.
Matter is generally considered to be anything that has mass and volume. Many concepts integral to the study of classical physics
involve theories and laws that explain matter and its motion. The law of conservation of mass, for example, states that mass cannot
be created or destroyed. Further experiments and calculations in physics, therefore, take this law into account when formulating
hypotheses to try to explain natural phenomena.
Physics aims to describe the function of everything around us, from the movement of tiny charged particles to the motion of
people, cars, and spaceships. In fact, almost everything around you can be described quite accurately by the laws of physics.
Consider a smart phone; physics describes how electricity interacts with the various circuits inside the device. This knowledge
helps engineers select the appropriate materials and circuit layout when building the smart phone. Next, consider a GPS system;
physics describes the relationship between the speed of an object, the distance over which it travels, and the time it takes to travel
that distance. When you use a GPS device in a vehicle, it utilizes these physics equations to determine the travel time from one
location to another. The study of physics is capable of making significant contributions through advances in new technologies that
arise from theoretical breakthroughs.

Global Positioning System: GPS calculates the speed of an object, the distance over which it travels, and the time it takes to travel
that distance using equations based on the laws of physics.

Physics and Other Fields

Physics is the foundation of many disciplines and contributes directly to chemistry, astronomy, engineering, and most scientific
fields.

learning objectives
Explain why the study of physics is integral to the study of other sciences

Physics and Other Disciplines

Physics is the foundation of many important disciplines and contributes directly to others. Chemistry deals with the interactions of
atoms and molecules, so it is rooted in atomic and molecular physics. Most branches of engineering are applied physics. In
architecture, physics is at the heart of structural stability and is involved in acoustics, heating, lighting, and the cooling of buildings.
Parts of geology rely heavily on physics, such as the radioactive dating of rocks, earthquake analysis, and heat transfer in the Earth.
Some disciplines, such as biophysics and geophysics, are hybrids of physics and other disciplines.

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 Physics in Chemistry: The study of matter and electricity in physics is fundamental towards the understanding of concepts in
chemistry, such as the covalent bond.
Physics has many applications in the biological sciences. On the microscopic level, it helps describe the properties of cell walls and
cell membranes. On the macroscopic level, it can explain the heat, work, and power associated with the human body. Physics is
involved in medical diagnostics, such as X-rays, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasonic blood flow measurements.
Medical therapy sometimes directly involves physics: cancer radiotherapy uses ionizing radiation, for instance. Physics can also
explain sensory phenomena, such as how musical instruments make sound, how the eye detects color, and how lasers can transmit
information.
The boundary between physics and the other sciences is not always clear. For instance, chemists study atoms and molecules, which
are what matter is built from, and there are some scientists who would be equally willing to call themselves physical chemists or
chemical physicists. It might seem that the distinction between physics and biology would be clearer, since physics seems to deal
with inanimate objects. In fact, almost all physicists would agree that the basic laws of physics that apply to molecules in a test tube
work equally well for the combination of molecules that constitutes a bacterium. What differentiates physics from biology is that
many of the scientific theories that describe living things ultimately result from the fundamental laws of physics, but cannot be
rigorously derived from physical principles.
It is not necessary to formally study all applications of physics. What is most useful is the knowledge of the basic laws of physics
and skill in the analytical methods for applying them. The study of physics can also improve your problem-solving skills.
Furthermore, physics has retained the most basic aspects of science, so it is used by all of the sciences. The study of physics makes
other sciences easier to understand.

Models, Theories, and Laws

The terms model, theory, and law have exact meanings in relation to their usage in the study of physics.

learning objectives
Define the terms model, theory, and law

Definition of Terms: Model, Theory, Law

In colloquial usage, the terms model, theory, and law are often used interchangeably or have different interpretations than they do
in the sciences. In relation to the study of physics, however, each term has its own specific meaning.
The laws of nature are concise descriptions of the universe around us. They are not explanations, but human statements of the
underlying rules that all natural processes follow. They are intrinsic to the universe; humans did not create them and we cannot
change them. We can only discover and understand them. The cornerstone of discovering natural laws is observation; science must
describe the universe as it is, not as we may imagine it to be. Laws can never be known with absolute certainty, because it is
impossible to perform experiments to establish and confirm a law in every possible scenario without exception. Physicists operate
under the assumption that all scientific laws and theories are valid until a counterexample is observed. If a good-quality, verifiable
experiment contradicts a well-established law, then the law must be modified or overthrown completely.

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Models
A model is a representation of something that is often too difficult (or impossible) to display directly. While a model’s design is
justified using experimental information, it is only accurate under limited situations. An example is the commonly used “planetary
model” of the atom, in which electrons are pictured as orbiting the nucleus, analogous to the way planets orbit the Sun. We cannot
observe electron orbits directly, but the mental image helps explain the observations we can make, such as the emission of light
from hot gases. Physicists use models for a variety of purposes. For example, models can help physicists analyze a scenario and
perform a calculation, or they can be used to represent a situation in the form of a computer simulation.

Planetary Model of an Atom: The planetary model of the atom in which electrons are pictured as orbiting the nucleus, analogous
to the way planets orbit the Sun

Theories
A theory is an explanation for patterns in nature that is supported by scientific evidence and verified multiple times by various
groups of researchers. Some theories include models to help visualize phenomena, whereas others do not. Newton’s theory of
gravity, for example, does not require a model or mental image, because we can observe the objects directly with our own senses.
The kinetic theory of gases, on the other hand, makes use of a model in which a gas is viewed as being composed of atoms and
molecules. Atoms and molecules are too small to be observed directly with our senses—thus, we picture them mentally to
understand what our instruments tell us about the behavior of gases.

Laws
A law uses concise language to describe a generalized pattern in nature that is supported by scientific evidence and repeated
experiments. Often, a law can be expressed in the form of a single mathematical equation. Laws and theories are similar in that
they are both scientific statements that result from a tested hypothesis and are supported by scientific evidence. However, the
designation law is reserved for a concise and very general statement that describes phenomena in nature, such as the law that
energy is conserved during any process, or Newton’s second law of motion, which relates force, mass, and acceleration by the
simple equation F = ma . A theory, in contrast, is a less concise statement of observed phenomena. For example, the Theory of
Evolution and the Theory of Relativity cannot be expressed concisely enough to be considered a law. The biggest difference
between a law and a theory is that a law is much more complex and dynamic, and a theory is more explanatory. A law describes a
single observable point of fact, whereas a theory explains an entire group of related phenomena. And, whereas a law is a postulate
that forms the foundation of the scientific method, a theory is the end result of that process.

Key Points
Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts
such as energy and force.
Matter is generally considered to be anything that has mass and volume.
Scientific laws and theories express the general truths of nature and the body of knowledge they encompass. These laws of
nature are rules that all natural processes appear to follow.
Many scientific disciplines, such as biophysics, are hybrids of physics and other sciences.
The study of physics encompasses all forms of matter and its motion in space and time.

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 The application of physics is fundamental towards significant contributions in new technologies that arise from theoretical
breakthroughs.
Concepts in physics cannot be proven, they can only be supported or disproven through observation and experimentation.
A model is an evidence-based representation of something that is either too difficult or impossible to display directly.
A theory is an explanation for patterns in nature that is supported by scientific evidence and verified multiple times by various
groups of researchers.
A law uses concise language, often expressed as a mathematical equation, to describe a generalized pattern in nature that is
supported by scientific evidence and repeated experiments.

Key Terms
matter: The basic structural component of the universe. Matter usually has mass and volume.
scientific method: A method of discovering knowledge about the natural world based in making falsifiable predictions
(hypotheses), testing them empirically, and developing peer-reviewed theories that best explain the known data.
application: the act of putting something into operation
Model: A representation of something difficult or impossible to display directly
Law: A concise description, usually in the form of a mathematical equation, used to describe a pattern in nature
theory: An explanation for patterns in nature that is supported by scientific evidence and verified multiple times by various
groups of researchers
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1.2: Units
Length
Length is a physical measurement of distance that is fundamentally measured in the SI unit of a meter.

learning objectives
Distinguish SI and customary units of length

Length can be defined as a measurement of the physical quantity of distance. Many qualitative observations fundamental to physics
are commonly described using the measurement of length. The distance between objects, the rate at which objects are traveling,
and how much force an object exerts are all dependent on length as a variable. In order to describe length in a standardized and
quantitative manner, an accepted unit of measurement must be utilized.
Many different units of length are used around the world. In the United States, the U.S. customary units operationally describe
length in terms of the basic unit of an inch. Varying lengths are thus described in relation to the inch, such as a foot equaling 12
inches, a yard equaling three feet, and a mile equaling 1,760 yards.
Though regional use of different measurement units is not generally problematic, it can raise issues of compatibility and
understanding when working abroad or collaboratively with international partners. As such, a standard unit of measurement that is
internationally accepted is needed. The basic unit of length as identified by the International System of Units (SI) is the meter. The
meter is expressed more specifically in terms of speed of light.
One meter is defined as the distance that light travels in a vacuum in 1

299,792,458
of a second. All lengths are measured in terms
related to the meter, where its multiples are devised around the convenience of the number 10. For example, a centimeter is equal to
1

100
of a meter (or 10 meters), and a kilometer is equal to 1,000 meters (or 10 meters).
−2 3

Meter Defined by Speed of Light: The meter is defined to be the distance that light travels in 1

299,792,458
of a second in a vacuum.
Distance traveled is speed multiplied by time.

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 High School Physics - Metric System

Metric System – Length: A brief introduction to the metric system and unit conversions.

Mass
Mass is the quantity of matter that an object contains, as measured by its resistance to acceleration.

learning objectives
Explain the difference between mass and weight

Mass
Mass, specifically inertial mass, is a quantitative measure of an object’s resistance to acceleration. It is an intrinsic property of an
object and does not change because of the environment. The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).
The kilogram is defined as being equal to the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram (IPK), which is almost exactly equal to
the mass of one liter of water. It is also the only SI unit that is directly defined by an artifact, rather than a fundamental physical
property that can be reproduced in different laboratories. Four of the seven base units in the SI system are defined relative to the
kilogram, so the stability of this measurement is crucial for accurate and consistent measurements.

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In 2005, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) recommended that the kilogram be redefined in terms of a
fundamental constant of nature, due to evidence that the International Prototype Kilogram will vary in mass over time. At its 2011
meeting, the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) agreed that the kilogram should be redefined in terms of the
Planck constant. The conference deferred a final decision until its next meeting in 2014.

Prototype Mass Drifts: A graph of the relative change in mass of selected kilogram prototypes.

Mass and Weight

In everyday usage, the mass of an object in kilograms is often referred to as its weight. This value, though given in kilograms, is
actually the non-SI unit of measure known as the kilogram- force. In scientific terms, ‘weight’ refers to the gravitational force
acting on a given body. This measurement changes depending on the gravitational pull of the opposing body. For example, a
person’s weight on the Earth is different than a person’s weight on the moon because of the differences in the gravitational pull of
each body. In contrast, the mass of an object is an intrinsic property and remains the same regardless of gravitational fields.
Accordingly, astronauts in microgravity must exert 10 times more force to accelerate a 10-kg object at the same rate as a 1-kg
object, even though the differences in weight are imperceptible.

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 High School Physics - Metric System

Metric System – Mass: A brief introduction to the metric system and unit conversions.

Time
Time is the fundamental physical quantity of duration and is measured by the SI Unit known as the second.

learning objectives
Relate time with other physical quantities

Time is one of the seven fundamental physical quantities in the International System (SI) of Units. Time is used to define other
quantities, such as velocity or acceleration, and as such, it is important that it be standardized and quantified precisely. An
operational definition of time is highly useful in the conduct of both advanced experiments and everyday affairs of life.
Historically, temporal measurement was a prime motivation in navigation and astronomy. Periodic events and motion have long
served as standards for units of time. For example, the movement of the sun across the sky, the phases of the moon, the swing of a
pendulum, and the beat of a heart have all been used as a standard for time keeping. These events and standards, however, are
highly dynamic in nature and cannot reliably be utilized for accurate quantitative measures. Between 1000 and 1960 the second
was defined as 1

86,400
of a mean solar day. This definition changed between 1960 and 1967 and was defined in terms of the period

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of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun in 1900. Today, the SI Unit of the second is defined in terms of radiation emitted by cesium
atoms.
The second is now operationally defined as “the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium 133 atom.” It follows that the hyperfine splitting in the ground
state of the cesium 133 atom is exactly 9,192,631,770 hertz. In other words, cesium atoms can be made to vibrate in a very steady
way, and these vibrations can be readily observed and counted. The second is the time required for 9,192,631,770 of these
vibrations to occur.

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NIST-F1 Cesium Clock: NIST-F1 is referred to as a fountain clock because it uses a fountain-like movement of atoms to obtain its
improved reckoning of time.

High School Physics - Metric System

Metric System – Time: A brief introduction to the metric system and unit conversions.

Prefixes and Other Systems of Units

SI prefixes precede a basic unit of measure to indicate a multiple or fraction of the unit.

learning objectives
Apply prefixes to units and distinguish between SI and customary units

Prefixes
A metric prefix, or SI prefix, is a unit prefix that precedes a basic unit of measure to indicate a multiple or fraction of the unit. Each
prefix has a unique symbol that is prepended to the unit symbol. The prefix kilo-, for example, may be added to gram to indicate
multiplication by one thousand; one kilogram is equal to one thousand grams (1 kg = 1000 g). The prefix centi-, likewise, may be
added to meter to indicate division by one hundred; one centimeter is equal to one hundredth of a meter (1 cm = 0.01 m). Prefixes
in varying multiples of 10 are a feature of all forms of the metric system, with many dating back to the system’s introduction in the

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1790s. Today, the prefixes are standardized for use in the International System of Units (SI) by the International Bureau of Weights
and Measures.There are twenty prefixes officially specified by SI.

SI Unit Prefixes: The twenty prefixes officially specified by the International System of Units
It is important to note that the kilogram is the only SI unit with a prefix as part of its name and symbol. Because multiple prefixes
may not be used, in the case of the kilogram the prefix names are used with the unit name “gram” and the prefix symbols are used
with the unit symbol “g. ” With this exception, any SI prefix may be used with any SI unit, including the degree Celsius and its
symbol °C.

Other Systems of Units

The SI Unit system, or the metric system, is used by the majority of countries in the world, and is the standard system agreed upon
by scientists and mathematicians. Colloquially, however, other systems of units are used in many countries. The United States, for
example, teaches and uses the United States customary units. This system of units was developed from the English, or Imperial,
unit standards of the United Kingdom.The United States customary units define measurements using different standards than those
used in SI Units. The system for measuring length using the United States customary system is based on the inch, foot, yard, and
mile. Likewise, units of area are measured in terms of square feet, and units of capacity and volume are measured in terms of cubic
inches, cubic feet, or cubic yards. Units of mass are commonly defined in terms of ounces and pounds, rather than the SI unit of
kilograms.Other commonly used units from the United States customary system include the fluid volume units of the teaspoon,
tablespoon, fluid ounce, US cup, pint, quart, and gallon, as well as the degrees Fahrenheit used to measure temperature.
Some units that are widely used are not a part of the International System of Units and are considered Non-SI Units. These units,
though not officially part of SI Units, are generally accepted for use in conjunction with SI units. These can include the minute,
hour, and day used in temporal measurements, the liter for volumetric measurements, and the degree, minute, and second used to
measure angles.

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 High School Physics - Metric System

Metric System – Prefixes: A brief introduction to the metric system and unit conversions.

Converting Units
Converting between units can be done through the use of conversion factors or specific conversion formulas.

learning objectives
Apply factor-label method for converting units

Translating Systems of Measurement

It is often necessary to convert from one type of unit to another. Conversion of units is the conversion of different units of
measurement for the same quantity, typically using conversion factors. For example, if you are reading a European cookbook, some
quantities may be expressed in units of liters; if you’re cooking in the US in a standard kitchen with standard tools, you will need to
convert those measurements to cups. Or, perhaps you are reading walking directions from one location to another and you are
interested in how many miles you will be walking. In this case, you will need to convert units of feet to miles. This is a bit like
translating a substitution code, using a formula that helps you understand what one measure means in terms of another system.

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 Unit Conversion in the Metric System - CLEAR & SI…
SI…

Unit Conversion in the Metric System: EASY Unit Conversion in the Metric System – This simple extra help video tutorial
explains the metric system and how to make simple metric conversions.

Conversion Methods
There are several ways to approach doing conversions. One commonly used method is known as the Factor-label method for
converting units, or the “railroad method. ”
The factor-label method is the sequential application of conversion factors expressed as fractions and arranged so that any
dimensional unit appearing in both the numerator and denominator of any of the fractions can be cancelled out until only the
desired set of dimensional units is obtained. For example, 10 miles per hour can be converted to meters per second by using a
sequence of conversion factors.
Each conversion factor is equivalent to the value of one. For example, starting with 1 mile = 1609 meters and dividing both sides of
the equation by 1 mile yields 1 mile

1 mile
=
1609 meters

1 mile
, which when simplified yields 1 = 1609 meters

1 mile
. Physically crossing out the units
that cancel each other out will also help visualize what’s left over.

Converting 1 year into seconds using the Factor-Label Method: Physically crossing out units that cancel out helps visualize the
“leftover” unit(s).
So, when the units mile and hour are cancelled out and the arithmetic is done, 10 miles per hour converts to 4.47 meters per second.

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A limitation of the factor-label method is that it can only convert between units that have a constant ratio that can be multiplied, or
a multiplication factor. This method cannot be used between units that have a displacement, or difference factor. An example is the
conversion between degrees Celsius and kelvins, or between Celsius and Fahrenheit. For these, it is best to use the specific
conversion formulas.
For example, if you are planning a trip abroad in Spain and the weather forecast predicts the weather to be mostly cloudy and 16°C,
you may want to convert the temperature into °F, a unit that you are more comfortable interpreting. In order to do this, you would
need to know the conversion formula from Celsius to Fahrenheit. This formula is: [°F] = [°C] × + 32 .
9

9
[°F] = [°C] × + 32 (1.2.1)
5

[°F] = 28.8 + 32 (1.2.2)

[°F] = 60.8 + 32 (1.2.3)

So you would then know that 16°C is equivalent to 60.8°F and be able to pack the right type of clothing to be comfortable.

Key Points
The SI unit for length is the meter.
One meter is defined as the distance that light travels in a vacuum in 1
of a second.
299,792,458

Derivatives of measurement units related to the meter are devised around the convenience of the number 10.
The kilogram is the only SI unit directly defined by the artifact itself.
Mass is a property that does not depend on gravitational fields, unlike weight.
One kilogram is defined as the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram (IPK), a platinum-iridium alloy cylinder.
One kilogram is almost exactly equal to the mass of one liter of water.
Time is a physical quantity of duration.
The SI Unit for time is the second.
The second is operationally defined in terms of radiation emitted by cesium atoms.
The twenty standardized prefixes for use in the International System of Units are derived from multiples of 10.
The kilogram is the only SI unit with a prefix as part of its name and symbol; as such, SI unit prefixes are prepended to the unit
gram.
The United States customary units define measurements based on the English, or Imperial, unit standards.
Conversion of units is the conversion between different units of measurement for the same quantity, typically through
multiplicative conversion factors.
The factor-label method is the sequential application of conversion factors expressed as fractions in which units appearing in
both the numerator and denominator can be cancelled out, leaving only the desired set of units.
For conversions that have a difference factor, specific conversion formulas should be used.

Key Terms
Length: How far apart objects are physically.
acceleration: the rate at which the velocity of a body changes with time
inertia: the tendency of an object to resist any change in its motion
Radiation: the emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as moving or oscillating subatomic particles.
prefix: That which is prefixed; especially one or more letters or syllables added to the beginning of a word to modify its
meaning; as, pre- in prefix, con- in conjure.
conversion: a change between different units of measurement for the same quantity.
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License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
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United States customary units. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at:
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1.3: Significant Figures and Order of Magnitude
Scientific Notation
Scientific notation is a way of writing numbers that are too big or too small in a convenient and standard form.

learning objectives
Convert properly between standard and scientific notation and identify appropriate situations to use it

Scientific Notation: A Matter of Convenience

Scientific notation is a way of writing numbers that are too big or too small in a convenient and standard form. Scientific notation
has a number of useful properties and is commonly used in calculators and by scientists, mathematicians and engineers. In
scientific notation all numbers are written in the form of a ⋅ 10 (a multiplied by ten raised to the power of b), where the exponent
b

b ) is an integer, and the coefficient (a is any real number.

Scientific Notation: There are three parts to writing a number in scientific notation: the coefficient, the base, and the exponent.
Most of the interesting phenomena in our universe are not on the human scale. It would take about 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
bacteria to equal the mass of a human body. Thomas Young’s discovery that light was a wave preceded the use of scientific
notation, and he was obliged to write that the time required for one vibration of the wave was “ of a millionth of a millionth of a
500
1

second”; an inconvenient way of expressing the point. Scientific notation is a less awkward and wordy way to write very large and
very small numbers such as these.

A Simple System
Scientific notation means writing a number in terms of a product of something from 1 to 10 and something else that is a power of
ten.
For instance, 32 = 3.2 ⋅ 10 1

2
320 = 3.2 ⋅ 10

3200 = 3.2 ⋅ 10
3
, and so forth…
Each number is ten times bigger than the previous one. Since 10 is ten times smaller than 10 , it makes sense to use the notation
1 2

10 to stand for one, the number that is in turn ten times smaller than 10 . Continuing on, we can write 10 to stand for 0.1, the
0 1 −1

number ten times smaller than 10 . Negative exponents are used for small numbers:
0

0
3.2 = 3.2 ⋅ 10

−1
0.32 = 3.2 ⋅ 10

−2
0.032 = 3.2 ⋅ 10

Scientific notation displayed calculators can take other shortened forms that mean the same thing. For example, 3.2 ⋅ 10
6
(written
notation) is the same as 3.2E + 6 (notation on some calculators) and 3.2 (notation on some other calculators).
6

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Round-off Error
A round-off error is the difference between the calculated approximation of a number and its exact mathematical value.

learning objectives
Explain the impact round-off errors may have on calculations, and how to reduce this impact

Round-off Error
A round-off error, also called a rounding error, is the difference between the calculated approximation of a number and its exact
mathematical value. Numerical analysis specifically tries to estimate this error when using approximation equations, algorithms, or
both, especially when using finitely many digits to represent real numbers. When a sequence of calculations subject to rounding
errors is made, errors may accumulate, sometimes dominating the calculation.
Calculations rarely lead to whole numbers. As such, values are expressed in the form of a decimal with infinite digits. The more
digits that are used, the more accurate the calculations will be upon completion. Using a slew of digits in multiple calculations,
however, is often unfeasible if calculating by hand and can lead to much more human error when keeping track of so many digits.
To make calculations much easier, the results are often ’rounded off’ to the nearest few decimal places.
For example, the equation for finding the area of a circle is A = πr . The number π(pi) has infinitely many digits, but can be
2

truncated to a rounded representation of as 3.14159265359. However, for the convenience of performing calculations by hand, this
number is typically rounded even further, to the nearest two decimal places, giving just 3.14. Though this technically decreases the
accuracy of the calculations, the value derived is typically ‘close enough’ for most estimation purposes.
However, when doing a series of calculations, numbers are rounded off at each subsequent step. This leads to an accumulation of
errors, and if profound enough, can misrepresent calculated values and lead to miscalculations and mistakes.
The following is an example of round-off error:
−−−−−−−−− − −−−− −−−−−
2 2
√4.58 + 3.28 = √21.0 + 10.8 = 5.64

Rounding these numbers off to one decimal place or to the nearest whole number would change the answer to 5.7 and 6,
respectively. The more rounding off that is done, the more errors are introduced.

Order of Magnitude Calculations

An order of magnitude is the class of scale of any amount in which each class contains values of a fixed ratio to the class preceding
it.

learning objectives
Choose when it is appropriate to perform an order-of-magnitude calculation

Orders of Magnitude
An order of magnitude is the class of scale of any amount in which each class contains values of a fixed ratio to the class preceding
it. In its most common usage, the amount scaled is 10, and the scale is the exponent applied to this amount (therefore, to be an
order of magnitude greater is to be 10 times, or 10 to the power of 1, greater). Such differences in order of magnitude can be
measured on the logarithmic scale in “decades,” or factors of ten. It is common among scientists and technologists to say that a
parameter whose value is not accurately known or is known only within a range is “on the order of” some value. The order of
magnitude of a physical quantity is its magnitude in powers of ten when the physical quantity is expressed in powers of ten with
one digit to the left of the decimal.
Orders of magnitude are generally used to make very approximate comparisons and reflect very large differences. If two numbers
differ by one order of magnitude, one is about ten times larger than the other. If they differ by two orders of magnitude, they differ
by a factor of about 100. Two numbers of the same order of magnitude have roughly the same scale — the larger value is less than
ten times the smaller value.
It is important in the field of science that estimates be at least in the right ballpark. In many situations, it is often sufficient for an
estimate to be within an order of magnitude of the value in question. Although making order-of-magnitude estimates seems simple
and natural to experienced scientists, it may be completely unfamiliar to the less experienced.

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Example 1.3.1:

Some of the mental steps of estimating in orders of magnitude are illustrated in answering the following example question:
Roughly what percentage of the price of a tomato comes from the cost of transporting it in a truck?

Guessing the Number of Jelly Beans: Can you guess how many jelly beans are in the jar? If you try to guess directly, you
will almost certainly underestimate. The right way to do it is to estimate the linear dimensions and then estimate the volume
indirectly.
Incorrect solution: Let’s say the trucker needs to make a prot on the trip. Taking into account her benits, the cost of gas, and
maintenance and payments on the truck, let’s say the total cost is more like 2000. You might guess about 5000 tomatoes would
t in the back of the truck, so the extra cost per tomato is 40 cents. That means the cost of transporting one tomato is
comparable to the cost of the tomato itself.
The problem here is that the human brain is not very good at estimating area or volume — it turns out the estimate of 5000
tomatoes fitting in the truck is way off. (This is why people have a hard time in volume-estimation contests, such as the one
shown below.) When estimating area or volume, you are much better off estimating linear dimensions and computing the
volume from there.
So, here’s a better solution: As before, let’s say the cost of the trip is $2000. The dimensions of the bin are probably 4m by 2m
by 1m, for a volume of 8 m . Since our goal is just an order-of-magnitude estimate, let’s round that volume off to the nearest
3

power of ten: 10 m . The shape of a tomato doesn’t follow linear dimensions, but since this is just an estimate, let’s pretend
3

that a tomato is an 0.1m by 0.1m by 0.1m cube, with a volume of 1 ⋅ 10 m . We can nd the total number of tomatoes by
−3 3

3 3

dividing the volume of the bin by the volume of one tomato: 10

−3
m
= 10
3
tomatoes. The transportation cost per tomato is
6

10 m

6
$2000
= $0.002 per tomato. That means that transportation really doesn’t contribute very much to the cost of a tomato.
10 tomatoes

Approximating the shape of a tomato as a cube is an example of another general strategy for making order-of-magnitude
estimates.

Key Points
Scientific notation means writing a number in terms of a product of something from 1 to 10 and something else that is a power
of 10.
In scientific notation all numbers are written in the form of a ⋅ 10 (a times ten raised to the power of b).
b

Each consecutive exponent number is ten times bigger than the previous one; negative exponents are used for small numbers.
When a sequence of calculations subject to rounding error is made, these errors can accumulate and lead to the
misrepresentation of calculated values.
Increasing the number of digits allowed in a representation reduces the magnitude of possible round-off errors, but may not
always be feasible, especially when doing manual calculations.
The degree to which numbers are rounded off is relative to the purpose of calculations and the actual value.
Orders of magnitude are generally used to make very approximate comparisons and reflect very large differences.
In the field of science, it is often sufficient for an estimate to be within an order of magnitude of the value in question.

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 When estimating area or volume, you are much better off estimating linear dimensions and computing volume from those linear
dimensions.

Key Terms
exponent: The power to which a number, symbol or expression is to be raised. For example, the 3 in x . 3

Scientific notation: A method of writing, or of displaying real numbers as a decimal number between 1 and 10 followed by an
integer power of 10
approximation: An imprecise solution or result that is adequate for a defined purpose.
Order of Magnitude: The class of scale or magnitude of any amount, where each class contains values of a fixed ratio (most
often 10) to the class preceding it. For example, something that is 2 orders of magnitude larger is 100 times larger; something
that is 3 orders of magnitude larger is 1000 times larger; and something that is 6 orders of magnitude larger is one million times
larger, because 10 = 100, 10 = 1000, and 10 = one million
2 3 6

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1.4: Solving Physics Problems
Dimensional Analysis
Any physical quantity can be expressed as a product of a combination of the basic physical dimensions.

learning objectives
Calculate the conversion from one kind of dimension to another

Dimensions
The dimension of a physical quantity indicates how it relates to one of the seven basic quantities. These fundamental quantities are:
[M] Mass
[L] Length
[T] Time
[A] Current
[K] Temperature
[mol] Amount of a Substance
[cd] Luminous Intensity
As you can see, the symbol is enclosed in a pair of square brackets. This is often used to represent the dimension of individual basic
[L]
quantity. An example of the use of basic dimensions is speed, which has a dimension of 1 in length and -1 in time; [T]
= [LT
−1
] .
Any physical quantity can be expressed as a product of a combination of the basic physical dimensions.

Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is the practice of checking relations between physical quantities by identifying their dimensions. The
dimension of any physical quantity is the combination of the basic physical dimensions that compose it. Dimensional analysis is
based on the fact that physical law must be independent of the units used to measure the physical variables. It can be used to check
the plausibility of derived equations, computations and hypotheses.

Derived Dimensions
The dimensions of derived quantities may include few or all dimensions in individual basic quantities. In order to understand the
technique to write dimensions of a derived quantity, we consider the case of force. Force is defined as:

F = m⋅a (1.4.1)

F = [M][a] (1.4.2)

The dimension of acceleration, represented as [a], is itself a derived quantity being the ratio of velocity and time. In turn, velocity is
also a derived quantity, being ratio of length and time.
−1
F = [M][a] = [M][vT ] (1.4.3)
−1 −1 −2
F = [M][LT T ] = [MLT ] (1.4.4)

Dimensional Conversion
In practice, one might need to convert from one kind of dimension to another. For common conversions, you might already know
how to convert off the top of your head. But for less common ones, it is helpful to know how to find the conversion factor:

Q = n1 u1 = n2 u2 (1.4.5)

where n represents the amount per u dimensions. You can then use ratios to figure out the conversion:
u2
n2 = ⋅ n1 (1.4.6)
u1

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Trigonometry
Trigonometry is central to the use of free body diagrams, which help visually represent difficult physics problems.

learning objectives
Explain why trigonometry is useful in determining horizontal and vertical components of forces

Trigonometry and Solving Physics Problems

In physics, most problems are solved much more easily when a free body diagram is used. Free body diagrams use geometry and
vectors to visually represent the problem. Trigonometry is also used in determining the horizontal and vertical components of
forces and objects. Free body diagrams are very helpful in visually identifying which components are unknown and where the
moments are applied. They can help analyze a problem, whether it is static or dynamic.
When people draw free body diagrams, often not everything is perfectly parallel and perpendicular. Sometimes people need to
analyze the horizontal and vertical components of forces and object orientation. When the force or object is not acting parallel to
the x or y axis, people can employ basic trigonometry to use the simplest components of the action to analyze it. Basically,
everything should be considered in terms of x and y, which sometimes takes some manipulation.

Free Body Diagram: The rod is hinged from a wall and is held with the help of a string.
A rod ‘AB’ is hinged at ‘A’ from a wall and is held still with the help of a string, as shown in. This exercise involves drawing the
free body diagram. To make the problem easier, the force F will be expressed in terms of its horizontal and vertical components.
Removing all other elements from the image helps produce the finished free body diagram.

Free Body Diagram: The free body diagram as a finished product

Given the finished free body diagram, people can use their knowledge of trigonometry and the laws of sine and cosine to
mathematically and numerical represent the horizontal and vertical components:

General Problem-Solving Tricks

Free body diagrams use geometry and vectors to visually represent the problem.

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 learning objectives
Construct a free-body diagram for a physical scenario

In physics, most problems are solved much more easily when a free body diagram is used. This uses geometry and vectors to
visually represent to problem, and trigonometry is also used in determining horizontal and vertical components of forces and
objects.
Purpose: Free body diagrams are very helpful in visually identifying which components are unknown, where the moments are
applied, and help analyze a problem, whether static or dynamic.

How to Make A Free Body Diagram

To draw a free body diagram, do not worry about drawing it to scale, this will just be what you use to help yourself identify the
problems. First you want to model the body, in one of three ways:
As a particle. This model may be used when any turning effects are zero or have zero interest even though the body itself may
be extended. The body may be represented by a small symbolic blob and the diagram reduces to a set of concurrent arrows. A
force on a particle is a bound vector.
rigid extended. Stresses and strains are of no interest but turning effects are. A force arrow should lie along the line of force, but
where along the line is irrelevant. A force on an extended rigid body is asliding vector.
non-rigid extended. The point of application of a force becomes crucial and has to be indicated on the diagram. A force on a
non-rigid body is a bound vector. Some engineers use the tail of the arrow to indicate the point of application. Others use the
tip.

Do’s and Don’ts

What to include: Since a free body diagram represents the body itself and the external forces on it. So you will want to include the
following things in the diagram:
The body: This is usually sketched in a schematic way depending on the body – particle/extended, rigid/non-rigid – and on what
questions are to be answered. Thus if rotation of the body and torque is in consideration, an indication of size and shape of the
body is needed.
The external forces: These are indicated by labelled arrows. In a fully solved problem, a force arrow is capable of indicating the
direction, the magnitude the point of application. These forces can be friction, gravity, normal force, drag, tension, etc…

Do not include:
Do not show bodies other than the body of interest.
Do not show forces exerted by the body.
Internal forces acting on various parts of the body by other parts of the body.
Any velocity or acceleration is left out.

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 How To Solve Any Physics Problem

How To Solve Any Physics Problem: Learn five simple steps in five minutes! In this episode we cover the most effective
problem-solving method I’ve encountered and call upon some fuzzy friends to help us remember the steps.

Free Body Diagram: Use this figure to work through the example problem.

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Key Points
Dimensional analysis is the practice of checking relations amount physical quantities by identifying their dimensions.
It is common to be faced with a problem that uses different dimensions to express the same basic quantity. The following
u2
equation can be used to find the conversion factor between the two derived dimensions: n = × n .
2
u1
1

Dimensional analysis can also be used as a simple check to computations, theories and hypotheses.
It is important to identify the problem and the unknowns and draw them in a free body diagram.
The laws of cosine and sine can be used to determine the vertical and horizontal components of the different elements of the
diagram.
Free body diagrams use geometry and vectors to visually represent physics problems.
A free body diagram lets you visually isolate the problem you are trying to solve, and simplify it into simple geometry and
trigonometry.
When drawing these diagrams, it is helpful to only draw the body it self, and the forces acting on it.
Drawing other objects and internal forces can condense the diagram and cause it to be less helpful.

Key Terms
dimension: A measure of spatial extent in a particular direction, such as height, width or breadth, or depth.
trigonometry: The branch of mathematics that deals with the relationships between the sides and the angles of triangles and the
calculations based on them, particularly the trigonometric functions.
static: Fixed in place; having no motion.
dynamic: Changing; active; in motion.
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 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

10: Fluids
10.1: Introduction
10.2: Density and Pressure
10.3: Archimedes’ Principle
10.4: Cohesion and Adhesion
10.5: Fluids in Motion
10.6: Deformation of Solids

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1
10.1: Introduction
learning objectives
Assess the distinguishing characteristics of the four states of matter

There are a number of properties that can be observed in a material that identify what state the matter is in — solid, liquid, gas, or
plasma.

Solids

Solid: Solids are in a state of matter that maintains a fixed volume and shape.
A solid is in a state of matter that maintains a fixed volume and shape. A solid’s particles fit closely together. The forces between
the particles are so strong that the particles can not move freely; they can only vibrate. This causes a solid to be a stable, non-
compressible shape with definite volume.

Liquids

Liquid: Liquids maintain a fixed volume, but their shape will mold to the shape of the container they are being held in.
A liquid maintains a fixed volume, but its shape will mold to the shape of the container it is being held in. In, you can see that even
though the liquid’s shape is determined by the container, it has a free surface that is not controlled by the container. The particles
are close together but not as close as in solids; they are still able to move around, which causes the liquid to flow. Liquids usually
have a higher volume than their solid counterparts, except for certain molecules, such as H2O (water).

Gases

Gas: The particles are much farther from each other, usually a farther length than the size of the particles, and move a lot
shows a gas, whose particles move around a lot and are much farther apart from each other, usually farther apart than the diameter
of the particles themselves. The gas behaves like a liquid; the particles are moving but are still attracted to each other, so they still
flow. Unlike a solid or a liquid, the gas will try to fill whatever container it is in, adapting its volume accordingly.

Plasma
Plasma is a gas that has been ionized. That is to say, sufficient energy has been supplied to the gas such that the electrons have
enough energy to escape their atoms or molecules. Plasma contains ions and electrons that can move around freely. Matter in the

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plasma state has variable volume and shape. Plasma is the most common form of visible matter in the universe. Lightning, sparks,
neon lights, and the sun are all examples of matter in the plasma state.

Plasma: Matter in the plasma state has variable volume and shape, but as well as neutral atoms, it contains a significant number of
ions and electrons, both of which can move around freely.

Phase Transitions
shows the different states of matter and how they can change from one to another as a function of enthalpy and pressure and
temperature changes. A solid can change to a liquid with an enthalpy increase. The process of a liquid going to a solid is known as
melting. A liquid can change into a gas when it hits its boiling point or can even enter a plasma state if the enthalpy is increased
enough. When the enthalpy is lowered, a liquid can transform into a solid through freezing. Sometimes, a solid can skip freezing
and go directly to a gaseous state; this process is called sublimation.

States of Matter: This figure illustrates the relationship between the enthalpy of a system and the state of matter that the system is
in.

What is a Fluid?
A fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress.

learning objectives
Explain the properties of substances under an applied shear stress

A fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress. Fluids are a subset of the states of matter and
include three of the four states—liquids, gases, and plasma (shown in ).

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Four Fundamental States of Matter: Four fundamental states of matter: 1) top left corner corresponds to solid; 2) top right corner
corresponds to liquid; 3) bottom left corner corresponds to gas; 4) bottom right corner corresponds to plasma.
Liquids form a free surface (i.e., a surface not created by the container) while gases do not. The distinction between solids and fluid
is not entirely obvious. The distinction is made by evaluating the viscosity of the substance. Silly Putty can be considered to behave
like a solid or a fluid, depending on the time period over which it is observed. It is best described as a viscoelastic fluid.
Fluids display properties such as:
a) not resisting deformation or resisting it only lightly (viscosity), and
b) the ability to flow (also described as the ability to take on the shape of the container).
This also means that all fluids have the property of fluidity. These properties are typically a function of their inability to support a
shear stress in static equilibrium.
Solids can be subjected to shear stresses, and normal stresses—both compressive and tensile. In contrast, ideal fluids can only be
subjected to normal, compressive stress (called pressure). Real fluids display viscosity and so are capable of being subjected to low
levels of shear stress.
Although the term fluid includes both the liquid and gas phases, it is also commonly used as a synonym for liquid, with no
implication that gas could also be present. For example, “brake fluid” is hydraulic oil and will not perform its required function if
there is gas in it. This colloquial usage of the term is also common in the fields of medicine and nutrition (e.g., “take plenty of
fluids”).

Key Points
Solids are non-compressible and have constant volume and constant shape.
Liquids are non-compressible and have constant volume but can change shape. A liquid’s shape is dictated by the shape of the
container it is in.
Gases do not have a constant volume or shape; they not only take the shape of the container they are in, they try to fill the entire
container.
Matter in the plasma state has variable volume and shape. Plasma contains ions and electrons, both of which can move around
freely.
Fluids are a subset of the states of matter and include liquids, gases, and plasma.
Fluids display properties such as: not resisting deformation or resisting it only lightly ( viscosity ), and the ability to flow (also
described as the ability to take on the shape of the container).
Ideal fluids can only be subjected to normal, compressive stress which is called pressure. Real fluids display viscosity and thus
are capable of being subjected to low levels of shear stress.

Key Items
plasma: a state of matter consisting of partially ionized gas
enthalpy: the total amount of energy in a system, including both the internal energy and the energy needed to displace its
environment
sublimation: the transition of a substance from the solid phase directly to the vapor state such that it does not pass through the
intermediate, liquid phase
fluidity: A measure of the extent to which something is fluid. The reciprocal of its viscosity.
viscosity: A quantity expressing the magnitude of internal friction in a fluid, as measured by the force per unit area resisting
uniform flow.
shear stress: The component of stress that causes parallel layers of a material to move relative to each other in their own
planes.
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10.2: Density and Pressure
learning objectives
Identify factors that determine the pressure exerted by the gas

Pressure is an important physical quantity—it plays an essential role in topics ranging from thermodynamics to solid and fluid
mechanics. As a scalar physical quantity (having magnitude but no direction), pressure is defined as the force per unit area applied
perpendicular to the surface to which it is applied. Pressure can be expressed in a number of units depending on the context of use.

AP Physics 2 - Pressure and Pascal's Principle

Pressure and Pascal’s Principle: A brief introduction to pressure and Pascal’s Principle, including hydraulics.

Units, Equations and Representations

In SI units, the unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa), which is equal to a Newton / meter2 (N/m2). Other important units of pressure
include the pound per square inch (psi) and the standard atmosphere (atm). The elementary mathematical expression for pressure is
given by:
Force F
pressure = = (10.2.1)
Area A

where p is pressure, F is the force acting perpendicular to the surface to which this force is applied, and A is the area of the
surface. Any object that possesses weight, whether at rest or not, exerts a pressure upon the surface with which it is in contact. The
magnitude of the pressure exerted by an object on a given surface is equal to its weight acting in the direction perpendicular to that
surface, divided by the total surface area of contact between the object and the surface. shows the graphical representations and

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corresponding mathematical expressions for the case in which a force acts perpendicular to the surface of contact, as well as the
case in which a force acts at angle θ relative to the surface.

Representation of Pressure: This image shows the graphical representations and corresponding mathematical expressions for the
case in which a force acts perpendicular to the surface of contact, as well as the case in which a force acts at angle θ relative to the
surface.

Pressure as a Function of Surface Area

Since pressure depends only on the force acting perpendicular to the surface upon which it is applied, only the force component
perpendicular to the surface contributes to the pressure exerted by that force on that surface. Pressure can be increased by either
increasing the force or by decreasing the area or can oppositely be decreased by either decreasing the force or increasing the area.
illustrates this concept. A rectangular block weighing 1000 N is first placed horizontally. It has an area of contact (with the surface
upon which it is resting) of 0.1 m2, thus exerting a pressure of 1,000 Pa on that surface. That same block in a different
configuration (also in Figure 2), in which the block is placed vertically, has an area of contact with the surface upon which it is
resting of 0.01 m2, thus exerting a pressure of 10,000 Pa—10 times larger than the first configuration due to a decrease in the
surface area by a factor of 10.

Pressure as a Function of Surface Area: Pressure can be increased by either increasing the force or by decreasing the area or can
oppositely be decreased by either decreasing the force or increasing the area.
A good illustration of this is the reason a sharp knife is far more effective for cutting than a blunt knife. The same force applied by
a sharp knife with a smaller area of contact will exert a much greater pressure than a blunt knife having a considerably larger area
of contact. Similarly, a person standing on one leg on a trampoline causes a greater displacement of the trampoline than that same
person standing on the same trampoline using two legs—not because the individual exerts a larger force when standing on one leg,
but because the area upon which this force is exerted is decreased, thus increasing the pressure on the trampoline. Alternatively, an
object having a weight larger than another object of the same dimensionality and area of contact with a given surface will exert a
greater pressure on that surface due to an increase in force. Finally, when considering a given force of constant magnitude acting on
a constant area of a given surface, the pressure exerted by that force on that surface will be greater the larger the angle of that force
as it acts upon the surface, reaching a maximum when that force acts perpendicular to the surface.

Liquids and Gases: Fluids

Just as a solid exerts a pressure on a surface upon which it is in contact, liquids and gases likewise exert pressures on surfaces and
objects upon which they are in contact with. The pressure exerted by an ideal gas on a closed container in which it is confined is
best analyzed on a molecular level. Gas molecules in a gas container move in a random manner throughout the volume of the
container, exerting a force on the container walls upon collision. Taking the overall average force of all the collisions of the gas
molecules confined within the container over a unit time allows for a proper measurement of the effective force of the gas
molecules on the container walls. Given that the container acts as a confining surface for this net force, the gas molecules exert a
pressure on the container. For such an ideal gas confined within a rigid container, the pressure exerted by the gas molecules can be
calculated using the ideal gas law:
nRT
p= (10.2.2)
V

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where n is the number of gas molecules, R is the ideal gas constant (R = 8.314 J mol-1 K-1), T is the temperature of the gas, and V
is the volume of the container.
The pressure exerted by the gas can be increased by: increasing the number of collisions of gas molecules per unit time by
increasing the number of gas molecules; increasing the kinetic energy of the gas by increasing the temperature; or decreasing the
volume of the container. offers a representation of the ideal gas law, as well as the effect of varying the equation parameters on the
gas pressure. Another common type of pressure is that exerted by a static liquid or hydrostatic pressure. Hydrostatic pressure is
most easily addressed by treating the liquid as a continuous distribution of matter, and may be considered a measure of energy per
unit volume or energy density. We will further discuss hydrostatic pressure in other sections.

Pressure of an Ideal Gas: This image is a representation of the ideal gas law, as well as the effect of varying the equation
parameters on the gas pressure.

Variation of Pressure With Depth

Pressure within static fluids depends on the properties of the fluid, the acceleration due to gravity, and the depth within the fluid.

learning obectives
Identify factors that determine the pressure exerted by static liquids and gases

Pressure is defined in simplest terms as force per unit area. However, when dealing with pressures exerted by gases and liquids, it is
most convenient to approach pressure as a measure of energy per unit volume by means of the definition of work (W = F·d). The
derivation of pressure as a measure of energy per unit volume from its definition as force per unit area is given in. Since, for gases
and liquids, the force acting on a system contributing to pressure does not act on a specific point or particular surface, but rather as
a distribution of force, analyzing pressure as a measure of energy per unit volume is more appropriate. For liquids and gases at rest,
the pressure of the liquid or gas at any point within the medium is called the hydrostatic pressure. At any such point within a
medium, the pressure is the same in all directions, as if the pressure was not the same in all directions, the fluid, whether it is a gas
or liquid, would not be static. Note that the following discussion and expressions pertain only to incompressible fluids at static
equilibrium.

Energy per Unit Volume: This equation is the derivation of pressure as a measure of energy per unit volume from its definition as
force per unit area.
The pressure exerted by a static liquid depends only on the depth, density of the liquid, and the acceleration due to gravity. gives
the expression for pressure as a function of depth within an incompressible, static liquid as well as the derivation of this equation
from the definition of pressure as a measure of energy per unit volume (ρ is the density of the gas, g is the acceleration due to
gravity, and h is the depth within the liquid). For any given liquid with constant density throughout, pressure increases with
increasing depth. For example, a person under water at a depth of h1 will experience half the pressure as a person under water at a
depth of h = 2h . For many liquids, the density can be assumed to be nearly constant throughout the volume of the liquid and, for
2 1

virtually all practical applications, so can the acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.81 m/s2). As a result, pressure within a liquid is

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therefore a function of depth only, with the pressure increasing at a linear rate with respect to increasing depth. In practical
applications involving calculation of pressure as a function of depth, an important distinction must be made as to whether the
absolute or relative pressure within a liquid is desired. Equation 2 by itself gives the pressure exerted by a liquid relative to
atmospheric pressure, yet if the absolute pressure is desired, the atmospheric pressure must then be added to the pressure exerted by
the liquid alone.

Pressure as Energy per Unit Volume: This equation gives the expression for pressure as a function of depth within an
incompressible, static liquid as well as the derivation of this equation from the definition of pressure as a measure of energy per
unit volume (ρ is the density of the gas, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the depth within the liquid).
When analyzing pressure within gases, a slightly different approach must be taken as, by the nature of gases, the force contributing
to pressure arises from the average number of gas molecules occupying a certain point within the gas per unit time. Thus the force
contributing to the pressure of a gas within the medium is not a continuous distribution as for liquids and the barometric equation
given in must be utilized to determine the pressure exerted by the gas at a certain depth (or height) within the gas (p0 is the pressure
at h = 0, M is the mass of a single molecule of gas, g is the acceleration due to gravity, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the
temperature of the gas, and h is the height or depth within the gas). Equation 3 assumes that the gas is incompressible and that the
pressure is hydrostatic.

Pressure within a gas: The force contributing to the pressure of a gas within the medium is not a continuous distribution as for
liquids and the barometric equation given in this figure must be utilized to determine the pressure exerted by the gas at a certain
depth (or height) within the gas (p0 is the pressure at h = 0, M is the mass of a single molecule of gas, g is the acceleration due to
gravity, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature of the gas, and h is the height or depth within the gas)

Static Equilibrium
Any region or point, or any static object within a static fluid is in static equilibrium where all forces and torques are equal to zero.

learning obectives
Identify required conditions for a fluid to be in rest

Static equilibrium is a particular state of a physical system. It is qualitatively described by an object at rest and by the sum of all
forces, with the sum of all torques acting on that object being equal to zero. Static objects are in static equilibrium, with the net
force and net torque acting on that object being equal to zero; otherwise there would be a driving mechanism for that object to
undergo movement in space. The analysis and study of objects in static equilibrium and the forces and torques acting on them is
called statics—a subtopic of mechanics. Statics is particularly important in the design of static and load bearing structures. As it
pertains to fluidics, static equilibrium concerns the forces acting on a static object within a fluid medium.

Fluids
For a fluid at rest, the conditions for static equilibrium must be met at any point within the fluid medium. Therefore, the sum of the
forces and torques at any point within the static liquid or gas must be zero. Similarly, the sum of the forces and torques of an object
at rest within a static fluid medium must also be zero. In considering a stationary object within a liquid medium at rest, the forces
acting at any point in time and at any point in space within the medium must be analyzed. For a stationary object within a static
liquid, there are no torques acting on the object so the sum of the torques for such a system is immediately zero; it need not concern
analysis since the torque condition for equilibrium is fulfilled.

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Density
At any point in space within a static fluid, the sum of the acting forces must be zero; otherwise the condition for static equilibrium
would not be met. In analyzing such a simple system, consider a rectangular region within the fluid medium with density ρL (same
density as the fluid medium), width w, length l, and height h, as shown in. Next, the forces acting on this region within the medium
are taken into account. First, the region has a force of gravity acting downwards (its weight) equal to its density object, times its
volume of the object, times the acceleration due to gravity. The downward force acting on this region due to the fluid above the
region is equal to the pressure times the area of contact. Similarly, there is an upward force acting on this region due to the fluid
below the region equal to the pressure times the area of contact. For static equilibrium to be achieved, the sum of these forces must
be zero, as shown in. Thus for any region within a fluid, in order to achieve static equilibrium, the pressure from the fluid below the
region must be greater than the pressure from the fluid above by the weight of the region. This force which counteracts the weight
of a region or object within a static fluid is called the buoyant force (or buoyancy).

Static Equilibrium of a Region Within a Fluid: This figure shows the equations for static equilibrium of a region within a fluid.

Region Within a Static Fluid: This figure is a free body diagram of a region within a static fluid.
In the case on an object at stationary equilibrium within a static fluid, the sum of the forces acting on that object must be zero. As
previously discussed, there are two downward acting forces, one being the weight of the object and the other being the force
exerted by the pressure from the fluid above the object. At the same time, there is an upwards force exerted by the pressure from
the fluid below the object, which includes the buoyant force. shows how the calculation of the forces acting on a stationary object
within a static fluid would change from those presented in if an object having a density ρS different from that of the fluid medium is
surrounded by the fluid. The appearance of a buoyant force in static fluids is due to the fact that pressure within the fluid changes
as depth changes. The analysis presented above can furthermore be extended to much more complicated systems involving
complex objects and diverse materials.

Pascal’s Principle
Pascal’s Principle states that pressure is transmitted and undiminished in a closed static fluid.

learning obectives
Apply Pascal’s Principle to describe pressure behavior in static fluids

Pascal’s Principle
Pascal’s Principle (or Pascal’s Law ) applies to static fluids and takes advantage of the height dependency of pressure in static
fluids. Named after French mathematician Blaise Pascal, who established this important relationship, Pascal’s Principle can be used
to exploit pressure of a static liquid as a measure of energy per unit volume to perform work in applications such as hydraulic
presses. Qualitatively, Pascal’s Principle states that pressure is transmitted undiminished in an enclosed static liquid. Quantitatively,
Pascal’s Law is derived from the expression for determining the pressure at a given height (or depth) within a fluid and is defined
by Pascal’s Principle:

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 AP Physics 2 - Pressure and Pascal's Principle

Pressure and Pascal’s Principle: A brief introduction to pressure and Pascal’s Principle, including hydraulics.

p2 = p1 + Δp, Δp = ρgΔh (10.2.3)

where p1 is the external applied pressure, ρ is the density of the fluid, Δh is the difference in height of the static liquid, and g is the
acceleration due to gravity. Pascal’s Law explicitly determines the pressure difference between two different heights (or depths)
within a static liquid. As, by Pascal’s Law, a change in pressure is linearly proportional to a change in height within an
incompressible, static liquid of constant density, doubling the height between the two points of reference will double the change of
pressure, while halving the height between the two points will half the change in pressure.

Enclosed Static Liquids

While Pascal’s Principle applies to any static fluid, it is most useful in terms of applications when considering systems involving
rigid wall closed column configurations containing homogeneous fluids of constant density. By exploiting the fact that pressure is
transmitted undiminished in an enclosed static liquid, such as in this type of system, static liquids can be used to transform small
amounts of force into large amounts of force for many applications such as hydraulic presses.
As an example, referring to, a downwards force of 10 N is applied to a bottle filled with a static liquid of constant density ρ at the
spout of cross-sectional area of 5 cm2, yielding an applied pressure of 2 N/cm2. The cross-sectional area of the bottle changes with
height so that at the bottom of the bottle the cross-sectional area is 500 cm2. As a result of Pascal’s Law, the pressure change
(pressure applied to the static liquid) is transmitted undiminished in the static liquid so that the applied pressure is 2 N/m2 at the
bottom of the bottle as well. Furthermore, the hydrostatic pressure due to the difference in height of the liquid is given by Equation
1 and yields the total pressure at the bottom surface of the bottle. Since the cross-sectional area at the bottom of the bottle is 100
times larger than at the top, the force contributing to the pressure at the bottom of the bottle is 1000 N plus the force from the

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weight of the static fluid in the bottle. This example shows how, through Pascal’s Principle, the force exerted by a static fluid in a
closed system can be multiplied by changing the height and the surface area of contact.

Pressure Applied to a Hydrostatic Fluid: A downwards force of 10 N is applied to a bottle filled with a static liquid of constant
density ρ at the spout of cross-sectional area of 5 cm2, yielding an applied pressure of 2 N/cm2.

Pressure Transmitted Throughout an Entire Fluid

As stated by Pascal’s Principle, the pressure applied to a static fluid in a closed container is transmitted throughout the entire fluid.
Taking advantage of this phenomenon, hydraulic presses are able to exert a large amount of force requiring a much smaller amount
of input force. This gives two different types of hydraulic press configurations, the first in which there is no difference in height of
the static liquid and the second in which there is a difference in height Δh of the static liquid. In the first configuration, a force F1 is
applied to a static liquid of density ρ across a surface area of contact A1, yielding an input pressure of P2. On the other side of the
press configuration, the fluid exerts an output pressure P1 across a surface area of contact A2, where A2 > A1. By Pascal’s Principle,
P1 = P2, yielding a force exerted by the static fluid of F2, where F2 > F1. Depending on the applied pressure and geometry of the
hydraulic press, the magnitude of F2 can be changed. In the second configuration, the geometry of the system is the same, except
that the height of the fluid on the output end is a height Δh less than the height of the fluid at the input end. The difference in height
of the fluid between the input and the output ends contributes to the total force exerted by the fluid. For a hydraulic press, the force
multiplication factor is the ratio of the output to the input contact areas.

Hydraulic Press Diagrams: Two different types of hydraulic press configurations, the first in which there is no difference in
height of the static liquid and the second in which there is a difference in height Δh of the static liquid.

Gauge Pressure and Atmospheric Pressure

Pressure is often measured as gauge pressure, which is defined as the absolute pressure minus the atmospheric pressure.

learning obectives
Explain the relationship among absolute pressure, gauge pressure, and atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric Pressure
An important distinction must be made as to the type of pressure quantity being used when dealing with pressure measurements
and calculations. Atmospheric pressure is the magnitude of pressure in a system due to the atmosphere, such as the pressure exerted
by air molecules (a static fluid ) on the surface of the earth at a given elevation. In most measurements and calculations, the
atmospheric pressure is considered to be constant at 1 atm or 101,325 Pa, which is the atmospheric pressure under standard
conditions at sea level.
Atmospheric pressure is due to the force of the molecules in the atmosphere and is a case of hydrostatic pressure. Depending on the
altitude relative to sea level, the actual atmospheric pressure will be less at higher altitudes and more at lower altitudes as the
weight of air molecules in the immediate atmosphere changes, thus changing the effective atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric
pressure is a measure of absolute pressure and can be affected by the temperature and air composition of the atmosphere but can
generally be accurately approximated to be around standard atmospheric pressure of 101,325 Pa. Within the majority of earth’s
atmosphere, pressure varies with height according to. In this equation p0 is the pressure at sea level (101,325 Pa), g is the

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acceleration due to gravity, M is the mass of a single molecule of air, R is the universal gas constant, T0 is the standard temperature
at sea level, and h is the height relative to sea level.

Pressure and Height: Atmospheric pressure depends on altitude or height.

Gauge Pressure
For most applications, particularly those involving pressure measurements, it is more practical to use gauge pressure than absolute
pressure as a unit of measurement. Gauge pressure is a relative pressure measurement which measures pressure relative to
atmospheric pressure and is defined as the absolute pressure minus the atmospheric pressure. Most pressure measuring equipment
give the pressure of a system in terms of gauge pressure as opposed to absolute pressure. For example, tire pressure and blood
pressure are gauge pressures by convention, while atmospheric pressures, deep vacuum pressures, and altimeter pressures must be
absolute.
For most working fluids where a fluid exists in a closed system, gauge pressure measurement prevails. Pressure instruments
connected to the system will indicate pressures relative to the current atmospheric pressure. The situation changes when extreme
vacuum pressures are measured; absolute pressures are typically used instead.
To find the absolute pressure of a system, the atmospheric pressure must then be added to the gauge pressure. While gauge pressure
is very useful in practical pressure measurements, most calculations involving pressure, such as the ideal gas law, require pressure
values in terms of absolute pressures and thus require gauge pressures to be converted to absolute pressures.

Measurements: Gauge Pressure and the Barometer

Barometers are devices used for measuring atmospheric and gauge pressure indirectly through the use of hydrostatic fluids.

learning obectives
Compare design and operation of aneroid and hydrostatic based barometers

Gauge Pressure
In practice, pressure is most often measured in terms of gauge pressure. Gauge pressure is the pressure of a system above
atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric pressure is mostly constant with little variation near sea level, where most practical
pressure measurements are taken, it is assumed to be approximately 101,325 Pa. Modern pressure measuring devices sometimes
have incorporated mechanisms to account for changes in atmospheric pressure due to elevation changes. Gauge pressure is much
more convenient than absolute pressure for practical measurements and is widely used as an established measure of pressure.
However, it is important to determine whether it is necessary to use absolute (gauge plus atmospheric) pressure for calculations, as
is often the case for most calculations, such as those involving the ideal gas law. Pressure measurements have been accurately taken
since the mid-1600s with the invention of the traditional barometer. Barometers are devices used to measure pressure and were
initially used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Hydrostatic Based Barometers

Early barometers were used to measure atmospheric pressure through the use of hydrostatic fluids. Hydrostatic based barometers
consist of columnar devices usually made from glass and filled with a static liquid of consistent density. The columnar section is
sealed, holds a vacuum, and is partially filled with the liquid while the base section is open to the atmosphere and makes an
interface with the surrounding environment. As the atmospheric pressure changes, the pressure exerted by the atmosphere on the
fluid reservoir exposed to the atmosphere at the base changes, increasing as the atmospheric pressure increases and decreasing as
the atmospheric pressure decreases. This change in pressure causes the height of the fluid in the columnar structure to change,
increasing in height as the atmosphere exerts greater pressure on the liquid in the reservoir base and decreasing as the atmosphere
exerts lower pressure on the liquid in the reservoir base. The height of the liquid within the glass column then gives a measure of
the atmospheric pressure. Pressure, as determined by hydrostatic barometers, is often measured by determining the height of the
liquid in the barometer column, thus the torr as a unit of pressure, but can be used to determine pressure in SI units. Hydrostatic
based barometers most commonly use water or mercury as the static liquid. While the use of water is much less hazardous than

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mercury, mercury is often a better choice for fabricating accurate hydrostatic barometers. The density of mercury is much higher
than that of water, thus allowing for higher accuracy of measurements and the ability to fabricate more compact hydrostatic
barometers. In theory, a hydrostatic barometer can be placed in a closed system to measure the absolute pressure and the gauge
pressure of the system by subtracting the atmospheric pressure.

Aneroid Barometer
Another type of barometer is the aneroid barometer, which consists of a small, flexible sealed metal box called an aneroid cell. The
aneroid cell is made from beryllium-copper alloy and is partially evacuated. A stiff spring prevents the aneroid cell from
collapsing. Small changes in external air pressure cause the cell to expand or contract. This expansion and contraction is amplified
by mechanical mechanisms to give a pressure reading. Such pressure measuring devices are more practical than hydrostatic
barometers for measuring system pressures. Many modern pressure measuring devices are pre-engineered to output gauge pressure
measurements. While the aneroid barometer is the underlying mechanism behind many modern pressure measuring devices,
pressure can also be measured using more advanced measuring mechanisms.

Hydrostatic Column Barometer: The concept of determining pressure using the fluid height in a hydrostatic column barometer

Variation of Pressure with Height: The density of the liquid is p, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the height of the
fluid in the barometer column.

Pressure in the Body

Pressure plays an essential role in a number of critical bodily functions including respiration and blood circulation.

learning obectives
Explain role played by pressure in the circulatory and respiratory systems

The Role of Pressure in the Circulatory System

Pressure plays an essential role in various critical bodily systems that are necessary for survival. One such critical bodily system
which relies on pressure for functionality is the circulatory system, which is an example of a closed fluid system under pressure.
The circulatory system is responsible for transporting oxygen and essential nutrients to all organs within the body as well as
removing waste materials from these organs. Blood can be regarded as a viscous liquid contained within the circulatory system that
travels throughout this closed system as a result of pressure and pressure differences within the circulatory system.
As the volume of blood within the circulatory system is confined to the veins, arteries, and capillaries there is a pressure within this
closed system. Furthermore, through a complicated system of veins, arteries, and capillaries of varying diameter as well as valves
and the heart acting as a continuous pump, pressure differences arise within the circulatory system that result in the potential for
blood to circulate throughout the circulatory system, thus carrying out essential bodily functions for survival.
Pressure within the circulatory system is referred to as blood pressure, and is a primary and crucial vital sign which can be used to
diagnose or indicate a number of medical conditions. Blood pressure varies throughout the body as well as from one individual to
another and depends on a number of factors such as heart rate, blood volume, resistance of the circulatory system (veins, arteries,
and capillaries), and the viscosity of blood. Any medical conditions affecting any of these factors will have an effect on blood
pressure and the overall health of the circulatory system.

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 Approximation for Mean Arterial Pressure: In practice, the mean arterial pressure (MAP) can be approximated from easily
obtainable blood pressure measurements.
The mean arterial pressure (MAP) is the average pressure over a cardiac cycle and is determined by, where CO is the cardiac
outputs, SVR is the systemic vascular resistance, and CVP is the central venous pressure (CVP). In practice, the mean arterial
pressure (MAP) can be approximated from easily obtainable blood pressure measurements in, where Psys is the measured systolic
pressure and Pdias is the measured diastolic pressure. One particularly common and dangerous circulatory system condition is
partial blockage of blood vessels due to a number of factors, such as plaque build-up from high cholesterol, which results in a
reduction of the effective blood vessel cross-sectional diameter and a corresponding reduction in blood flow rate and thus an
increase in blood pressure to restore normal blood flow according to Poiseuille’s Law.

Equation for Mean Arterial Pressure: The mean arterial pressure (MAP) is the average pressure over a cardiac cycle and is
determined this equation, where CO is the cardiac outputs, SVR is the systemic vascular resistance, and CVP is the central venous
pressure (CVP).

The Role of Pressure in the Respiratory System

Pressure also plays an essential role in the respiratory system, as it is responsible for the breathing mechanism. Pressure differences
between the lungs and the atmosphere create a potential for air to enter the lungs, resulting in inhalation. The mechanism resulting
in inhalation is due to lowering of the diaphragm, which increases the volume of the thoracic cavity surrounding the lungs, thus
lowering its pressure as determined by the ideal gas law. The reduction in pressure of the thoracic cavity, which normally has a
negative gauge pressure, thus keeping the lungs inflated, pulls air into the lungs, inflating the alveoli and resulting in oxygen
transport needed for respiration. As the diaphragm restores and moves upwards, pressure within the thoracic cavity increases,
resulting in exhalation. The cycle repeats itself, resulting in the respiration which as discussed is mechanically due to pressure
changes. Without pressure in the body, and the corresponding potential that it has for dynamic bodily processes, essential functions
such as blood circulation and respiration would not be possible.

Key Points
Pressure is a scalar quantity defined as force per unit area. Pressure only concerns the force component perpendicular to the
surface upon which it acts, thus if the force acts at an angle, the force component along the direction perpendicular to the
surface must be used to calculate pressure.
The pressure exerted on a surface by an object increases as the weight of the object increases or the surface area of contact
decreases. Alternatively the pressure exerted decreases as the weight of the object decreases or the surface area of contact
increases.
Pressure exerted by ideal gases in confined containers is due to the average number of collisions of gas molecules with the
container walls per unit time. As such, pressure depends on the amount of gas (in number of molecules), its temperature, and
the volume of the container.
Hydrostatic pressure refers to the pressure exerted by a fluid (gas or liquid) at any point in space within that fluid, assuming that
the fluid is incompressible and at rest.
Pressure within a liquid depends only on the density of the liquid, the acceleration due to gravity, and the depth within the
liquid. The pressure exerted by such a static liquid increases linearly with increasing depth.
Pressure within a gas depends on the temperature of the gas, the mass of a single molecule of the gas, the acceleration due to
gravity, and the height (or depth) within the gas.
Hydrostatic balance is the term used for a region or stationary object within a static fluid which is at static equilibrium, and for
which the sum of all forces and sum of all torques is equal to zero.
A region or static object within a stationary fluid experiences downward forces due to the weight of the region or object, and the
pressure exerted from the fluid above the region or object, as well as an upward force due to the pressure exerted from the fluid

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 below the region or object.
For a region or static object within a static fluid, the downward force due to the weight of the region or object is counteracted by
the upward buoyant force, which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the region or object.
Pascal’s Principle is used to quantitatively relate the pressure at two points in an incompressible, static fluid. It states that
pressure is transmitted, undiminished, in a closed static fluid.
The total pressure at any point within an incompressible, static fluid is equal to the sum of the applied pressure at any point in
that fluid and the hydrostatic pressure change due to a difference in height within that fluid.
Through the application of Pascal’s Principle, a static liquid can be utilized to generate a large output force using a much
smaller input force, yielding important devices such as hydraulic presses.
Atmospheric pressure is a measure of absolute pressure and is due to the weight of the air molecules above a certain height
relative to sea level, increasing with decreasing altitude and decreasing with increasing altitude.
Gauge pressure is the additional pressure in a system relative to atmospheric pressure. It is a convenient pressure measurement
for most practical applications.
While gauge pressure is more convenient for practical measurements, absolute pressure is necessary for most pressure
calculations, thus the atmospheric pressure must be added to the gauge pressure for calculations.
Gauge pressure is the pressure of a system above atmospheric pressure, which must be converted to absolute pressure for most
calculations.
The barometer is a device which uses hydrostatic fluids to directly determine atmospheric pressure and may be used to
indirectly measure the gauge pressure of systems.
The hydrostatic column barometer uses a liquid like water or mercury for functionality, while the aneroid barometer uses an
evacuated flexible metal cell.
Pressure, along with the potential for work arising from differences in pressure, plays an essential role in the functionality of
several critical bodily functions and systems necessary for survival.
The circulatory system relies on pressure differences for circulating blood, along with oxygen, necessary nutrients, and waste
products throughout the body.
Respiration is made possible as a result of pressure differences between the thoracic cavity, the lungs, and the environment and
is largely regulated by movement of the diaphragm.

Key Terms
ideal gas: Theoretical gas characterized by random motion whose individual molecules do not interact with one another and are
chemically inert.
kinetic energy: The energy associated with a moving particle or object having a certain mass.
incompressible: Unable to be compressed or condensed.
static equilibrium: the physical state in which all components of a system are at rest and the net force is equal to zero
throughout the system
Buoyancy: The power of supporting a body so that it floats; upward pressure exerted by the fluid in which a body is immersed.
torque: Something that produces or tends to produce torsion or rotation; the moment of a force or system of forces tending to
cause rotation.
equilibrium: A state of rest or balance due to the equal action of opposing forces.
hydraulic press: Device that uses a hydraulic cylinder (closed static fluid) to generate a compressive force.
Gauge Pressure: The pressure of a system above atmospheric pressure.
Torr: A unit of pressure equal to one millimeter of mercury (760 torr = 101,325 Pa).
Aneroid Barometer: A device for measuring pressure, often specially calibrated for use as an altimeter, consisting of a box or
chamber partially exhausted of air, having an elastic top and a pointer to indicate the degree of compression of the top caused by
the external air.
Thoracic Cavity: A hollow place or space, or a potential space, within the body or one of its organs.
Poiseuille’s Law: The law that the velocity of a liquid flowing through a capillary is directly proportional to the pressure of the
liquid and the fourth power of the radius of the capillary and is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the liquid and the
length of the capillary.
Alveoli: Small air sacs or cavities in the lung that give the tissue a honeycomb appearance and expand its surface area for the
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
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10.3: Archimedes’ Principle
learning objectives
Calculate the direction of the buoyancy force

When you rise from soaking in a warm bath, your arms may feel strangely heavy. This effect is due to the loss of the buoyant
support of the water. What creates this buoyant force ? Why is it that some things float and others do not? Do objects that sink get
any support at all from the fluid? Is your body buoyed by the atmosphere, or are only helium balloons affected?

Buoyant Force: Cause and Calculation

We find the answers to the above questions in the fact that in any given fluid, pressure increases with depth. When an object is
immersed in a fluid, the upward force on the bottom of an object is greater than the downward force on the top of the object. The
result is a net upward force (a buoyant force) on any object in any fluid. If the buoyant force is greater than the object’s weight, the
object will rise to the surface and float. If the buoyant force is less than the object’s weight, the object will sink. If the buoyant force
equals the object’s weight, the object will remain suspended at that depth. The buoyant force is always present in a fluid, whether
an object floats, sinks or remains suspended.
The buoyant force is a result of pressure exerted by the fluid. The fluid pushes on all sides of an immersed object, but as pressure
increases with depth, the push is stronger on the bottom surface of the object than in the top (as seen in ).
You can calculate the buoyant force on an object by adding up the forces exerted on all of an object’s sides. For example, consider
the object shown in.
The top surface has area A and is at depth h ; the pressure at that depth is:
1

P1 = h1 ρg, (10.3.1)

where ρρ is the density of the fluid and g ≈ 9.81 m

s2
is the gravitational acceleration. The magnitude of the force on the top surface
is:
F1 = P1 A = h1 ρgA. (10.3.2)

This force points downwards. Similarly, the force on the bottom surface is:
F2 = P2 A = h2 ρgA (10.3.3)

and points upwards. Because it is cylindrical, the net force on the object’s sides is zero—the forces on different parts of the surface
oppose each other and cancel exactly. Thus, the net upward force on the cylinder due to the fluid is:
FB = F2 − F1 = ρgA(h2 − h1 ) (10.3.4)

The Archimedes Principle

Although calculating the buoyant force in this way is always possible it is often very difficult. A simpler method follows from the
Archimedes principle, which states that the buoyant force exerted on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid
the body displaces. In other words, to calculate the buoyant force on an object we assume that the submersed part of the object is
made of water and then calculate the weight of that water (as seen in ).

Archimedes principle: The buoyant force on the ship (a) is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the ship—shown as the
dashed region in (b).

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The principle can be stated as a formula:
FB = wf l (10.3.5)

The reasoning behind the Archimedes principle is that the buoyancy force on an object depends on the pressure exerted by the fluid
on its submerged surface. Imagine that we replace the submerged part of the object with the fluid in which it is contained, as in (b).
The buoyancy force on this amount of fluid must be the same as on the original object (the ship). However, we also know that the
buoyancy force on the fluid must be equal to its weight, as the fluid does not sink in itself. Therefore, the buoyancy force on the
original object is equal to the weight of the “displaced fluid” (in this case, the water inside the dashed region (b)).
The Archimedes principle is valid for any fluid—not only liquids (such as water) but also gases (such as air). We will explore this
further as we discuss applications of the principle in subsequent sections.

How to Solve a Buoyant Force Problem - Simple Exa…

Exa…

Archimedes’ Principle – Simple Example: We use Archimedes’ Principle to determine the number of penguins an ice float can
dryly support.

Complete Submersion
The buoyancy force on a completely submerged object of volume is F B = Vρg .

learning objectivies
Identify factors determining the buoyancy force on a completely submerged object

The Archimedes principle is easiest to understand and apply in the case of entirely submersed objects. In this section we discuss a
few relevant examples. In general, the buoyancy force on a completely submerged object is given by the formula:

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 FB = Vρg, (10.3.6)

where V is the volume of the object, ρ is the density of the fluid, and g is gravitational acceleration. This follows immediately from
the Archimedes’ principle, and the fact that the object is completely submerged (and so the volume of the fluid displaced is just the
volume of the object).

Cylinder
In the previous section, we calculated the buoyancy force on a cylinder (shown in ) by considering the force exerted on each of the
cylinder’s sides. Now, we’ll calculate this force using Archimedes’ principle. The buoyancy force on the cylinder is equal to the
weight of the displaced fluid. This weight is equal to the mass of the displaced fluid multiplied by the gravitational acceleration:

Buoyant force: The fluid pushes on all sides of a submerged object. However, because pressure increases with depth, the upward
push on the bottom surface (F2) is greater than the downward push on the top surface (F1). Therefore, the net buoyant force is
always upwards.
FB = wf l = mf l g (10.3.7)

The mass of the displaced fluid is equal to its volume multiplied by its density:
mf l = Vf l ρ (10.3.8)

However (and this is the crucial point), the cylinder is entirely submerged, so the volume of the displaced fluid is just the volume
of the cylinder (see ), and:

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 Archimedes principle: The volume of the fluid displaced (b) is the same as the volume of the original cylinder (a).
mf l = Vf l ρ = Vcylinder ρ. (10.3.9)

The volume of a cylinder is the area of its base multiplied by its height, or in our case:
Vcylinder = A(h2 − h1 ). (10.3.10)

Therefore, the buoyancy force on the cylinder is:

FB = mf l g = Vcylinder ρg = (h1 − h2 )ρgA. (10.3.11)

This is the same result obtained in the previous section by considering the force due to the pressure exerted by the fluid.

Helium Airship
Consider the USS Macon, a helium-filled airship (shown in ). Its envelope (the “balloon”) contained 184,059.5 cubic meters of
helium. Ignoring the small volume of the gondola, what was the buoyancy force on this airship? If the airship weighed 108,000 kg,
how much cargo could it carry? Assume the density of air is 1.225 kg per meter cubed. The buoyancy force on an airship is due to
the air in which it is immersed. Although we don’t know the exact shape of the airship, we know its volume and the density of the
air, and thus we can calculate the buoyancy force:

Helium airship: The USS Macon, a 1930s helium-filled airship.

kg m 6
FB = Vρg = 184, 059.5 kg × 1.225 × 9.81 ≈ 2.212 × 10 N (10.3.12)
m3 s2

To find the cargo capacity of the airship, we subtract the weight of the airship from the buoyancy force:
m
6 5 6
Fcargo = FB − mg = 2.21 × 10 N − 1.08 × 10 kg × 9.81 = 1.15 × 10 N (10.3.13)
2
s

The mass the airship can carry is:

Fcargo
5
mcargo = = 1.2 × 10 kg = 120 tons. (10.3.14)
g

Flotation
An object floats if the buoyancy force exerted on it by the fluid balances its weight.

learning objectives
Express the relationship between the buoyancy force and the weight for a floating object

Why do some objects float, but others don’t? If you put a metal coin into a glass of water it will sink. But most ships are built of
metal, and they float. So how is this possible?

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Condition for Flotation
An object will float if the buoyancy force exerted on it by the fluid balances its weight, i.e. if FB=mgFB=mg.
But the Archimedes principle states that the buoyant force is the weight of the fluid displaced. So, for a floating object on a liquid,
the weight of the displaced liquid is the weight of the object. Thus, only in the special case of floating does the buoyant force acting
on an object equal the object’s weight. Consider a one-ton block of solid iron. As iron is nearly eight times denser than water, it
displaces only 1/8 ton of water when submerged, which is not enough to keep it afloat. Suppose the same iron block is reshaped
into a bowl. It still weighs one ton, but when it is put in water, it displaces a greater volume of water than when it was a block. The
deeper the iron bowl is immersed, the more water it displaces, and the greater the buoyant force acting on it. When the buoyant
force equals one ton, it will sink no further.
When any boat displaces a weight of water equal to its own weight, it floats. This is often called the “principle of flotation” where a
floating object displaces a weight of fluid equal to its own weight. Every ship, submarine, and dirigible must be designed to
displace a weight of fluid equal to its own weight. A 10,000-ton ship must be built wide enough to displace 10,000 tons of water
before it sinks too deep in the water. The same is true for vessels in air (as air is a fluid): A dirigible that weighs 100 tons displaces
at least 100 tons of air; if it displaces more, it rises; if it displaces less, it falls. If the dirigible displaces exactly its weight, it hovers
at a constant altitude.

Flotation and Density

Density plays a crucial role in Archimedes’ principle. The average density of an object is what ultimately determines whether it
floats. If its average density is less than that of the surrounding fluid, it will float. This is because the fluid, having a higher density,
contains more mass and thus more weight in the same volume. The buoyant force, which equals the weight of the fluid displaced, is
thus greater than the weight of the object. Likewise, an object denser than the fluid will sink. The extent to which a floating object
is submerged depends on how the object’s density is related to that of the fluid. For example, an unloaded ship has a lower density,
and less of it is submerged compared with the same ship loaded with cargo. We can derive a quantitative expression for the fraction
submerged by considering density. The fraction submerged is the ratio of the volume submerged to the volume of the object, or

Density and Submersion: An unloaded ship (a) floats higher in the water than a loaded ship (b).
Vsub Vf l
f raction submerged = = (10.3.15)
Vobj Vobj

The volume submerged equals the volume of fluid displaced, which we call Vf l . Now we can obtain the relationship between the
densities by substituting ρ = mV into the expression. This gives
mf l / ρf l
f raction submerged = (10.3.16)
mobj / ρ̄
obj

where ρ̄ is the average density of the object and ρflρflis the density of the fluid. Since the object floats, its mass and that of the
obj

displaced fluid are equal, and so they cancel from the equation, leaving
ρ̄ obj
f raction submerged = (10.3.17)
ρf l .

There are a couple things to note about this expression:

1. Note that it mentions the average density of the object. This can be much less than the density of the material the object is made
of. For instance, a steel ship is actually mostly filled with air (think of the corridors, cargo holds, etc.), so its average density is

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 between that of air and steel. To be more precise, the average density is defined as the total mass of an object divided by its total
volume: ρ̄ = .m

2. This formula makes sense only if the density of the object is smaller than the density of the fluid. Otherwise, the fraction
submerged becomes greater than one—a sign that the object does not float at all, but it sinks!

Key Points
The buoyancy force is caused by the pressure exerted by the fluid in which an object is immersed.
The buoyancy force always points upwards because the pressure of a fluid increases with depth.
You can calculate the buoyancy force either directly by computing the force exerted on each of the object’s surfaces, or
indirectly by finding the weight of the displaced fluid.
If an object is completely submerged, the volume of the fluid displaced is equal to the volume of the object.
The buoyancy force on hot-air balloons, dirigibles and other objects can be calculated by assuming that they are entirely
submerged in air.
The buoyancy force does not depend on the shape of the object, only on its volume.
The buoyancy force experienced by an object depends on its shape.
ρ̄

The fraction of an object’s volume that’s submerged is given by the ratio of its average density to that of the fluid: .
obj

ρ
fl

An object floats if the buoyancy force exerted on it by the fluid balances its weight.

Key Terms
buoyant force: An upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object.
Archimedes principle: The buoyant force exerted on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid the body
displaces.
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10.4: Cohesion and Adhesion
learning objectives
Explain the phenomena of surface tension and capillary action

Attractive forces between molecules of the same type are called cohesive forces. Liquids can, for example, be kept in open
containers because cohesive forces hold the molecules together. Attractive forces between molecules of different types are called
adhesive forces. Such forces cause liquid drops to cling to window panes, for example. In this section we examine effects of
cohesive and adhesive forces in liquids.

Surface Tension
Surface tension is a contractive tendency of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force. It is shown, for example,
in the floating of some objects on the surface of water, even though they are denser than water, and in the ability of some insects
(e.g., water striders) to run on water’s surface. This property is caused by cohesion of similar molecules and is responsible for
many of the behaviors of liquids.
The cohesive forces among liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon of surface tension, as shown in. In the bulk of the
liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in a net force of zero. The
molecules at the surface do not have other molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled inwards. This creates some
internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area.

Diagram of Surface-Tension Forces: Diagram of the forces on molecules of a liquid

Surface tension has the unit of force per unit length, or of energy per unit area. The two units are equivalent. However, when we
refer to energy per unit of area, we use the term surface energy, which is more general in that it applies to solids as well as liquids.

Capillary Action
Capillary action, or capillarity, is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, and in opposition to,
external forces like gravity. The effect can be seen in the drawing-up of liquids between the hairs of a paint-brush, in a thin tube, in
porous materials such as paper, in some non-porous materials such as liquified carbon fiber, and in a cell. It occurs because of
intermolecular attractive forces between the liquid and solid surrounding surfaces. If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small,
then the combination of surface tension (which is caused by cohesion within the liquid) and adhesive forces between the liquid and
the container act to lift the liquid.
With some pairs of materials, such as mercury and glass (see ), the intermolecular forces within the liquid exceed those between the
solid and the liquid, so a convex meniscus forms, and capillary action works in reverse.

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 Capillarity: Capillary action of water compared to mercury, in each case with respect to glass

Key Points
Attractive forces between molecules of the same type are called cohesive forces.
Attractive forces between molecules of different types are called adhesive forces.
Surface tension is a contractive tendency of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force.
Capillary action, or capillarity, is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, and in opposition to,
external forces such as gravity.

Key Term
Pressure: the amount of force that is applied over a given area divided by the size of that area
intermolecular: from one molecule to another; between molecules
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10.5: Fluids in Motion
learning objectives
Determine the flow rate based on velocity and area or elapsed time and justify the use of continuity in expressing properties
of a fluid and its motion

The flow rate of a fluid is the volume of fluid which passes through a surface in a given unit of time. It is usually represented by the
symbol Q.

AP Physics 2 - Continuity Equation for Fluids

Continuity Equation for Fluids: A brief introduction to the Continuity Equation for Fluids.

Flow Rate
Volumetric flow rate is defined as
Q = v × a, (10.5.1)

where Q is the flow rate, v is the velocity of the fluid, and a is the area of the cross section of the space the fluid is moving through.
Volumetric flow rate can also be found with
V
Q= (10.5.2)
t

where Q is the flow rate, V is the Volume of fluid, and t is elapsed time.

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Continuity
The equation of continuity works under the assumption that the flow in will equal the flow out. This can be useful to solve for
many properties of the fluid and its motion:

Flow in = Flow out: Using the known properties of a fluid in one condition, we can use the continuity equation to solve for the
properties of the same fluid under other conditions.
Q1 = Q2 (10.5.3)

This can be expressed in many ways, for example: A v = A v . The equation of continuity applies to any incompressible fluid.
1 1 2 2

Since the fluid cannot be compressed, the amount of fluid which flows into a surface must equal the amount flowing out of the
surface.

Applying the Continuity Equation

You can observe the continuity equation’s effect in a garden hose. The water flows through the hose and when it reaches the
narrower nozzle, the velocity of the water increases. Speed increases when cross-sectional area decreases, and speed decreases
when cross-sectional area increases. This is a consequence of the continuity equation. If the flow Q is held constant, when the area
A decreases, the velocity v must increase proportionally. For example, if the nozzle of the hose is half the area of the hose, the
velocity must double to maintain the continuous flow.

Key Points
Flow rate can be expressed in either terms of cross sectional area and velocity, or volume and time.
Because liquids are incompressible, the rate of flow into an area must equal the rate of flow out of an area. This is known as the
equation of continuity.
The equation of continuity can show how much the speed of a liquid increases if it is forced to flow through a smaller area. For
example, if the area of a pipe is halved, the velocity of the fluid will double.
Although gases often behave as fluids, they are not incompressible the way liquids are and so the continuity equation does not
apply.

Key Terms
incompressible: Unable to be compressed or condensed.
continuity: Lack of interruption or disconnection; the quality of being continuous in space or time.
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10.6: Deformation of Solids
Learning objectives
Explain how length of an object is determined

Length
In geometric measurements, length is the longest dimension of an object. In other contexts “length” is the measured dimension of
an object. For example: it is possible to cut a length of a wire which is shorter than wire thickness. Length may be distinguished
from height, which is vertical extent, and width or breadth, which are the distance from side to side, measuring across the object at
right angles to the length.
Length is a measure of one dimension, whereas area is a measure of two dimensions (length squared) and volume is a measure of
three dimensions (length cubed). In most systems of measurement, the unit of length is a fundamental unit, from which other units
are defined.
After Albert Einstein’s Special Relativity Theory, length can no longer be thought of being constant in all reference frames. Thus, a
ruler that is one meter long in one frame of reference will not be one meter long in a reference frame that is travelling at a velocity
relative to the first frame. This means that the length of an object is variable depending on the observer.

Units
One of the oldest units of length measurement used in the ancient world was the ‘cubit,’ which was the length of the arm from the
tip of the finger to the elbow. This could then be subdivided into shorter units like the foot, hand (which at 4 inches is still used
today for expressing the height of horses) or finger, or added together to make longer units like the stride. The cubit could vary
considerably due to the different sizes of people.
In the physical sciences and engineering, when one speaks of “units of length”, the word “length” is synonymous with “distance”.
There are several units that are used to measure length. Units of length may be based on lengths of human body parts, the distance
traveled in a number of paces, the distance between landmarks or places on the Earth, or arbitrarily on the length of some fixed
object.In the International System of Units (SI), the basic unit of length is the meter and is now defined in terms of the speed of
light. The centimeter and the kilometer, derived from the meter, are also commonly used units. In U.S. customary units, English or
Imperial system of units, commonly used units of length are the inch, the foot, the yard, and the mile. Units used to denote
distances in the vastness of space, as in astronomy, are much longer than those typically used on Earth and include the astronomical
unit, the light-year, and the parsec.

Length: The metric length of one kilometre is equivalent to the imperial measurement of 0.62137 miles.

Shape
The shape of an object is a description of space that the object takes up; the shape can change if the object is deformed.

learning objectives
Describe effects of deformations, rotations, and magnifications

Shape
The shape of an object located in some space is a geometrical description of the part of that space occupied by the object, as
determined by its external boundary – abstracting from location and orientation in space, size, and other properties such as
color, content, and material composition

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Simple and Complex Shapes
Simple shapes can be described by basic geometry objects such as a set of two or more points, a line, a curve, a plane, a plane
figure (e.g. square or circle), or a solid figure (e.g. cube or sphere). Most shapes occurring in the physical world are complex.
Some, such as plant structures and coastlines, may be so arbitrary as to defy traditional mathematical description – in which case
they may be analyzed by differential geometry, or as fractals.
In geometry, two subsets of a Euclidean space have the same shape if one can be transformed to the other by a combination of
translations, rotations (together also called rigid transformations), and uniform scalings. In other words, the shape of a set of points
is all the geometrical information that is invariant to translations, rotations, and size changes. Having the same shape is an
equivalence relation, and accordingly a precise mathematical definition of the notion of shape can be given as being an equivalence
class of subsets of a Euclidean space having the same shape.
Shapes of physical objects are equal if the subsets of space these objects occupy satisfy the definition above. In particular, the shape
does not depend on the size and placement in space of the object.

Shapes: Examples of shapes.

Volume
Volume is a measure of the three-dimensional space an object occupies, usually taken in terms of length, width and height.

learning objectives
Explain how is volume measured geometrically

Volume is the quantity of three-dimensional space contained by a closed boundary; it is the space that a substance (solid, liquid, gas
or plasma) or shape occupies or contains. Volume is often quantified numerically using an SI derived unit, the cubic meter.
However, for liquids the unit of volume used is known as the liter (equivalent to 0.001 cubic meters).

Measuring Volume: A measuring cup can be used to measure volumes of liquids. This cup measures volume in units of cups, fluid
ounces and millilitres.
Volume is measured geometrically by multiplying an object’s three dimensions—usually taken as length, width and height. Some
common volumes are taken as follows:
The volume of a cube: length times width times height.
The volume of a cylinder: the cross-sectional area times the height of the cylinder.
The volume of a sphere: 4/3 times the radius cubed times pi.
The volume of a solid can be determined by the volume of liquid it displaces when submerged.
The volume of a container is generally understood as the capacity of the container, meaning the amount of fluid (gas or liquid) the
container can hold, rather than the amount of space the container itself displaces. Measuring cups, as seen in, work by taking a

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known cross sectional area of a cup and multiplying that by a variable height. Since liquid will always cover the cross section (if
there is enough liquid), adding more liquid will increase the height inside the container.
Liquids take the shape of their container, filling up the minimum height needed. Gases, on the other hand, take up the maximum
amount of volume possible. Thus a measuring cup can accurately measure the volume of a liquid, whereas a gas will always fill the
entire container, more or less uniformly, no matter how little gas there is.

Stress and Strain

A point charge creates an electric field that can be calculated using Coulomb’s Law.
The electric field of a point charge is, like any electric field, a vector field that represents the effect that the point charge has on
other charges around it. The effect is felt as a force and when charged particles are not in motion this force is known as the
electrostatic force. The electrostatic force is, much like gravity, a force that acts at a distance. Therefore, we rationalize this action
at a distance by saying that charges create fields around them that have effects on other charges.
Given a point charge, or a particle of infinitesimal size that contains a certain charge, electric field lines emanate radially in all
directions. If the charge is positive, field lines point radially away from it; if the charge is negative, field lines point radially
towards it.

Electric field of positive point charge: The electric field of a positively charged particle points radially away from the charge.

Electric field of negative point charge: The electric field of a negatively charged particle points radially toward the particle.
The reason for these directions can be seen in the derivation of the electric field of a point charge. Let’s first take a look at the
definition of electric field of a point particle:
→ 1 q q
E = ^
r =k ^
r. (10.6.1)
4πϵo r2 2
r

In the above equation, q represents the charge of the particle creating the electric field and the constant k is a result of simply
lumping the constants together. This charge is either positive or negative. If the charge is positive, as shown above, the electric field
will be pointing in a positive radial direction from the charge q (away from the charge) and the following text explains why. The
above equation is defined in radial coordinates which can be seen in.

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 Radial Coordinate System: The electric field of a point charge is defined in radial coordinates. The positive r direction points
away from the origin, and the negative r direction points toward the origin. The electric field of a point charge is symmetric with
respect to the θ direction.
If we now place another positive charge, Q (called the test charge), at some radial distance, R, away from the original particle, the
test charge will feel a force given by
→ → 1 q
F = QE = Q ^
r (10.6.2)
4πϵo R2

The thing to keep in mind is that the force above is acting on the test charge Q, in the positive radial direction as defined by the
original charge q. This means that because the charges are both positive and will repel one another, the force on the test charge
points away from the original charge.
If the test charge were negative, the force felt on that charge would be
→ → 1 q
F = Q E = −Q ^
r (10.6.3)
4πϵo R2

Notice that this points in the negative ^r direction, which is toward the original charge. This makes sense because opposite charges
attract and the force on the test charge will tend to push it toward the original positive charge creating the field. The above
mathematical description of the electric field of a point charge is known as Coulomb ‘s Law.

Key Points
Length is typically a measure of the longest dimension of an object.
The deformation of an object is typically a change in length.
The SI unit of length is the meter.
The shape of an object is a representation of the space taken up by the object.
Deformations can change the shape of an object.
Objects that have the same shape can be transformed into each other by rotation or magnification.
Volume is often quantified numerically using an SI derived unit, the cubic meter. However, for liquids the unit of volume used
is known as the liter (equivalent to 0.001 cubic meters).
This can also be understood as the amount of fluid a submerged object displaces.
Volume can be measured for geometrically regular objects by simple formulas. However, more complicated objects are easier to
measure with fluid displacement.
The electric field is a vector field around a charged particle that represents the force that other charged particles would feel
when placed near the particle creating the electric field.
Given a point charge, or a particle of infinitesimal size, that contains a certain charge, electric field lines emanate from equally
in all radial directions.
If the point charge is positive, field lines point away from it; if the charge is negative, field lines point towards it.

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Key Terms
dimension: A measure of spatial extent in a particular direction, such as height, width or breadth, or depth.
special relativity: A theory that (neglecting the effects of gravity) reconciles the principle of relativity with the observation that
the speed of light is constant in all frames of reference.
plane: A level or flat surface.
Euclidean: Adhering to the principles of traditional geometry, in which parallel lines are equidistant.
cross section: A section formed by a plane cutting through an object, usually at right angles to an axis.
dimension: A measure of spatial extent in a particular direction, such as height, width or breadth, or depth.
coulomb’s law: the mathematical equation calculating the electrostatic force vector between two charged particles
vector field: a construction in which each point in a Euclidean space is associated with a vector; a function whose range is a
vector space
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 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

11: Fluid Dynamics and Its Applications

11.1: Overview
11.2: Flow in Tubes
11.3: Bernoulli’s Equation
11.4: Other Applications
Index

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Front Matter
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11.1: Overview
learning objectives
Interpret the circulatory system in terms of your knowledge of fluid dynamics

We have discussed many situations in which fluids are static, though there are many situations where fluids flow. For example, a
column of smoke rises from a camp fire, water streams from a fire hose, blood courses through your veins. Why does rising smoke
curl and twist? How does a nozzle increase the speed of water emerging from a hose? How does the body regulate blood flow?
Fluid dynamics, the physics of fluids in motion, allows us to answer these and many other questions.

Application in the Circulatory System

For example, consider the circulatory system—a connected series of tubes with fluid flowing through them. The heart is the driver
of the circulatory system, generating cardiac output (CO) by rhythmically contracting and relaxing. This creates changes in
regional pressures and (combined with a complex valvular system in the heart and the veins) ensures that the blood moves around
the circulatory system in one direction. The “beating” of the heart generates pulsatile blood flow, conducted into the arteries across
the micro-circulation and then back via the venous system to the heart.
The aorta, the main artery, leaves the left side of the heart and proceeds to divide into smaller and smaller arteries that first become
arterioles and eventually become capillaries, through which oxygen transfer occurs. The capillaries connect to venules, into which
the deoxygenated blood passes from the cells back into the blood. The blood then travels back through the network of veins to the
right heart. The micro-circulation (arterioles, capillaries and venules) constitutes most of the area of the vascular system and is the
site of the transfer of O2 into the cells.
The venous system returns the de-oxygenated blood to the right heart where it is pumped into the lungs to become oxygenated.
This is also where CO2 and other gaseous wastes are exchanged and expelled during breathing. Blood then returns to the left side
of the heart where it begins the process again. The heart, vessels and lungs are all actively involved in maintaining healthy cells and
organs, and all influence the fluid dynamics of the blood.

Fluids and Diffusion

Now consider how nutrients are transported through a human body. Diffusion is the movement of substances due to random
thermal molecular motion. Fluids can even diffuse through solids (such as fumes or odors entering ice cubes). Diffusion is the
dominant mechanism by which the exchange of nutrients and waste products occurs between the blood and tissue, and between air
and blood in the lungs. In the evolutionary process, as organisms became larger they needed quicker methods of transportation than
net diffusion, due to the larger distances involved in the transport. This factor lead to the development of circulatory systems. Less
sophisticated, single-celled organisms still rely totally on diffusion for the removal of waste products and the uptake of nutrients.
Another important form of fluid movement is osmosis—the transport of water through a semipermeable membrane (shown in )
from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. It is driven by the imbalance in water concentration.
Similarly, dialysis is the transport of any other molecule through a semipermeable membrane due to its concentration difference.
Both osmosis and dialysis are used by the kidneys to cleanse the blood, and the medical application of dialysis through machinery
is important in the treatment of individuals with failing kidney function.

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 A Semipermeable Membrane: A semipermeable membrane with small pores that allow only small molecules to pass through.

Flow Rate and Velocity

Flow velocity and volumetric flow rates are important quantities in fluid dynamics used to quantify motion of a fluid and are
interrelated.

learning objectives
Assess the significance of studying volumetric flow in addition to flow velocity

Fluid dynamics is the study of fluids in motion and corresponding phenomena. A fluid in motion has a velocity, just as a solid
object in motion has a velocity. Like the velocity of a solid, the velocity of a fluid is the rate of change of position per unit of time.
In mathematical terms, the velocity of a fluid is the derivative of the position vector of the fluid with respect to time, and is
therefore itself a vector quantity. The flow velocity vector is a function of position, and if the velocity of the fluid is not constant
then it is also a function of time. Equation 1 shows the mathematical expression for the velocity of a fluid in motion. As a vector
quantity, fluid velocity must have at least one non-zero directional component and may have up to three non-zero directional
components. The velocity vector has non-zero components in any orthogonal direction along which motion of the fluid occurs.

Flow Velocity: Mathematical Expression for Flow Velocity

Turbulent Flow vs. Laminar Flow

Fluid velocity can be affected by the pressure of the fluid, the viscosity of the fluid, and the cross-sectional area of the container in
which the fluid is travelling. These factors affect fluid velocity depending on the nature of the fluid flow—particularly whether the
flow is turbulent or laminar in nature. In the case of turbulent flow, the flow velocity is complex in nature and thus hard to predict;
it must be analyzed on a system per system basis. In the case of Laminar flow, however, fluid flow is much simpler and flow
velocity can be accurately calculated using Poiseuille’s Law. In SI units, fluid flow velocity is expressed in terms of meters per
seconds. The magnitude of the fluid flow velocity is the fluid flow speed. Fluid flow velocity effectively describes everything about
the motion of a fluid.

Volumetric Flow
In addition to flow velocity, volumetric flow rate is an important quantity in fluid dynamics analysis. Volumetric flow is defined as
the volume of fluid that passes through a given surface per unit time. Qualitatively, Figure 1 shows the notion of volumetric flow
rate regarding a cross-sectional surface of area A. Mathematically, volumetric flow rate is the derivative of the volume of fluid that
passes through a given surface with respect to time; in SI units this is expressed as meterscubed per second. Volumetric flow rate is
related to the flow velocity vector as the surface integral with respect to the surface in question. If the surface area in question is a
flat, plane cross-section, the surface integral reduces as shown in Equation 2, where A is the surface area of the surface in question
and v is the flow velocity of the fluid.

Volumetric Flow Rate: Volumetric Flow Rate Surface Integral and its simplification

Flow Velocity – Volumetric Flow Rate Relation: This figure shows the relation between flow velocity and volumetric flow rate.

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Moreover, only the flow velocity component parallel to the surface normal of the surface in question, or alternatively the flow
velocity component perpendicular to the surface in question contributes to the volumetric flow rate. Figure 1 and Equation 2
illustrate decomposition of the flow velocity vector, making an angle θ with respect to the normal of the surface plane in order to
calculate volumetric flow rate through that surface. Thus, volumetric flow rate for a given fluid velocity and cross-sectional surface
area increases as θ decreases, and is maximized when θ = 0. Volumetric flow rate is an important scalar quantity in fluid dynamics
and is used widely in fluid flow measurements. Volumetric flow rate can be converted to mass flow rate if the density of the fluid is
known. Flow of fluids through a closed system is often analyzed as a hydraulic circuit analogous to electron flow in an electronic
circuit where: 1) the volumetric fluid flow is analogous to the electric current, 2) pressure is analogous to the voltage, and 3) fluid
velocity is analogous to current density.

Key Points
There are many fluids in biology and understanding their behavior in motion is crucial to effective medicine.
The heart pumps a fluid, blood, throughout a series of tubes in the body.
Circulation may be understood through a study of fluid dynamics.
Diffusion is the dominant mechanism by which the exchange of nutrients and waste products occur between the blood and
tissue, and between air and blood in the lungs.
Both osmosis and dialysis are used by the kidneys to cleanse the blood, and the medical application of dialysis through
machinery is important in the treatment of individuals with failing kidney function.
Flow velocity is a vector quantity used to describe the motion of a fluid. It can be easily determined for laminar flow but
complex to determine for turbulent flow.
Volumetric flow rate is the volume of a liquid that passes through a given surface per unit time. It is found from the flow
velocity and the surface area of the surface through which the fluid passes.
Fluid flow through a closed hydraulic system is analyzed much like electron flow through an electronic circuit —where
volumetric flow rate is analogous to current, flow velocity is analogous to current density, and pressure is analogous to voltage
(electrical potential).

Key Terms
vascular: Of, pertaining to, or containing vessels that conduct or circulate fluids (such as blood, lymph, or sap) through the
body of an animal or plant.
osmosis: The net movement of solvent molecules from a region of high solvent potential to a region of lower solvent potential
through a partially permeable membrane.
dialysis: A method of separating molecules or particles of different sizes by differential diffusion through a semipermeable
membrane.
Laminar Flow: Non-turbulent motion of a fluid in which parallel layers have different velocities relative to each other.
Turbulent Flow: The motion of a fluid having local velocities and pressures that fluctuate randomly.
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11.2: Flow in Tubes
learning objectives
Contrast turbulent and laminar flow in constant velocity

Virtually all moving fluids exhibit viscosity, which is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow. Viscosity is a basic property
necessary for the analysis of fluid flow.

Measure of Fluid Friction

It describes a fluid’s internal resistance to movement and can be thought of as a measure of fluid friction. The greater the viscosity,
the ‘thicker’ the fluid and the more the fluid will resist movement.
Mathematically, viscosity is a proportionality constant relating an applied shear stress to the resulting shear velocity and is given,
along with a representative diagram, (see ). As shown, when a force is applied to a fluid, creating a shear stress, the fluid will
undergo a certain displacement. The viscosity of the fluid is then its inherent resistance to undergo this displacement.

Representation of Viscosity: A proportionality constant relating an applied shear stress to the resulting shear velocity.
Different fluids exhibit different viscous behavior yet, in this analysis, only Newtonian fluids (fluids with constant velocity
independent of applied shear stress) will be considered. Viscosity in fluids generally decreases with increasing temperature. The
study of the viscous nature of fluids is called rheology.
In analyzing the properties of moving fluids, it is necessary to determine the nature of flow of the fluid. This is generally split into
two categories, laminar and turbulent flow.

Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow is characterized by irregular flow of a fluid in which there are both inconsistent flow patterns and velocity
variations throughout the volume of the fluid in motion. Analysis of turbulent flow can be very complex and often requires
advanced mathematical analysis to simulate flow in systems on a near case-by-case basis.
It occurs when the Reynolds number is above a certain critical threshold while mixed turbulent–laminar flow occurs within a range
of Reynolds number below this threshold value. At the lower limit of this mixed turbulent–laminar flow Reynolds number region
there is another critical threshold value, below which only laminar flow is possible.

Laminar Flow
Laminar flow consists of a regular-flow pattern with constant-flow velocity throughout the fluid volume and is much easier to
analyze than turbulent flow.

Relative Magnitudes of Velocity Vectors: Laminar fluid flow in a circular pipe at the same direction.
Laminar flow is often encountered in common hydraulic systems, such as where fluid flow is through an enclosed, rigid pipe; the
fluid is incompressible, has constant viscosity, and the Reynolds number is below this lower critical threshold value. It is

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characterized by the flow of a fluid in parallel layers, in which there is no disruption or interaction between the different layers, and
in which each layer flows at a different velocity along the same direction. The variation in velocity between adjacent parallel layers
is due to the viscosity of the fluid and resulting shear forces.
This figure (see ) gives a representation of the relative magnitudes of the velocity vectors of each of these layers for laminar fluid
flow through a circular pipe, in a direction parallel to the pipe axis.

Poiseuille’s Equation: Can be used to determine the pressure drop of a constant viscosity fluid exhibiting laminar flow through a
rigid pipe.
Considering laminar flow of a constant density, incompressible fluid such as for a Newtonian fluid traveling in a pipe, with a
Reynolds number below the upper limit level for fully laminar flow, the pressure difference between two points along the pipe can
be found from the volumetric flow rate, or vice versa. For such a system with a pipe radius of r, fluid viscosity η, distance between
the two points along the pipe Δx = x2 – x1, and the volumetric flow rate Q, of the fluid, the pressure difference between the two
points along the pipe Δp is given by Poiseuille’s equation (see ).
This equation is valid for laminar flow of incompressible fluids only, and may be used to determine a number of properties in the
hydraulic system, if the others are known or can be measured. In practice, Poiseuille’s equation holds for most systems involving
laminar flow of a fluid, except at regions where features disrupting laminar flow, such as at the ends of a pipe, are present.
Poiseuille’s equation as given in this example (see ) is analogous to Ohm ‘s equation for determining the resistance in an electronic
circuit and is of great practical use in hydraulic-circuit analysis.

Poiseuille’s Equation: Analogous to Ohm’s Law Analogy

Blood Flow
Blood flow is the continuous running of blood through the cardiovascular system, which consists of the vessels and the heart.

learning objectives
Outline how normal plasma behaves in a mammalian cardiovascular system

Blood flow is the continuous running of blood through vessels in the cardiovascular system (the mammalian cardiovascular system
is shown in ). Blood is the viscous fluid composed of plasma and cells. The composition of the blood includes plasma, red blood
cells, white blood cells and platelets. In microcirculation, the properties of the blood cells have an important influence on flow.

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 An illustrative overview of the mammalian cardiovascular system: Keep in mind that both circular paths are working
simultaneously and not in a sequential manner as the numbering in the illustration might suggest. Both the ventricles are working
together in harmony; as tiny amounts of blood are moving in the pulmonary circuit, the remainder of the blood moves through the
systemic circuit.
The cardiovascular system, which consists of blood vessels and the heart, helps to distribute nutrients, O2, and other products of
metabolism. The blood moves in the blood vessels, while the heart serves as the pump for the blood. The vessel walls of the heart
are elastic and movable, therefore causing the blood and the wall to exert forces on each other and in turn influencing their
respective motion.
The major quantity of interest in describing the motion of blood particles is velocity—the rate of change of the position of an object
with time:
Δx
v = (11.2.1)
Δt

Blood velocities in arteries are higher during systole than during diastole. One parameter to quantify this difference is pulsatility
index (PI), which is equal to the difference between the peak systolic velocity and the minimum diastolic velocity divided by the
mean velocity during the cardiac cycle.
Another important parameter is the acceleration—the rate of change of velocity: a = Δv

Δt

Normal plasma behaves like a Newtonian fluid at rates of shear. Typical values for the viscosity of normal human plasma at 37°C is
1.2Nsm-2. The viscosity of normal plasma varies with temperature in the same way as does that of its solvent, water. (a 5°C
increase of temperature in the physiological range reduces plasma viscosity by about 10%).
The osmotic pressure of the plasma affects the mechanics of the circulation in several ways. An alteration of the osmotic pressure
difference across the membrane of a blood cell causes a shift of water and a change in cell volume. The change, both in shape and
flexibility, affects the mechanical properties of whole blood. Therefore, a change in plasma osmotic pressure alters the hematocrit
(the volume concentration of red cells in the whole blood) by redistributing water between the intravascular and extravascular
spaces. This in turn affects the mechanics of the whole blood.

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Key Points
Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to flow. Virtually all fluids have viscosity which generally changes as a function of
temperature; although different types of fluids exhibit different types of fluid–shear velocity dependencies.
Laminar flow of a fluid is characterized by its flow in parallel layers in which there is no disruption or interaction between the
different layers, and in which each layer flows at a different velocity along the same direction.
Poiseuille’s equation pertains to moving incompressible fluids exhibiting laminar flow. It relates the difference in pressure at
different spatial points to volumetric flow rate for fluids in motion in certain cases, such as in the flow of fluid through a rigid
pipe.
The major quantity of interest in describing the motion of blood particles is the velocity – the rate of change of the position of
an object with time: v = Δx

Δt
.
Blood velocities in arteries are higher during systole than during diastole.
The mechanics of the circulation depends on osmotic pressure of plasma.

Key Terms
viscosity: The property of a fluid that resists the force which tends to cause it to flow.
shear stress: The external force acting on an object or surface parallel to the slope or plane in which it lies; the stress tending to
produce shear.
vρl
Reynolds Number: A dimensionless number, η
, where v is the fluid velocity, ρ the density, η the viscosity and l a dimension
of the system. The value of the number indicates the type of fluid flow.
systole: The rhythmic contraction of the heart, by which blood is driven through the arteries.
vessel: A tube or canal that carries fluid in an animal or plant.
diastole: The phase or process of relaxation and dilation of the heart chambers, between contractions, during which they fill
with blood; an instance of the process.
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11.3: Bernoulli’s Equation
learning objectives
Adapt Bernoulli’s equation for flows that are either unsteady or compressible

Application of Bernoulli’s Equation

The relationship between pressure and velocity in ideal fluids is described quantitatively by Bernoulli’s equation, named after its
discoverer, the Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782). Bernoulli’s equation states that for an incompressible and inviscid
fluid, the total mechanical energy of the fluid is constant. (An inviscid fluid is assumed to be an ideal fluid with no viscosity. )

AP Physics 2 - Bernoulli's Principle

Bernoulli’s Principle: A brief introduction to Bernoulli’s Principle for students studying fluids.
The total mechanical energy of a fluid exists in two forms: potential and kinetic. The kinetic energy of the fluid is stored in static
pressure, psps, and dynamic pressure, 12ρV212ρV2, where \rho is the fluid density in (SI unit: kg/m3) and V is the fluid velocity
(SI unit: m/s). The SI unit of static pressure and dynamic pressure is the pascal.

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Syphoning: Syphoning fluid between two reservoirs. The flow rate out can be determined by drawing a streamline from point ( A )
to point ( C ).
Static pressure is simply the pressure at a given point in the fluid, dynamic pressure is the kinetic energy per unit volume of a fluid
particle. Thus, a fluid will not have dynamic pressure unless it is moving. Therefore, if there is no change in potential energy along
a streamline, Bernoulli’s equation implies that the total energy along that streamline is constant and is a balance between static and
dynamic pressure. Mathematically, the previous statement implies:
1
2
ps + ρV = constant (11.3.1)
2

along a streamline. If changes there are significant changes in height or if the fluid density is high, the change in potential energy
should not be ignored and can be accounted for with,
ΔPE = ρgΔh. (11.3.2)

This simply adds another term to the above version of the Bernoulli equation and results in
1
2
ps + ρV + ρgΔh = constant. (11.3.3)
2

Deriving Bernoulli’s Equation

The Bernoulli equation can be derived by integrating Newton’s 2nd law along a streamline with gravitational and pressure forces as
the only forces acting on a fluid element. Given that any energy exchanges result from conservative forces, the total energy along a
streamline is constant and is simply swapped between potential and kinetic.

Applying Bernoulli’s Equation

Bernoulli’s equation can be applied when syphoning fluid between two reservoirs. Another useful application of the Bernoulli
equation is in the derivation of Torricelli’s law for flow out of a sharp edged hole in a reservoir. A streamline can be drawn from the
top of the reservoir, where the total energy is known, to the exit point where the static pressure and potential energy are known but
the dynamic pressure (flow velocity out) is not.

Adapting Bernoulli’s Equation

The Bernoulli equation can be adapted to flows that are both unsteady and compressible. However, the assumption of inviscid flow
remains in both the unsteady and compressible versions of the equation. Compressibility effects depend on the speed of the flow
relative to the speed of sound in the fluid. This is determined by the dimensionless quantity known as the Mach number. The Mach
number represents the ratio of the speed of an object moving through a medium to the speed of sound in the medium.

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Torricelli’s Law
Torricelli’s law is theorem about the relation between the exit velocity of a fluid from a hole in a reservoir to the height of fluid
above the hole.

learning objectives
Infer the exit velocity through examining the Bernoulli equation

Torricelli’s law is theorem in fluid dynamics about the relation between the exit velocity of a fluid from a sharp-edged hole in a
reservoir to the height of the fluid above that exit hole. This relationship applies for an “ideal” fluid (inviscid and incompressible)
and results from an exchange of potential energy,

AP Physics 2 - Bernoulli's Principle

Torricelli’s Principle: A brief introduction to Torricelli’s Principle for students studying fluids.
mghmgh, for kinetic energy,
1

2
2
ρv , at the exit.
This relationship can be derived by applying the Bernoulli equation between the top of the reservoir and the exit hole. Applying
Bernoulli between the top of a reservoir and an exit hole at a height h below the top of the reservoir results in,

Exchange of Energy: Potential energy at the top of the reservoir becomes kinetic energy at the exit.

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 1 1
2 2
pt + ρvt + ρg ht = pe + ρve + ρg he (11.3.4)
2 2

where subscript t implies evaluation at the top of the reservoir and subscript e implies evaluation at the exit. If we assume both the
top of reservoir and the exit are open to the atmosphere, the zero for potential energy is at the exit hole, and the fluid velocity at the
top of the reservoir is essentially zero (large reservoir, small hole), we arrive at
1
2
ρg ht = ρve (11.3.5)
2

This can be solved for the exit velocity, resulting in,

−−−−
ve = √2ght (11.3.6)

where again ht is the height difference between the top of the reservoir and the exit hole. Due to the assumption of an ideal fluid, all
forces acting on the fluid are conservative and thus there is an exchange between potential and kinetic energy. The result is that the
velocity acquired by the fluid is the same that a body would acquire when simply dropped from the height ht.
A simple experiment to test Torricelli’s law involves filling a soda bottle with water and puncturing the bottom with a small hole
(about 1 cm in diameter). As the height in the reservoir decreases, the exit velocity will decrease as well. The exit velocity can be
increased by capping the top of the reservoir and pressurizing it.

Toricelli’s Law: The exit velocity depends on the height of the fluid above the exit hole.

Ideal Fluid: Applies to an ideal fluid (inviscid, incompressible)

Surface Tension
The tendency of the surface of a liquid to resist a force and behave like a membrane and is a result of cohesion between liquid
molecules.

learning objectives
Summarize the cause for different surface tensions at a liquid’s surface

Surface tension is the tendency of a liquid surface to resist forces applied to it. This effect is a result of cohesion of the molecules of
the liquid causing the surface of the liquid to contract to the smallest area possible. This effect is visible in nature with water strider
insects that are able to walk on water. Also, a paper clip or pin can be supported by the surface tension at a water air interface.

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Surface Tension FBD: Force diagrams showing the direction of forces for water supporting a water strider (insect) foot and a pin.
In both cases, the vertical component of the surface tension is enough to support the weight of the object.
In the bulk of the liquid, the molecules are pulled equally in all directions. The molecules at the surface feel a greater attractive
force toward the bulk material than the interface material.
The surface of a liquid is an interface between another fluid, a solid body, or both. Therefore, the surface tension will be a property
of the interface rather than simply the liquid. Adhesion describes the attractive force between molecules of different types. The
surface of a liquid in a container is an interface between the liquid, the air, and the container. Where the surfaces meet, forces must
be in equilibrium. This results in a contact angle at the interface. The contact angle is measured in the liquid and depends on the
relative strength of cohesive forces in the liquid and adhesive forces between the liquid and interface materials. If liquid molecules
are strongly attracted to the molecules of the solid surface (adhesive forces > cohesive forces), the drop will tend to spread out and
the contact angle will be close to zero degrees. If the cohesive forces are greater than the adhesive forces, the resulting contact
angles will be large and will form a more circular drop.

Water Droplet on Leaf: When a water droplet forms on a leaf, the cohesive forces between the water molecules are greater than
the adhesive forces between the water and leaf surface. The leaf is a hydrophobic surface.

Contact Angle: The contact angle is the angle, measured in the fluid, that results when a liquid-gas interface, meets a solid
surface.
When the liquid is water, a surface where the contact angle is small is said to be hydrophilic. Large contact angles are present on
hydrophobic surfaces. The contact angle determines the wettability of the surface.

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Key Points
The simplest form of Bernoulli’s equation (steady and incompressible flow) states that the sum of mechanical energy, potential
energy and kinetic energy, along a streamline is constant. Therefore, any increase in one form results in a decrease in the other.
Bernoulli’s equation considers only pressure and gravitational forces acting on the fluid particles. Therefore, if there is no
change in height along a streamline, Bernoulli’s equation becomes a balance between static pressure and velocity.
The steady-state, incompressible Bernoulli equation, can be derived by integrating Newton’s 2nd law along a streamline.
Torricelli’s law applies to an inviscid, incompressible fluid (“ideal” fluid).
You can ascertain results from applying the Bernoulli equation between the top of the reservoir and the exit hole.
The relationship arises from an exchange of potential energy at the top of the reservoir to kinetic energy at the exit.
The final kinetic energy is equivalent to what a solid body would acquire when falling from height h.
Surface tension is a result of cohesion between the molecules of the liquid. The molecules at the surface of the liquid feel an
attractive force pulling them toward the bulk of the liquid more than the solid or fluid at the interface.
When a liquid-solid-gas interface is encountered, the contact angle represents a measure of the relative strength of adhesive and
cohesive forces.
The contact angle determines the wettability of a surface.

Key Terms
viscosity: A quantity expressing the magnitude of internal friction in a fluid, as measured by the force per unit area resisting
uniform flow.
Ideal Fluid: An inviscid and incompressible fluid
incompressible: Unable to be compressed or condensed.
inviscid: A fluid with zero viscosity (internal friction). In reality viscosity is always present. However, it is often very small
compared with other forces (e.g. gravity, pressure) and for common fluids (water and air) the fluid can be approximated as
having zero viscosity.
cohesion: Various intermolecular forces that hold solids and liquids together.
wettability: The ability of a solid surface to reduce the surface tension of a liquid in contact with it such that it spreads over the
surface and wets it.
adhesion: The ability of a substance to stick to an unlike substance.
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11.4: Other Applications
learning objectives
Predict if flow will be laminar or turbulent

It is possible to predict if flow will be laminar or turbulent. At low velocity, flow in a very smooth tube or around a smooth,
streamlined object will be laminar. At high velocity, even the flow in a smooth tube or around a smooth object will experience
turbulence. However, between low and high velocity, flow is more difficult to predict. In fact, at intermediate velocities, flow may
oscillate back and forth indefinitely between laminar and turbulent.
An occlusion (narrowing) of an artery, such as shown in, is likely to cause turbulence because of the irregularity of the blockage, as
well as the complexity of blood as a fluid. Turbulence in the circulatory system (such as aneurysms, or ballooning of arteries) is
noisy and can sometimes be detected with a stethoscope (such as when measuring diastolic pressure in the upper arm’s partially
collapsed brachial artery). These turbulent sounds, at the onset of blood flow when the cuff pressure becomes sufficiently small, are
called Korotkoff sounds. Heart murmurs, consistent with their name, are sounds produced by turbulent flow around damaged and
insufficiently closed heart valves. Another method of detecting this type of turbulence is ultrasound, used as a medical indicator in
a process analogous to Doppler-shift radar (used to detect storms).

Turbulent Flow in an Artery: Flow is laminar in the large part of this blood vessel and turbulent in the part narrowed by plaque,
where velocity is high. In the transition region, the flow can oscillate chaotically between laminar and turbulent flow.
Turbulence manifests in other areas, with varying causes. During an airplane flight, for example, the turbulence experienced is due
to the mixing of warm and cold air in the atmosphere, causing the airplane to shake. The mixing currents in oceans creates a similar
effect.
The phenomenon of turbulent air flow must be accounted for in many applications. For example, race cars are unable to follow
each other around fast corners because the leading car creates turbulent air flow in its wake (this can lead to under-steering).
Industrial equipment, such as pipes, ducts, and heat exchangers are often designed to induce the flow regime of interest (laminar or
turbulent). When flow is turbulent, particles exhibit additional transverse motion. This enhances the rate of energy and momentum
exchange between them, increasing the heat transfer. Turbulent flow is thus desirable in applications where a relatively cool fluid is
mixed with a warmer fluid to reduce the temperature of the warmer fluid.
It is imperative to take into account turbulent flow when designing certain structures, such as a bridge support, as shown in. In the
late summer and fall, when river flow is slow, water flows smoothly around the support legs. In the spring, when the flow is faster,
the flow may start off laminar but it is quickly separated from the leg and becomes turbulent. The bridge supports must be designed
so that they can withstand the turbulent flow of the water in the spring.

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 Longtown Bridge: Turbulent flow is visible around the bridge supports of the Longtown bridge.

Motionof an Object in a Viscous Field

Objects moving in a viscous fluid feel a resistive force proportional to the viscosity of the fluid.

learning objectives
Assess the relationship of the parameters to one another in determining the inertia of an object moving in fluid

Overview
A moving object in a viscous fluid is equivalent to a stationary object in a flowing fluid stream. (For example, when you ride a
bicycle at 10 m/s in still air, you feel the air in your face exactly as if you were stationary in a 10-m/s wind. ) Flow of the stationary
fluid around a moving object may be laminar, turbulent, or a combination of the two. Just as with flow in tubes, it is possible to
predict when a moving object creates turbulence. We use another form of the Reynolds number N′R, defined for an object moving
in a fluid to be
ρvL
N‘R = (11.4.1)
η

where L is a characteristic length of the object (a sphere’s diameter, for example), the fluid density, its viscosity, and v the object’s
speed in the fluid. If N′R is less than about 1, flow around the object can be laminar, particularly if the object has a smooth shape.
The transition to turbulent flow occurs for N′R between 1 and about 10, depending on surface roughness and so on. Depending on
the surface, there can be a turbulent wake behind the object with some laminar flow over its surface. For an N′R between 10 and
10^6, the flow may be either laminar or turbulent and may oscillate between the two. For N′R greater than about 10^6, the flow is
entirely turbulent, even at the surface of the object. (See. ) Laminar flow occurs mostly when the objects in the fluid are small, such
as raindrops, pollen, and blood cells in plasma.

Motion of an object in a viscous fluid.: (a) Motion of this sphere to the right is equivalent to fluid flow to the left. Here the flow is
laminar with N′R less than 1. There is a force, called viscous drag FV, to the left on the ball due to the fluid’s viscosity. (b) At a
higher speed, the flow becomes partially turbulent, creating a wake starting where the flow lines separate from the surface. Pressure
in the wake is less than in front of the sphere, because fluid speed is less, creating a net force to the left F′V that is significantly
greater than for laminar flow. Here N′R is greater than 10. (c) At much higher speeds, where N′R is greater than 10^6, flow
becomes turbulent everywhere on the surface and behind the sphere. Drag increases dramatically.

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Viscous Drag
One of the consequences of viscosity is a resistance force called viscous drag FVFV that is exerted on a moving object. This force
typically depends on the object’s speed (in contrast with simple friction). Experiments have shown that for laminar flow (N′R less
than about one) viscous drag is proportional to speed, whereas for N′R between about 10 and 106, viscous drag is proportional to
speed squared. (This relationship is a strong dependence and is pertinent to bicycle racing, where even a small headwind causes
significantly increased drag on the racer. Cyclists take turns being the leader in the pack for this reason. ) For N′R greater than 106,
drag increases dramatically and behaves with greater complexity. For laminar flow around a sphere, FVFV is proportional to fluid
viscosity, the object’s characteristic size L, and its speed v. All of which makes sense—the more viscous the fluid and the larger the
object, the more drag we expect. Recall Stoke’s law FS=6πrηvFS=6πrηv. For the special case of a small sphere of radius R, moving
slowly in a fluid of viscosity, the drag force FSFS is given by
FS=6πRηvFS=6πRηv.

Molecular Transport Phenomena

Molecular transport phenomena are ways in which molecules are transported from one region to another. These include diffusion
and osmosis.

learning objectives
Predict the role diffusion plays in blood transport throughout the body

Diffusion
Atoms and molecules are in constant motion at any temperature. In fluids they move about randomly even in the absence of
macroscopic flow.
Diffusion is the movement of substances due to random thermal molecular motion. Fluids, like fish fumes or odors entering ice
cubes, can even diffuse through solids. Diffusion is a slow process over macroscopic distances. The densities of common materials
are great enough that molecules cannot travel very far before having a collision that can scatter them in any direction, including
straight backward. More massive molecules diffuse more slowly.
Another interesting point is that the diffusion rate for oxygen in air is much greater than for oxygen in water. In water, an oxygen
molecule makes many more collisions in its random walk and is slowed considerably. In water, an oxygen molecule moves only
about 40μm in 1 s. (Each molecule actually collides about 1010 times per second!). Finally, note that diffusion constants increase
with temperature, because average molecular speed increases with temperature. This is because the average kinetic energy of
molecules, 1/2mv2, is proportional to absolute temperature. Because diffusion is typically very slow, its most important effects
occur over small distances. For example, the cornea of the eye gets most of its oxygen by diffusion through the thin tear layer
covering it.
If you very carefully place a drop of food coloring in a still glass of water, it will slowly diffuse into the colorless surroundings
until its concentration is the same everywhere. This type of diffusion is called free diffusion, because there are no barriers
inhibiting it. Let us examine its direction and rate. Molecular motion is random in direction, and so simple chance dictates that
more molecules will move out of a region of high concentration than into it. The net rate of diffusion is higher initially than after
the process is partially completed. The rate of diffusion is proportional to the concentration difference. Many more molecules will
leave a region of high concentration than will enter it from a region of low concentration. In fact, if the concentrations were the
same, there would be no net movement. The rate of diffusion is also proportional to the diffusion constant D, which is determined
experimentally. Many of the factors that affect the rate are hidden in the diffusion constant D. For example, temperature and
cohesive and adhesive forces all affect values of D. Diffusion is the dominant mechanism by which the exchange of nutrients and
waste products occur between the blood and tissue, and between air and blood in the lungs. In the evolutionary process, as
organisms became larger, they needed quicker methods of transportation than net diffusion, because of the larger distances involved
in the transport, leading to the development of circulatory systems. Less sophisticated, single-celled organisms still rely totally on
diffusion for the removal of waste products and the uptake of nutrients.

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 Food Coloring: Food coloring spreading on a thin water film.

Osmosis and Dialysis – Diffusion Across Different Membranes

Some of the most interesting examples of diffusion occur through barriers that affect the rates of diffusion. For example, when you
soak a swollen ankle in Epsom salt, water diffuses through your skin. Many substances regularly move through cell membranes;
oxygen moves in, carbon dioxide moves out, nutrients go in, and wastes go out, for example. Because membranes are thin
structures (typically 6.5×10−9 to 10×10−9 m across) diffusion rates through them can be high.
Diffusion through membranes is an important method of transport. Membranes are generally selectively permeable, or
semipermeable. In other types of membranes, the molecules may actually dissolve in the membrane or react with molecules in the
membrane while moving across. Membrane function, in fact, is the subject of much current research, involving not only physiology
but also chemistry and physics. Osmosis is driven by the imbalance in water concentration. For example, water is more
concentrated in your body than in Epsom salt. When you soak a swollen ankle in Epsom salt, the water moves out of your body
into the lower-concentration region in the salt. Similarly, dialysis is the transport of any other molecule through a semipermeable
membrane due to its concentration difference. Both osmosis and dialysis are used by the kidneys to cleanse the blood.

Diffusion: (a) Two sugar-water solutions of different concentrations, separated by a semipermeable membrane that passes water
but not sugar. Osmosis will be to the right, since water is less concentrated there. (b) The fluid level rises until the back pressure
ρgh equals the relative osmotic pressure; then, the net transfer of water is zero.

Pumps and the Heart

The heart pumps blood through the body by contracting and relaxing, increasing and decreasing the pressure.

learning objectives
Contrast systole and diastole in cardiovascular circulation

The Heart and its Parts

The heart is made up of four chambers. Two atria at the top of the heart receive blood and two ventricles at the bottom of the heart
pump blood out of the heart. The septum divides the left and right side of the heart, while the valves of the heart ensure that blood
only flows in one direction.They include the tricuspid valve-found between the right atrium and the right ventricle-and the mitral
valve-found between the left atrium and the left ventricle. The list of heart valves also includes the semi-lunar valves, which are

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located at the bottom of the aorta and pulmonary artery. Strong tendinous chords attached to valves prevent them from turning
inside out when they close.
The human heart will undergo over 3 billion contraction cycles during a normal lifetime. A complete cardiac cycle is one round of
the heart pumping blood and consists of two parts: systole (contraction of the heart muscle) and diastole (relaxation of the heart
muscle). During the cycle, the top half of the heart works as one unit, while the bottom half of the heart works as one unit.
The heart beat can be heard as a sound that the valves make when they close. The ‘lub’ sound is made when the atrio ventricular
valves close and the ‘dub’ sound is made when the semi lunar valves close. Blood pressure is produced by the left ventricle
contractions.The rhythm of ventricle diastole, often just referred to as diastole, causes the pulse, which can be felt by holding two
fingers to the side of the throat.

Cardiac Cycle: The heart pumps blood through the body.

Key Points
For low velocity, flow in a smooth tube will be laminar.
At higher velocities or if there are obstructions, the flow turns turbulent.
Turbulent flow is very chaotic, with rapid variations in velocity and pressure.
Viscous fluids exert a resitive force on objects attempting to move through them.
This resistive force is called viscous drag and is proportional to the viscosity of the fluid and the motion of the object.
An object moving in a fluid can be thought of as a stationary object in a moving fluid.
Diffusion is the movement of molecules due to random thermal motion.
Osmosis is the movement of molecules due to different concentrations. Molecules will move from regions of high
concentrations to lower concentrations.
These transport phenomena can take place through membranes if the pressure is great enough.

Key Terms
turbulent: Being in, or causing, disturbance or unrest.
streamlined: Designed to offer little resistance to the flow of fluid, especially by having sleek, graceful lines.
laminar: Of fluid motion, smooth and regular, flowing as though in different layers.
viscosity: A quantity expressing the magnitude of internal friction in a fluid, as measured by the force per unit area resisting
uniform flow.
turbulence: Disturbance in a gas or fluid, characterized by evidence of internal motion or unrest.
diffusion: the intermingling of the molecules of a fluid due to random thermal agitation
ventricle: One of two lower chambers of the heart.
contraction: A reversible reduction in size.
atrium: An upper chamber of the heart that receives blood from the veins and forces it into a ventricle. In higher vertebrates,
the right atrium receives blood from the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava, and the left atrium receives blood from the
left and right pulmonary veins.
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Back Matter
Index

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Index
A angular frequency B
aberration 15.3: Periodic Motion ballistics
24.3: Lenses Angular momentum 5.4: Types of Forces in Nature
25.2: Other Optical Instruments 29.3: Atomic Physics and Quantum Mechanics basal metabolic rate
absolute space 5.9: Angular vs. Linear Quantities
9.6: Conservation of Angular Momentum 6.6: Power
27.1: Introduction 9.7: Vector Nature of Rotational Kinematics base
absolute zero angular motion 17.6: Applications of Electrostatics
12.2: Temperature and Temperature Scales 8.1: Introduction battery
12.4: Ideal Gas Law
14.4: Entropy angular position 19.2: Electric Current
9.1: Quantities of Rotational Kinematics 20.1: Overview
14.5: The Third Law of Thermodynamics
acceleration angular velocity Bell's theorem
5.3: Velocity, Acceleration, and Force 28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities
1.2: Units
2.3: Acceleration 5.6: Kepler’s Laws Bernoulli’s equation
2.5: Free-Falling Objects 5.9: Angular vs. Linear Quantities 11.3: Bernoulli’s Equation
3.2: Vectors 8.1: Introduction
9.1: Quantities of Rotational Kinematics
Beta decay
4.3: Newton’s Laws
5.3: Velocity, Acceleration, and Force 9.10: Conservation of Energy 30.2: Radioactivity
achromatic 9.3: Rotational Kinematics bilateral symmetry
9.5: Rotational Kinetic Energy 3.3: Projectile Motion
25.2: Other Optical Instruments 9.7: Vector Nature of Rotational Kinematics
achromatic doublet binary data
annihilation 26.4: Applications of Wave Optics
24.3: Lenses 27.3: Relativistic Quantities
action potential black body
antimatter 13.4: Methods of Heat Transfer
19.6: Electricity in the World 27.3: Relativistic Quantities 28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities
adhesion antinode 29.1: Overview
11.3: Bernoulli’s Equation 16.1: Introduction 29.2: The Early Atom
Adiabatic 16.5: Further Topics Black body radiation
12.4: Ideal Gas Law aperture 28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities
adiabatic index 25.1: The Human Eye blackbody
13.2: Specific Heat 25.2: Other Optical Instruments 13.5: Global Warming
aether application Boltzmann constant
27.2: Consequences of Special Relativity 1.1: The Basics of Physics 12.5: Kinetic Theory
afocal system approximation boundary condition
24.3: Lenses 1.3: Significant Figures and Order of Magnitude 15.6: Wave Behavior and Interaction
alpha particle Archimedes' Principle Boyle's Law
29.2: The Early Atom 10.3: Archimedes’ Principle 14.2: The First Law of Thermodynamics
30.2: Radioactivity artificial satellite brachytherapy
alternating current 5.6: Kepler’s Laws 30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics
20.5: RC Circuits asteroid breakdown
Alveoli 14.4: Entropy 18.4: Capacitors and Dielectrics
10.2: Density and Pressure 5.1: Introduction to UCM and Gravitation
brine
AM Radio Waves astronomical unit 12.2: Temperature and Temperature Scales
23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum 5.6: Kepler’s Laws
Brownian motion
ampere atom 12.1: Introduction
19.2: Electric Current 12.1: Introduction 12.4: Ideal Gas Law
21.5: Magnetic Fields, Magnetic Forces, and atomic number buoyancy
Conductors 29.5: Multielectron Atoms 10.2: Density and Pressure
Ampere's law atomic orbital buoyant force
21.1: Magnetism and Magnetic Fields 28.2: Applications of Quantum Mechanics 10.3: Archimedes’ Principle
amplifier 29.5: Multielectron Atoms
22.3: Applications of Induction and EM Waves atomic spectra C
amplitude 30.1: The Nucleus
15.3: Periodic Motion atrium calorie
15.7: Waves on Strings 14.2: The First Law of Thermodynamics
11.4: Other Applications
16.2: Sound Intensity and Level
Avogadro’s number calorimeter
16.4: Interactions with Sound Waves 13.2: Specific Heat
Aneroid Barometer 12.4: Ideal Gas Law
29.2: The Early Atom calorimetry
10.2: Density and Pressure 13.1: Introduction
axis
angular Capacitance
3.2: Vectors
9.2: Angular Acceleration 18.4: Capacitors and Dielectrics
axon
angular acceleration
18.2: Equipotential Surfaces and Lines
8.8: Torque and Angular Acceleration 18.3: Point Charge
9.1: Quantities of Rotational Kinematics

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capacitor component Coulomb force
17.4: The Electric Field Revisited 3.2: Vectors 21.3: Magnetic Force on a Moving Electric Charge
18.4: Capacitors and Dielectrics compression 6.5: Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy
20.3: Kirchhoff’s Rules Coulomb’s Law
15.5: Waves
20.5: RC Circuits
compressive stress 10.6: Deformation of Solids
Carnot cycle 17.4: The Electric Field Revisited
8.5: Applications of Statics
14.4: Entropy Coulomb's Law
cathode computed tomography
17.3: Coulomb’s Law
30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics
29.2: The Early Atom crest
CCD concave lens
15.5: Waves
24.3: Lenses
29.4: Applications of Atomic Physics Critical temperature
cell membrane concave mirror
19.3: Resistance and Resistors
24.4: Mirrors
18.2: Equipotential Surfaces and Lines critically damped
18.3: Point Charge concentration
15.4: Damped and Driven Oscillations
center of mass 12.9: Diffusion
cryptography
5.5: Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation conductive medium
28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities
7.5: Center of Mass 19.1: Overview
8.3: Stability conductor crystallography
8.7: The Center of Gravity 25.2: Other Optical Instruments
17.1: Overview
centrifugal force 17.4: The Electric Field Revisited
29.2: The Early Atom
5.4: Types of Forces in Nature 18.2: Equipotential Surfaces and Lines Curie temperature
centripetal 18.3: Point Charge 21.2: Magnets
18.4: Capacitors and Dielectrics Current
29.2: The Early Atom
23.3: Applications of EM Waves
5.1: Introduction to UCM and Gravitation 19.2: Electric Current
5.2: Non-Uniform Circular Motion conservation 20.3: Kirchhoff’s Rules
5.3: Velocity, Acceleration, and Force 6.5: Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy 21.5: Magnetic Fields, Magnetic Forces, and
centripetal acceleration 7.1: Introduction Conductors
15.3: Periodic Motion Conservation of Energy Cyclotron
CFC 7.3: Collisions 21.4: Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic
conservation of momentum principle Field
14.3: The Second Law of Thermodynamics
characteristic time constant 7.3: Collisions cyclotron frequency
conservative force 21.4: Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic
22.2: AC Circuits
Field
chemical reaction 6.5: Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy
12.1: Introduction constant velocity
D
Chromatic aberration 3.1: Motion in Two Dimensions
25.2: Other Optical Instruments constructive interference damping
16.5: Further Topics
circuit 15.6: Wave Behavior and Interaction
18.4: Capacitors and Dielectrics
16.5: Further Topics de Broglie wavelength
25.2: Other Optical Instruments 29.4: Applications of Atomic Physics
Circular Motion 26.2: Diffraction
5.3: Velocity, Acceleration, and Force
Decay
continuity 30.2: Radioactivity
cladding 10.5: Fluids in Motion
24.2: Reflection, Refraction, and Dispersion
decibels (units)
contraction 16.2: Sound Intensity and Level
classical electrodynamics 11.4: Other Applications
23.2: Electromagnetic Waves and their Properties
deformation
contrast 15.2: Hooke’s Law
Classical mechanics 25.2: Other Optical Instruments 8.6: Elasticity, Stress, Strain, and Fracture
27.3: Relativistic Quantities 26.4: Applications of Wave Optics
degeneracy
classical physics control rod 14.5: The Third Law of Thermodynamics
16.3: Doppler Effect and Sonic Booms 30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics
degree of freedom
closed system conversion 12.1: Introduction
7.1: Introduction 1.2: Units 7.3: Collisions
cochlea convex demagnetization
16.2: Sound Intensity and Level 25.2: Other Optical Instruments 14.5: The Third Law of Thermodynamics
coherence convex lens destructive interference
28.2: Applications of Quantum Mechanics 24.3: Lenses 15.6: Wave Behavior and Interaction
coherent convex mirror 16.5: Further Topics
16.4: Interactions with Sound Waves 24.4: Mirrors 25.2: Other Optical Instruments
26.1: Superposition and Interference 26.2: Diffraction
coordinate
cohesion diagram
3.2: Vectors
11.3: Bernoulli’s Equation 2.4: Problem-Solving for Basic Kinematics
Coordinate axes
combination circuit dialysis
3.2: Vectors
20.2: Resistors in Series and Parallel 11.1: Overview
corona discharge
combustion diamagnetism
17.6: Applications of Electrostatics
13.2: Specific Heat 21.6: Applications of Magnetism
coulomb
complex numbers diastole
17.1: Overview
19.5: Alternating Currents 18.1: Overview 11.2: Flow in Tubes

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dielectric drift velocity electromotive force (emf)
17.1: Overview 19.2: Electric Current 20.3: Kirchhoff’s Rules
17.2: Shelding and Charging Through Induction 21.5: Magnetic Fields, Magnetic Forces, and 22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law
17.4: The Electric Field Revisited Conductors electron affinity
18.4: Capacitors and Dielectrics dynamic contrast ratio 28.2: Applications of Quantum Mechanics
24.2: Reflection, Refraction, and Dispersion
25.1: The Human Eye electron gun
differential dynamics 18.5: Applications
12.8: Thermal Stresses
1.4: Solving Physics Problems electron shell
differential equation 4.7: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws
21.6: Applications of Magnetism
20.5: RC Circuits dynamo 29.5: Multielectron Atoms
23.2: Electromagnetic Waves and their Properties
21.1: Magnetism and Magnetic Fields electron volt
diffraction
18.1: Overview
25.2: Other Optical Instruments
26.2: Diffraction
E electrostatic force
28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities eardrum 17.3: Coulomb’s Law
29.2: The Early Atom 16.2: Sound Intensity and Level element
diffusion eccentricity 29.5: Multielectron Atoms
11.4: Other Applications 5.6: Kepler’s Laws elementary charge
12.9: Diffusion
19.6: Electricity in the World
elastic 21.5: Magnetic Fields, Magnetic Forces, and
7.2: Conservation of Momentum Conductors
dimension 8.6: Elasticity, Stress, Strain, and Fracture elementary particle
1.4: Solving Physics Problems
10.6: Deformation of Solids
Elastic Collision 28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities
7.3: Collisions 7.1: Introduction emissivity
7.3: Collisions
diode 13.4: Methods of Heat Transfer
30.2: Radioactivity
elastic potential energy 23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics 15.3: Periodic Motion Energy
diopter elasticity 15.5: Waves
25.2: Other Optical Instruments 15.2: Hooke’s Law 6.1: Introduction
dipole 16.1: Introduction Enthalpy
24.2: Reflection, Refraction, and Dispersion
electric charge 10.1: Introduction
17.1: Overview 13.2: Specific Heat
dipole moment 17.5: Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law entropy
17.1: Overview 19.1: Overview
18.1: Overview 12.2: Temperature and Temperature Scales
20.3: Kirchhoff’s Rules 14.3: The Second Law of Thermodynamics
21.6: Applications of Magnetism 21.6: Applications of Magnetism 14.4: Entropy
direct current electric current epistemological
20.1: Overview 19.2: Electric Current
20.5: RC Circuits 28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities
electric displacement field epithelium
direction of propagation 17.5: Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law
15.5: Waves 16.4: Interactions with Sound Waves
Electric field equation
discharge 17.1: Overview
17.1: Overview 4.5: Problem-Solving
17.5: Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law
17.2: Shelding and Charging Through Induction 18.1: Overview equilibrium
disorder 21.5: Magnetic Fields, Magnetic Forces, and 10.2: Density and Pressure
14.4: Entropy Conductors 12.6: Phase Changes
22.4: Magnetic Fields and Maxwell Revisited 12.9: Diffusion
Dispersion 13.6: Phase Equilbrium
26.3: Further Topics
electric potential
15.4: Damped and Driven Oscillations
18.1: Overview
displacement 17.4: The Electric Field Revisited
16.4: Interactions with Sound Waves
electrical circuit 4.7: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws
20.1: Overview 8.2: Conditions for Equilibrium
2.1: Basics of Kinematics
3.2: Vectors electrical resistance equipotential
dissipative force 19.1: Overview 18.1: Overview
18.2: Equipotential Surfaces and Lines
15.3: Periodic Motion electrocardiogram 18.3: Point Charge
6.5: Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy 19.6: Electricity in the World
distortion escape velocity
electromagnet 5.8: Energy Conservation
25.2: Other Optical Instruments 21.1: Magnetism and Magnetic Fields
diurnal Euclidean
electromagnetic force 10.6: Deformation of Solids
5.4: Types of Forces in Nature 29.2: The Early Atom
Doppler effect evaporation
electromagnetic radiation 13.6: Phase Equilbrium
16.3: Doppler Effect and Sonic Booms 26.3: Further Topics
23.2: Electromagnetic Waves and their Properties 30.2: Radioactivity
exponent
Doppler shift 6.8: Further Topics 1.3: Significant Figures and Order of Magnitude
29.2: The Early Atom Electromagnetic waves external beam therapy
dosimeter 23.2: Electromagnetic Waves and their Properties 30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics
30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics electromotive force
dot product 20.1: Overview
6.2: Work Done by a Constant Force 20.2: Resistors in Series and Parallel
22.4: Magnetic Fields and Maxwell Revisited

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F frequency ground state
Faraday constant 15.3: Periodic Motion 28.2: Applications of Quantum Mechanics
15.5: Waves group velocity
12.4: Ideal Gas Law 16.1: Introduction
Faraday shield 15.5: Waves
16.3: Doppler Effect and Sonic Booms
17.6: Applications of Electrostatics 16.4: Interactions with Sound Waves gyroradius
22.3: Applications of Induction and EM Waves 21.4: Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic
Faraday's law of induction 23.2: Electromagnetic Waves and their Properties Field
20.1: Overview
22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law
friction
ferromagnet 4.3: Newton’s Laws H
4.7: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws
22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law 6.5: Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy
harmonic oscillator
ferromagnetic 7.3: Collisions 28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities
21.1: Magnetism and Magnetic Fields frigorific mixture heat
21.6: Applications of Magnetism 12.2: Temperature and Temperature Scales 14.1: Introduction
fibrillation fundamental thermodynamic relation 14.2: The First Law of Thermodynamics
19.6: Electricity in the World 13.2: Specific Heat
Heat capacity
fictitious force fusion 13.2: Specific Heat
5.4: Types of Forces in Nature 30.3: Quantum Tunneling and Conservation Laws
heat engine
field of view 30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics 14.3: The Second Law of Thermodynamics
6.8: Further Topics 14.4: Entropy
25.1: The Human Eye
first law of thermodynamics heat of reaction
12.4: Ideal Gas Law G 13.2: Specific Heat
14.3: The Second Law of Thermodynamics Galilean transformation heat pump
6.8: Further Topics 14.4: Entropy
27.3: Relativistic Quantities
fission galvanometer heat transfer
30.3: Quantum Tunneling and Conservation Laws 13.1: Introduction
20.4: Voltmeters and Ammeters
30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics helical
22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law
6.8: Further Topics
fluid gamma (γ) rays 26.4: Applications of Wave Optics
23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum helical motion
4.7: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws
29.2: The Early Atom 21.4: Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic
fluidity 30.2: Radioactivity Field
10.1: Introduction 30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics
hertz
flux Gamma decay 16.1: Introduction
22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law 23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Hohmann transfer orbit
23.2: Electromagnetic Waves and their Properties gamma ray 5.6: Kepler’s Laws
flux density 29.3: Atomic Physics and Quantum Mechanics
Hooke's Law
18.3: Point Charge gas constant 6.5: Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy
flux intensity 12.4: Ideal Gas Law
humidity
18.2: Equipotential Surfaces and Lines Gauge Pressure 12.6: Phase Changes
FM 10.2: Density and Pressure
Huygen's principle
23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum general relativity 16.5: Further Topics
focal point 27.4: Implications of Special Relativity
hydraulic press
24.3: Lenses geometric optics 10.2: Density and Pressure
Force 24.1: Overview
hydrogen bond
15.4: Damped and Driven Oscillations geothermal 12.3: Thermal Expansion
4.1: Introduction
14.4: Entropy
4.2: Force and Mass
6.3: Work Done by a Variable Force gimbal I
7.3: Collisions 9.7: Vector Nature of Rotational Kinematics
8.2: Conditions for Equilibrium ideal energy
gluon
fossil fuels 12.4: Ideal Gas Law
30.1: The Nucleus
6.7: CASE STUDY: World Energy Use ideal fluid
gradient
Fourier analysis 11.3: Bernoulli’s Equation
5.4: Types of Forces in Nature
15.1: Introduction Ideal gas
grating
frame of reference 10.2: Density and Pressure
28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities 12.1: Introduction
2.1: Basics of Kinematics Gravitational acceleration 12.2: Temperature and Temperature Scales
22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law 12.4: Ideal Gas Law
4.4: Other Examples of Forces
free electron laser Gravitational Force 12.5: Kinetic Theory
28.2: Applications of Quantum Mechanics 14.2: The First Law of Thermodynamics
5.5: Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
free fall image distance
gravity 24.3: Lenses
2.5: Free-Falling Objects
17.1: Overview
3.3: Projectile Motion
impedance
5.7: Gravitational Potential Energy 20.5: RC Circuits
22.2: AC Circuits
greenhouse effect
13.5: Global Warming
impulse
7.1: Introduction
greenhouse gas
13.5: Global Warming
incandescence
26.4: Applications of Wave Optics

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incident ray isentropic lens
26.3: Further Topics 14.5: The Third Law of Thermodynamics 25.2: Other Optical Instruments
incline isolated system 26.1: Superposition and Interference
4.7: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws 13.1: Introduction Lenz's law
incompressible 6.5: Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy 22.2: AC Circuits
10.2: Density and Pressure isotope leverage
10.5: Fluids in Motion 30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics 8.5: Applications of Statics
11.3: Bernoulli’s Equation isotropic line element
index of refraction 12.3: Thermal Expansion 27.4: Implications of Special Relativity
24.2: Reflection, Refraction, and Dispersion linear momentum
26.3: Further Topics
J 7.1: Introduction
induction linear thermal expansion coefficient
22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law
joint
8.5: Applications of Statics 12.3: Thermal Expansion
5.5: Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
inductor linear velocity
17.2: Shelding and Charging Through Induction K 9.3: Rotational Kinematics
22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law kelvin Longitudinal
22.2: AC Circuits 15.5: Waves
16.1: Introduction
22.4: Magnetic Fields and Maxwell Revisited Lorentz factor
inelastic Kelvin scale
12.2: Temperature and Temperature Scales 27.2: Consequences of Special Relativity
7.1: Introduction 27.3: Relativistic Quantities
7.2: Conservation of Momentum kilocalorie
Lorentz force
inelastic scattering 13.1: Introduction
17.3: Coulomb’s Law
29.2: The Early Atom Kinematic 22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law
inertia 2.3: Acceleration Lorentz transformations
2.4: Problem-Solving for Basic Kinematics
1.2: Units 27.1: Introduction
3.1: Motion in Two Dimensions
4.3: Newton’s Laws 27.3: Relativistic Quantities
9.2: Angular Acceleration
9.5: Rotational Kinetic Energy 27.4: Implications of Special Relativity
9.8: Problem Solving
inertial frame kinematics Lorenz Invariance
5.4: Types of Forces in Nature 27.1: Introduction
2.1: Basics of Kinematics
instantaneous Kinetic Energy luminance
2.2: Speed and Velocity 25.1: The Human Eye
10.2: Density and Pressure
insulator 15.2: Hooke’s Law luminiferous aether
17.1: Overview 18.1: Overview 27.1: Introduction
interfere 4.7: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws
5.8: Energy Conservation
16.4: Interactions with Sound Waves 6.8: Further Topics M
interference 7.3: Collisions Mach number
15.6: Wave Behavior and Interaction kinetic theory of gases 16.3: Doppler Effect and Sonic Booms
26.2: Diffraction
26.3: Further Topics
12.1: Introduction machines
12.5: Kinetic Theory
26.4: Applications of Wave Optics 8.5: Applications of Statics
28.2: Applications of Quantum Mechanics magnetic domains
interferometer L 21.2: Magnets
26.1: Superposition and Interference laminar Magnetic Field
27.3: Relativistic Quantities 11.4: Other Applications 21.3: Magnetic Force on a Moving Electric Charge
intermolecular laminar flow 21.5: Magnetic Fields, Magnetic Forces, and
10.4: Cohesion and Adhesion 11.1: Overview Conductors
12.6: Phase Changes 21.6: Applications of Magnetism
land 22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law
internal energy 26.4: Applications of Wave Optics 22.4: Magnetic Fields and Maxwell Revisited
12.4: Ideal Gas Law laser
13.1: Introduction
magnetic field lines
14.1: Introduction 28.2: Applications of Quantum Mechanics 21.1: Magnetism and Magnetic Fields
14.2: The First Law of Thermodynamics latent heat of fusion magnetic flux
14.3: The Second Law of Thermodynamics 13.3: Phase Change and Latent Heat 22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law
International Systems of Units latent heat of vaporization magnetic mirror
12.4: Ideal Gas Law 13.3: Phase Change and Latent Heat 21.4: Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic
inverse law Field
5.5: Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation 1.1: The Basics of Physics magnetron
inviscid law of conservation of energy 21.4: Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic
11.3: Bernoulli’s Equation 14.2: The First Law of Thermodynamics Field
ionization energy LCD Magnification
28.2: Applications of Quantum Mechanics 26.4: Applications of Wave Optics 24.3: Lenses
ionizing radiation length magnitude
23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum 1.2: Units 3.2: Vectors
30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics
length contraction mass
iridescence 27.4: Implications of Special Relativity 21.6: Applications of Magnetism
26.2: Diffraction 4.2: Force and Mass

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mass distribution N optical window
15.3: Periodic Motion nanostructure 23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Mass Spectrometer 25.2: Other Optical Instruments order of magnitude
21.4: Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic natural convection 1.3: Significant Figures and Order of Magnitude
Field origin
13.4: Methods of Heat Transfer
matter 3.2: Vectors
natural frequency
1.1: The Basics of Physics orthogonal
16.5: Further Topics
matter waves 17.4: The Electric Field Revisited
natural satellite
28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities 21.4: Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic
29.2: The Early Atom 5.6: Kepler’s Laws Field
29.3: Atomic Physics and Quantum Mechanics nematic 26.1: Superposition and Interference
Maxwell’s Equations 26.4: Applications of Wave Optics oscillate
22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law nerve impulse 15.2: Hooke’s Law
27.1: Introduction 16.4: Interactions with Sound Waves 15.3: Periodic Motion
28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities 15.7: Waves on Strings
29.2: The Early Atom
net force 26.3: Further Topics
4.3: Newton’s Laws
mean motion oscillator
5.6: Kepler’s Laws
neuron 15.4: Damped and Driven Oscillations
18.2: Equipotential Surfaces and Lines
mechanical advantage 18.3: Point Charge
osmosis
8.5: Applications of Statics 11.1: Overview
neurotransmitter
mechanical equivalent of heat 16.4: Interactions with Sound Waves
over damping
13.1: Introduction 15.4: Damped and Driven Oscillations
Newton’s third law of motion
media 7.4: Rocket Propulsion
oxidation
16.1: Introduction 14.2: The First Law of Thermodynamics
Newton's Law of Gravitation
medium 5.7: Gravitational Potential Energy
ozone
15.5: Waves 23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Newtonian mechanics
metabolism 12.5: Kinetic Theory
14.2: The First Law of Thermodynamics
NMR P
meteorology 30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics parallel
5.4: Types of Forces in Nature 20.2: Resistors in Series and Parallel
noble gas
metric 12.5: Kinetic Theory parallel equivalent resistance
27.4: Implications of Special Relativity 19.3: Resistance and Resistors
node
microscopy 16.1: Introduction Paramagnetism
26.4: Applications of Wave Optics 16.5: Further Topics 21.6: Applications of Magnetism
microstate Nonconservative Forces particle accelerator
14.5: The Third Law of Thermodynamics 6.5: Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy 18.1: Overview
Minkowski space normal 28.2: Applications of Quantum Mechanics
27.4: Implications of Special Relativity 4.4: Other Examples of Forces pendentive
model normal force 8.5: Applications of Statics
1.1: The Basics of Physics 5.1: Introduction to UCM and Gravitation Pendulums
mole nuclear reactor 6.8: Further Topics
12.4: Ideal Gas Law 30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics perihelion
moment of inertia nucleons 5.6: Kepler’s Laws
12.5: Kinetic Theory 30.3: Quantum Tunneling and Conservation Laws period
8.4: Solving Statics Problems 15.3: Periodic Motion
nucleosynthesis
Momentum 30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics
16.1: Introduction
4.3: Newton’s Laws
nucleus periodic table
7.1: Introduction 29.5: Multielectron Atoms
7.3: Collisions 17.1: Overview
9.6: Conservation of Angular Momentum 29.2: The Early Atom permanent magnet
30.1: The Nucleus 21.1: Magnetism and Magnetic Fields
monochromatic
26.1: Superposition and Interference
nuclide Permeability
26.2: Diffraction 30.1: The Nucleus 22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law
28.2: Applications of Quantum Mechanics null measurements permittivity
motion 20.4: Voltmeters and Ammeters 18.4: Capacitors and Dielectrics
2.4: Problem-Solving for Basic Kinematics perpendicular
Motional Emf O 4.4: Other Examples of Forces
4.7: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws
22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law Objective measurement
MRI 16.1: Introduction
phase
23.2: Electromagnetic Waves and their Properties
30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics ohm
muscles 19.2: Electric Current
phase velocity
15.5: Waves
8.5: Applications of Statics Ohm’s law
mutual inductance 22.2: AC Circuits
phasor
22.2: AC Circuits
22.2: AC Circuits ohmic
myocardium 19.3: Resistance and Resistors
Phasors
19.6: Electricity in the World 19.5: Alternating Currents

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phon Potential Energy rarefaction
16.2: Sound Intensity and Level 18.1: Overview 15.5: Waves
phosphor 5.7: Gravitational Potential Energy raster
5.8: Energy Conservation
18.5: Applications 18.5: Applications
6.8: Further Topics
photoconductivity potentiometer ray tracing
17.6: Applications of Electrostatics 24.3: Lenses
20.4: Voltmeters and Ammeters
Photoelectric effect power Rayleigh criterion
15.6: Wave Behavior and Interaction 28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities
15.5: Waves
28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities Reactance
6.6: Power
29.2: The Early Atom
photoelectron prefix 22.2: AC Circuits
1.2: Units reflection
28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities
photon pressure 24.1: Overview
24.2: Reflection, Refraction, and Dispersion
10.4: Cohesion and Adhesion
23.2: Electromagnetic Waves and their Properties 26.3: Further Topics
28.2: Applications of Quantum Mechanics Probability density function refraction
29.2: The Early Atom 28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities
24.1: Overview
physical pendulum propulsion 24.2: Reflection, Refraction, and Dispersion
15.3: Periodic Motion 5.8: Energy Conservation 25.2: Other Optical Instruments
pit pupil 26.3: Further Topics
26.4: Applications of Wave Optics 25.1: The Human Eye Refractive index
Planck constant Purkinje fibers 15.6: Wave Behavior and Interaction
23.2: Electromagnetic Waves and their Properties
29.1: Overview 19.6: Electricity in the World
Planck’s constant relative
3.4: Multiple Velocities
28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities Q
plane relativistic quantum theory
Quantization 28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities
10.6: Deformation of Solids 29.2: The Early Atom
Plane waves 29.3: Atomic Physics and Quantum Mechanics
relativity of simultaneity
27.4: Implications of Special Relativity
15.5: Waves quantum mechanics
26.1: Superposition and Interference 9.6: Conservation of Angular Momentum
renewable forms of energy
planet 6.7: CASE STUDY: World Energy Use
Quarks
5.1: Introduction to UCM and Gravitation 30.1: The Nucleus
reorientate
Plasma 3.3: Projectile Motion
10.1: Introduction R resisitivity
12.6: Phase Changes 17.1: Overview
radar 19.3: Resistance and Resistors
plumb line
23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum resistance
7.5: Center of Mass
radial 20.2: Resistors in Series and Parallel
point mass
18.1: Overview Resistor
5.5: Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation 5.2: Non-Uniform Circular Motion
point particle 20.3: Kirchhoff’s Rules
Radians 20.5: RC Circuits
7.5: Center of Mass 5.3: Velocity, Acceleration, and Force
Poiseuille's Law resolution
radiation 26.2: Diffraction
10.2: Density and Pressure 1.2: Units
polarity resonance
radiative transfer 15.6: Wave Behavior and Interaction
17.6: Applications of Electrostatics 13.5: Global Warming 22.2: AC Circuits
polarizability radio waves rest mass
26.3: Further Topics 23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum 27.3: Relativistic Quantities
polarization 23.3: Applications of EM Waves restoring force
26.3: Further Topics Radioactive decay 15.3: Periodic Motion
polarizer 30.1: The Nucleus 15.6: Wave Behavior and Interaction
24.2: Reflection, Refraction, and Dispersion 30.2: Radioactivity resultant
30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics
position 4.6: Vector Nature of Forces
radioactive tracer
2.3: Acceleration reversible
30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics
positive feedback 14.2: The First Law of Thermodynamics
13.4: Methods of Heat Transfer
radiograph 14.4: Entropy
23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum Reynolds number
positron
27.3: Relativistic Quantities
radiography 11.2: Flow in Tubes
29.3: Atomic Physics and Quantum Mechanics 25.2: Other Optical Instruments right hand rule
30.2: Radioactivity radioisotope 21.3: Magnetic Force on a Moving Electric Charge
30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics 30.2: Radioactivity 9.7: Vector Nature of Rotational Kinematics
potential radiometric dating rigid
12.3: Thermal Expansion 30.2: Radioactivity 4.7: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws
6.5: Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy
radionuclide rigid body
potential difference
30.1: The Nucleus 7.5: Center of Mass
18.1: Overview 30.2: Radioactivity
20.2: Resistors in Series and Parallel
radon
30.2: Radioactivity

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rms silver halide Static Equilibrium
12.5: Kinetic Theory 28.2: Applications of Quantum Mechanics 10.2: Density and Pressure
20.5: RC Circuits simple circuit 17.4: The Electric Field Revisited
22.2: AC Circuits 18.2: Equipotential Surfaces and Lines
19.3: Resistance and Resistors
rms current 18.3: Point Charge
Simple Harmonic Motion 8.3: Stability
19.5: Alternating Currents
rms voltage
15.6: Wave Behavior and Interaction stimulated emission
simple harmonic oscillator 29.4: Applications of Atomic Physics
19.5: Alternating Currents
root mean square
15.3: Periodic Motion Stoke's theorem
simple pendulum 22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law
19.5: Alternating Currents
rotation
15.3: Periodic Motion strain
sinoatrial node 4.7: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws
9.6: Conservation of Angular Momentum
19.6: Electricity in the World 8.6: Elasticity, Stress, Strain, and Fracture
Rotational Inertia sinusoidal streamlined
8.8: Torque and Angular Acceleration
15.3: Periodic Motion 11.4: Other Applications
9.10: Conservation of Energy
9.4: Dynamics sinusoidal steady state stress
9.9: Linear and Rotational Quantities 19.5: Alternating Currents 12.8: Thermal Stresses
Snell’s law of refraction 4.7: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws
S 15.6: Wave Behavior and Interaction string theory
24.2: Reflection, Refraction, and Dispersion 28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities
scalar
2.1: Basics of Kinematics solenoid stroboscopic
3.2: Vectors 21.2: Magnets 2.4: Problem-Solving for Basic Kinematics
scanning tunneling microscope (STM) 22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law Subjective measurement
28.2: Applications of Quantum Mechanics sonic boom 16.1: Introduction
Schrodinger's Equation 16.3: Doppler Effect and Sonic Booms sublimation
28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities Special relativity 10.1: Introduction
10.6: Deformation of Solids 13.3: Phase Change and Latent Heat
scientific method
1.1: The Basics of Physics
22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law Superconductivity
23.2: Electromagnetic Waves and their Properties
19.3: Resistance and Resistors
scientific notation 26.4: Applications of Wave Optics
1.3: Significant Figures and Order of Magnitude 27.1: Introduction superimpose
27.2: Consequences of Special Relativity 16.4: Interactions with Sound Waves
Scintillation 27.3: Relativistic Quantities 25.2: Other Optical Instruments
29.2: The Early Atom 27.4: Implications of Special Relativity 26.4: Applications of Wave Optics
scintillators 28.1: History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities superposition
30.2: Radioactivity specific heat 15.6: Wave Behavior and Interaction
second law of thermodynamics 12.4: Ideal Gas Law 16.4: Interactions with Sound Waves
14.3: The Second Law of Thermodynamics 13.2: Specific Heat 17.4: The Electric Field Revisited
selective absorber spectral color surface vertices
13.5: Global Warming 23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum 24.3: Lenses
semiclassical spectral radiance symmetrical
29.2: The Early Atom 29.1: Overview 3.3: Projectile Motion
semiclassical approach spectrum symmetry
28.2: Applications of Quantum Mechanics 29.2: The Early Atom 4.3: Newton’s Laws
semiconductor speed of light systole
19.3: Resistance and Resistors 27.2: Consequences of Special Relativity 11.2: Flow in Tubes
30.2: Radioactivity 27.3: Relativistic Quantities
series speed of propagation T
15.5: Waves
20.2: Resistors in Series and Parallel tangent
series equivalent resistance spherical aberration 4.7: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws
25.2: Other Optical Instruments
19.3: Resistance and Resistors tangential acceleration
shear stress spin 9.1: Quantities of Rotational Kinematics
21.6: Applications of Magnetism
10.1: Introduction
28.2: Applications of Quantum Mechanics
telecommunication
11.2: Flow in Tubes
23.3: Applications of EM Waves
shock hazard stable equilibrium
8.3: Stability
temperature coefficient of resistivity
19.5: Alternating Currents
19.3: Resistance and Resistors
19.6: Electricity in the World standard atmosphere
Shunt resistance 12.2: Temperature and Temperature Scales
tensile stress
8.5: Applications of Statics
20.4: Voltmeters and Ammeters standing wave
shutter speed 15.7: Waves on Strings
terminal velocity
29.2: The Early Atom 17.1: Overview
25.2: Other Optical Instruments
SI units static terminal voltage
1.4: Solving Physics Problems 20.2: Resistors in Series and Parallel
12.4: Ideal Gas Law
sidereal year 4.7: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws tesla
5.6: Kepler’s Laws
static contrast ratio 21.3: Magnetic Force on a Moving Electric Charge

sievert 25.1: The Human Eye tetrahertz radiation

30.2: Radioactivity
static electricity 23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
17.1: Overview

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theory Transformer vector field
1.1: The Basics of Physics 22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law 10.6: Deformation of Solids
thermal agitation translation 17.4: The Electric Field Revisited
23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum 8.2: Conditions for Equilibrium velocity
thermal conductivity transmutation 2.2: Speed and Velocity
2.3: Acceleration
13.4: Methods of Heat Transfer 30.2: Radioactivity
3.2: Vectors
thermal energy transverse 4.2: Force and Mass
14.3: The Second Law of Thermodynamics 21.5: Magnetic Fields, Magnetic Forces, and 5.3: Velocity, Acceleration, and Force
thermal equilibrium Conductors ventricle
12.7: The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics transverse wave 11.4: Other Applications
13.1: Introduction 15.5: Waves vessel
14.1: Introduction 15.7: Waves on Strings
11.2: Flow in Tubes
thermal hazard 16.5: Further Topics
trigonometry Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water
19.5: Alternating Currents
12.4: Ideal Gas Law
19.6: Electricity in the World 1.4: Solving Physics Problems
thermal radiation triple point virtual image
24.4: Mirrors
23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum 12.2: Temperature and Temperature Scales
thermodynamic temperature trough viscosity
10.1: Introduction
14.1: Introduction 15.5: Waves
11.2: Flow in Tubes
Thermodynamics tunneling 11.3: Bernoulli’s Equation
12.2: Temperature and Temperature Scales 30.3: Quantum Tunneling and Conservation Laws 11.4: Other Applications
12.6: Phase Changes Turbine visible light
14.1: Introduction
22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law 23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
thermography turbulence voltage
23.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
11.4: Other Applications 17.1: Overview
Thick Lenses turbulent 19.2: Electric Current
24.3: Lenses
11.4: Other Applications
thin lens turbulent flow W
24.3: Lenses warfare
11.1: Overview
thin lens equation 30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics
24.3: Lenses
U watt
Thomson scattering 6.6: Power
29.2: The Early Atom
Ultrasound
15.6: Wave Behavior and Interaction wave
Thoracic Cavity 15.5: Waves
10.2: Density and Pressure
underdamped
15.4: Damped and Driven Oscillations Wave equation
thrust 15.6: Wave Behavior and Interaction
4.3: Newton’s Laws
Uniform Circular Motion
15.3: Periodic Motion wave speed
time dilation 9.9: Linear and Rotational Quantities 15.5: Waves
27.2: Consequences of Special Relativity waveform
27.4: Implications of Special Relativity
uniform motion
4.3: Newton’s Laws 15.1: Introduction
tomography
unit vector wavefront
25.2: Other Optical Instruments
30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics 17.3: Coulomb’s Law 16.5: Further Topics
torque 3.2: Vectors wavelength
10.2: Density and Pressure 15.5: Waves
18.1: Overview V 17.2: Shelding and Charging Through Induction
22.3: Applications of Induction and EM Waves
21.5: Magnetic Fields, Magnetic Forces, and valance shell 23.2: Electromagnetic Waves and their Properties
Conductors
29.5: Multielectron Atoms 26.1: Superposition and Interference
22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law
6.4: Work-Energy Theorem vapor 26.3: Further Topics
7.5: Center of Mass 12.6: Phase Changes weight
8.2: Conditions for Equilibrium vaporization 5.5: Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
8.4: Solving Statics Problems
8.8: Torque and Angular Acceleration
13.6: Phase Equilbrium wettability
9.4: Dynamics vascular 11.3: Bernoulli’s Equation
9.5: Rotational Kinetic Energy 11.1: Overview Wheatstone bridge
9.6: Conservation of Angular Momentum vector 20.4: Voltmeters and Ammeters
9.7: Vector Nature of Rotational Kinematics
9.9: Linear and Rotational Quantities 17.4: The Electric Field Revisited work
18.1: Overview 15.5: Waves
torques 2.1: Basics of Kinematics 18.1: Overview
4.7: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws 3.2: Vectors 6.2: Work Done by a Constant Force
Torr 4.2: Force and Mass 6.3: Work Done by a Variable Force
4.6: Vector Nature of Forces 9.10: Conservation of Energy
10.2: Density and Pressure
5.9: Angular vs. Linear Quantities
tracer 8.1: Introduction
30.4: Applications of Nuclear Physics vector area X
trajectory 22.1: Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law xerography
3.3: Projectile Motion 17.6: Applications of Electrostatics

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Z
zeroth law of thermodynamics
12.7: The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

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 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

12: Temperature and Kinetic Theory

Topic hierarchy
12.1: Introduction
12.2: Temperature and Temperature Scales
12.3: Thermal Expansion
12.4: Ideal Gas Law
12.5: Kinetic Theory
12.6: Phase Changes
12.7: The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
12.8: Thermal Stresses
12.9: Diffusion

This page titled 12: Temperature and Kinetic Theory is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
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1
12.1: Introduction
learning objectives
Describe gas using the kinetic theory of gases

Introduction to Temperature and Kinetic Theory

The kinetic theory of gases describes a gas as a large number of small particles (atoms or molecules), all of which are in constant,
random motion. The rapidly moving particles constantly collide with each other, and with the walls of the container. Kinetic theory
explains macroscopic properties of gases (such as pressure, temperature, and volume) by considering their molecular composition
and motion. Essentially, the theory posits that pressure is due not to static repulsion between molecules (as was Isaac Newton’s
conjecture) but rather due to collisions between molecules moving at different velocities through Brownian motion. Also, the
temperature of an ideal monatomic gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy of its atoms, as illustrated in.

Translational Motion of Helium: Real gases do not always behave according to the ideal model under certain conditions, such as
high pressure. Here, the size of helium atoms relative to their spacing is shown to scale under 1950 atmospheres of pressure.
The kinetic theory of gases uses the model of the ideal gas to relate temperature to the average translational kinetic energy of the
molecules in a container of gas in thermodynamic equilibrium. Classical mechanics defines the translational kinetic energy of a gas
molecule as follows:
1
2
Ek = mv , (12.1.1)
2

where m is the particle mass and v its speed (the magnitude of its velocity). The distribution of the speeds (which determine the
translational kinetic energies) of the particles in a classical ideal gas is called the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. In kinetic
theory, the temperature of a classical ideal gas is related to its average kinetic energy per degree of freedom Ek via the equation:
1
¯
Ek = kT, (12.1.2)
2

(k: Boltzmann’s constant). We will derive this relationship in the following atoms. We will also derive the ideal gas law:

pV = nRT, (12.1.3)

(R: ideal gas constant, n: number of moles of gas) from a microscopic theory.

Atomic Theory of Matter

Atomic theory is a scientific theory of the nature of matter which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms.

learning objectives
Formulate five postulates of John Dalton’s atomic theory

Atomic theory is a scientific theory of the nature of matter which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms, as
opposed to the obsolete notion that matter could be divided into any arbitrarily small quantity. Although physicists discovered that
the so-called “indivisible atom” was actually a conglomerate of various subatomic particles, the concept of atoms is still important
because they are building blocks of matter and form the basis of chemistry.

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 Illustration of the Helium Atom: This is an illustration of the helium atom, depicting the nucleus (pink) and the electron cloud
distribution (black). The nucleus (upper right) in helium-4 is in reality spherically symmetric and closely resembles the electron
cloud, although for more complicated nuclei this is not always the case. The black bar is one angstrom (10-10 m, or 100 pm).

Dalton’s Atomic Hypothesis

Philosophical proposals regarding atoms have been suggested since the years of the ancient Greeks, but John Dalton was the first to
propose a scientific theory of atoms. He based his study on two laws about chemical reactions that emerged (without referring to
the notion of an atomic theory) in the late 18thcentury. The first was the law of conservation of mass, formulated by Antoine
Lavoisier in 1789, which states that the total mass in a chemical reaction remains constant (that is, the reactants have the same mass
as the products). The second was the law of definite proportions, first proven by the French chemist Joseph Louis Proust.
Dalton proposed that each chemical element is composed of atoms of a single, unique type, and though they cannot be altered or
destroyed by chemical means, they can combine to form more complex structures (chemical compounds). This marked the first
truly scientific theory of the atom, since Dalton reached his conclusions by experimentation and examination of the results in an
empirical fashion. For this reason, Dalton is considered the originator of modern atomic theory.

5 Main Points
Dalton’s atomic theory had 5 main points:
1. Elements are made of extremely small particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other properties; atoms of different elements differ in size, mass, and
other properties.
3. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form chemical compounds.
5. In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged.
Of these five, only three are still considered valid today. 1, 4, and 5 are valid, while 2 and 3 have turned out not to be the case.
Atoms can be broken down into smaller pieces, and atoms of a given element can vary in mass and other properties (see isotopes
and ions).
Knowing that a gas is composed of small atomic and molecular particles, it is natural to try to explain properties of the gas from a
microscopic point of view. This effort led to the development of the kinetic theory of gases, where macroscopic properties of gases,
such as pressure, temperature, and volume, are explained by considering their molecular composition and motion.

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John Dalton’s A New System of Chemical Philosophy: Various atoms and molecules as depicted in John Dalton’s A New System
of Chemical Philosophy (1808).

Key Points
The kinetic theory posits that pressure is due to collisions between molecules moving at different velocities through Brownian
motion.
The temperature of an ideal monatomic gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy of its atoms. In kinetic theory, it is related
1
to its average kinetic energy per degree of freedom Ek via the equation: E
¯
k = kT .
2
The kinetic theory of gases uses the model of the ideal gas to relate temperature to the average translational kinetic energy of
the molecules in a container of gas in thermodynamic equilibrium.
John Dalton was the first to propose a scientific theory of atoms. He based his study on two laws: the law of conservation of
mass and the law of definite proportions.
Dalton proposed that each chemical element is composed of atoms of a single, unique type, and though they cannot be altered
or destroyed by chemical means, they can combine to form more complex structures.
Kinetic theory of gases explain macroscopic properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, and volume, by considering
their molecular composition and motion.
While Dalton’s idea of matter being composed of various atoms was correct, he was wrong about some of their properties.
Atoms can be broken down into smaller parts. Atoms of the same element can have slightly different masses and behave
differently. See isotopes and ions for examples.

Key Terms
ideal gas: A hypothetical gas whose molecules exhibit no interaction and undergo elastic collision with each other and with the
walls of the container.
degree of freedom: Any of the coordinates, a minimum number of which are needed to specify the motion of a mechanical
system.
Brownian motion: Random motion of particles suspended in a fluid, arising from those particles being struck by individual
molecules of the fluid.
atom: The smallest possible amount of matter which still retains its identity as a chemical element, now known to consist of a
nucleus surrounded by electrons.
kinetic theory of gases: The kinetic theory of gases describes a gas as a large number of small particles (atoms or molecules),
all of which are in constant, random motion.
chemical reaction: A process, involving the breaking or making of interatomic bonds, in which one or more substances are
changed into others.

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12.2: Temperature and Temperature Scales
learning objectives
Explain how the Celsius scale is defined

Celsius, also known as centigrade, is a scale to measure temperature. The unit of measurement is the degree Celsius (°C). It is one
of the most commonly used temperature units in the world. The unit system is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius
(1701-1744), who developed a similar temperature scale.

AP Physics 2 - Temperature

Temperature Scales: A brief introduction to temperature and temperature scales for students studying thermal physics or
thermodynamics.

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 Thermometer: A thermometer calibrated in degrees Celsius
From 1743 until 1954, 0°C was defined as the freezing point of water, and 100°C was defined as the boiling point of water, both at
a pressure of one standard atmosphere, with mercury as the working material. Although these defining correlations are commonly
taught in schools today, by international agreement the unit “degree Celsius” and the Celsius scale are currently defined by two
different temperatures: absolute zero and the triple point of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW; specially purified
water). This definition also precisely relates the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale, which defines the SI base unit of thermodynamic
temperature and which uses the symbol K. Absolute zero, the lowest temperature possible (the temperature at which matter reaches
minimum entropy), is defined as being precisely 0K and -273.15°C. The temperature of the triple point of water is defined as
precisely 273.16K and 0.01°C. Based on this, the relationship between degree Celsius and Kelvin is as follows:

Phase Diagram of Water: In this typical phase diagram of water, the green lines mark the freezing point, and the blue line marks
the boiling point, showing how they vary with pressure. The dotted line illustrates the anomalous behavior of water. Note that water
changes states based on the pressure and temperature.

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 TCelsius = TKelvin − 273.15. (12.2.1)

Besides expressing specific temperatures along its scale (e.g., “Gallium melts at 29.7646°C” and “The temperature outside is 23
degrees Celsius”), the degree Celsius is also suitable for expressing temperature intervals — differences between temperatures, or
their uncertainties (e.g. “The output of the heat exchanger is hotter by 40 degrees Celsius” and “Our standard uncertainty is ±3°C”).
Because of this dual usage, one must not rely upon the unit name or its symbol to denote that a quantity is a temperature interval; it
must be clear through context or explicit statement that the quantity is an interval.

Farenheit Scale
In the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing of water is defined at 32 degrees, while the boiling point of water is defined to be 212 degrees.

learning objectives
Explain how the Fahrenheit scale is defined and convert between it and Celsius

The Fahrenheit scale measures temperature. It is based on a scale proposed in 1724 by physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686-
1736). The unit of this scale is the degree Fahrenheit (°F). On this scale, water’s freezing point is defined to be 32 degrees, while
water’s boiling point is defined to be 212 degrees.
Historically, the zero point of the Fahrenheit scale was determined by evaluating a thermometer placed in brine. Fahrenheit himself
used a mixture of ice, water, and ammonium chloride (a salt) at a 1:1:1 ratio. This is a frigorific mixture, which stabilizes its
temperature automatically; the stable temperature of this mixture was defined as 0 °F (-17.78 °C). The second determining point,
32 degrees, was a mixture of just ice and water at a 1:1 ratio. The third determining point, 96 degrees, was approximately the
temperature of the human body, then called “blood-heat. ”
The Fahrenheit system puts the boiling and freezing points of water exactly 180 degrees apart. Therefore, a degree on the
Fahrenheit scale is 1/180 of the interval between the freezing point and the boiling point. On the Celsius scale, the freezing and
boiling points of water are 100 degrees apart. A temperature interval of 1 °F is equal to an interval of 5/9 degrees Celsius (°C). To
convert °F to °C, you can use the following formula:
5
TCelsius = (TFahrenheit − 32) (12.2.2)
9

The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales intersect at -40° (-40 °F and -40 °C represent the same temperature). Absolute zero (-273.15 °C,
or 0K) is defined as -459.67 °F.
The Fahrenheit scale was replaced by the Celsius scale in most countries in the mid- to late-20th century, though Canada retains it
as a supplementary scale that can be used alongside the Celsius scale. The Fahrenheit scale remains the official scale of the United
States, the Cayman Islands, Palau, the Bahamas, and Belize.

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 Fig 2: Comparison of Celsius vs Fahrenheit scales.

AP Physics 2 - Temperature

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 Temperature Scales: A brief introduction to temperature and temperature scales for students studying thermal physics or
thermodynamics.

Absolute Zero
Absolute zero is the coldest possible temperature; formally, it is the temperature at which entropy reaches its minimum value.

learning objectives
Explain why absolute zero is a natural choice as the null point for a temperature unit system

Absolute zerois the coldest possible temperature. Formally, it is the temperature at which entropy reaches its minimum value. More
simply put, absolute zero refers to a state in which all the energy of a system is extracted (by definition, the lowest energy state the
system can have). Absolute zero is universal in the sense that all matteris in ground state at this temperature. Therefore, it is a
natural choice as the null point for a temperature unit system.

Graph of Pressure Versus Temperature: Graph of pressure versus temperature for various gases kept at a constant volume. Note
that all of the graphs extrapolate to zero pressure at the same temperature
To be precise, a system at absolute zero still possesses quantum mechanical zero-point energy, the energy of its ground state. The
uncertainty principle states that the position of a particle cannot be determined with absolute precision; therefore a particle is in
motion even if it is at absolute zero, and a ground state still carries a minimal amount of kinetic energy. However, in the
interpretation of classical thermodynamics, kinetic energy can be zero, and the thermal energy of matter vanishes.
The zero point of a thermodynamic temperature scale, such as the Kelvin scale, is set at absolute zero. By international agreement,
absolute zero is defined as 0K on the Kelvin scale and as -273.15° on the Celsius scale (equivalent to -459.67° on the Fahrenheit
scale). Scientists have brought systems to temperatures very close to absolute zero, at which point matter exhibits quantum effects
such as superconductivity and superfluidity. The lowest temperature that has been achieved in the laboratory is in the 100 pK range,
where pK (pico-Kelvin) is equivalent to 10-12 K. The lowest natural temperature ever recorded is approximately 1K, observed in
the rapid expansion of gases leaving the Boomerang Nebula, shown below.

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 Boomerang Nebula: The rapid expansion of gases resulting in the Boomerang Nebula causes the lowest observed temperature
outside a laboratory.

AP Physics 2 - Temperature

Temperature Scales: A brief introduction to temperature and temperature scales for students studying thermal physics or
thermodynamics.

Kelvin Scale
The kelvin is a unit of measurement for temperature; the null point of the Kelvin scale is absolute zero, the lowest possible
temperature.

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 learning objectives
Explain how the Kelvin scale is defined

The kelvin is a unit of measurement for temperature. It is one of the seven base units in the International System of Units (SI) and
is assigned the unit symbol K. The Kelvin scale is an absolute, thermodynamic temperature scale using absolute zero as its null
point. In the classical description of thermodynamics, absolute zero is the temperature at which all thermal motion ceases.
The choice of absolute zero as null point for the Kelvin scale is logical. Different types of matter boil or freeze at different
temperatures, but at 0K (absolute zero), all thermal motions of any matter are maximally suppressed. The Kelvin scale is used
extensively in scientific work because a number of physical quantities, such as the volume of an ideal gas, are directly related to
absolute temperature.
The Kelvin scale is named after Glasgow University engineer and physicist William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824-1907), who
wrote of the need for an “absolute thermometric scale. ” Unlike the degree Fahrenheit and the degree Celsius, the kelvin is not
referred to or typeset as a degree. The kelvin is the primary unit of measurement in the physical sciences, but it is often used in
conjunction with the degree Celsius, which has the same magnitude. The kelvin is defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water (exactly 0.01°C, or 32.018°F). To convert kelvin to degrees Celsius, we use
the following formula:

TCelsius = TKelvin − 273.15 (12.2.3)

Subtracting 273.16K from the temperature of the triple point of water, 0.01°C, makes absolute zero (0K) equivalent to -273.15°C
and -460°F.

Calculating U

Relationships Between the Temperature Scales: Relationships between the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin temperature scales,
rounded to the nearest degree. The relative sizes of the scales are also shown

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 AP Physics 2 - Temperature

Temperature Scales: A brief introduction to temperature and temperature scales for students studying thermal physics or
thermodynamics.

Key Points
The degree Celsius (°C) can refer to a specific temperature on the Celsius scale as well as a unit to indicate a temperature
interval, a difference between two temperatures or an uncertainty.
The Celsius scale is currently defined by two different temperatures: absolute zero and the triple point of Vienna Standard Mean
Ocean Water (VSMOW; specially purified water).
Based on this, the relationship between Celsius and Kelvin is as follows: T =T
Celsius
− 273.15 .
Kelvin

The Fahrenheit system puts the boiling and freezing points of water exactly 180 degrees apart. Therefore, a degree on the
Fahrenheit scale is 1⁄180 of the interval between the freezing point and the boiling point.
5
To convert °F to °C, you can use the following formula: T Celsius = (TFahrenheit − 32) . The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales
9
intersect at −40°.
The Fahrenheit scale was replaced by the Celsius scale in most countries during the mid to late 20th century. Fahrenheit remains
the official scale of the United States, Cayman Islands, Palau, Bahamas and Belize.
Absolute zero is universal in the sense that all matter is in ground state at this temperature. Therefore, it is a natural choice as
the null point for a temperature unit system.
K system at absolute zero still possesses quantum mechanical zero-point energy, the energy of its ground state. However, in the
interpretation of classical thermodynamics, kinetic energy can be zero, and the thermal energy of matter vanishes.
The lowest temperature that has been achieved in the laboratory is in the 100 pK range, where pK (pico- Kelvin ) is equivalent
to 10-12 K. The lowest natural temperature ever recorded is approximately 1K, observed in the rapid expansion of gases leaving

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 the Boomerang Nebula.
0K ( absolute zero ) is universal because all thermal motions of all matter are maximally suppressed at this temperature.
Absolute zero is therefore the natural choice as the null point of the Kelvin scale.
The Kelvin scale is used extensively in scientific work because a number of physical quantities, such as the volume of an ideal
gas, are directly related to absolute temperature.
To convert kelvin to degree Celsius, we use the following formula: T Celsius =TKelvin− 273.15 .

Key Terms
kelvin: in the International System of Units, the base unit of thermodynamic temperature; 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water; symbolized as K
absolute zero: The coldest possible temperature: zero on the Kelvin scale and approximately -273.15°C and -459.67°F. The
total absence of heat; the temperature at which motion of all molecules would cease.
standard atmosphere: an international reference pressure defined as 101.325 kPa and formerly used as a unit of pressure
brine: a solution of salt (usually sodium chloride) in water
frigorific mixture: A mixture of two or more chemicals that reaches an equilibrium temperature independent of the
temperature of any of its constituent chemicals. The temperature is also relatively independent of the quantities of mixtures as
long as a significant amount of each original chemical is present in its pure form
entropy: A measure of how evenly energy (or some analogous property) is distributed in a system.
thermodynamics: a branch of natural science concerned with heat and its relation to energy and work
absolute zero: The coldest possible temperature: zero on the Kelvin scale and approximately -273.15°C and -459.67°F. The
total absence of heat; the temperature at which motion of all molecules would cease.
Triple point: The unique temperature and pressure at which the solid, liquid and gas phases of a substance are all in
equilibrium.
ideal gas: A hypothetical gas whose molecules exhibit no interaction and undergo elastic collision with each other and with the
walls of the container.
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12.3: Thermal Expansion

learning objectives
Describe volume changes that take place in response to a temperature change

Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a change in temperature. (An example of this is the
buckling of railroad track, as seen in. ) Atoms and molecules in a solid, for instance, constantly oscillate around its equilibrium
point. This kind of excitation is called thermal motion. When a substance is heated, its constituent particles begin moving more,
thus maintaining a greater average separation with their neighboring particles. The degree of expansion divided by the change in
temperature is called the material’s coefficient of thermal expansion; it generally varies with temperature.

Fig 1: Thermal expansion of long continuous sections of rail tracks is the driving force for rail buckling. This phenomenon resulted
in 190 train derailments during 1998–2002 in the US alone.

AP Physics 2 - Thermal Expansion

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 Thermal Expansion: A brief introduction to thermal expansion for students.

Expansion, Not Contraction

Why does matter usually expand when heated? The answer can be found in the shape of the typical particle-particle potential in
matter. Particles in solids and liquids constantly feel the presence of other neighboring particles. This interaction can be represented
mathematically as a potential curve. Fig 2 illustrates how this inter-particle potential usually takes an asymmetric form rather than a
symmetric form, as a function of particle-particle distance. Note that the potential curve is steeper for shorter distance. In the
diagram, (b) shows that as the substance is heated, the equilibrium (or average) particle-particle distance increases. Materials which
contract or maintain their shape with increasing temperature are rare. This effect is limited in size, and only occurs within limited
temperature ranges.

Fig 2: Typical inter-particle potential in condensed matter (such as solid or liquid).

Linear Expansion
To a first approximation, the change in length measurements of an object (lineardimension as opposed to, for example, volumetric
dimension) due to thermal expansion is related to temperature change by a linear expansion coefficient. It is the fractional change
in length per degree of temperature change. Assuming negligible effect of pressure, we may write:
1 dL
αL = , (12.3.1)
L dT

where L is a particular length measurement and is the rate of change of that linear dimension per unit change in temperature.
dL

dT

From the definition of the expansion coefficient, the change in the linear dimension ΔL over a temperature range ΔT can be
estimated to be:
ΔL
= αL ΔT. (12.3.2)
L

This equation works well as long as the linear-expansion coefficient does not change much over the change in temperature. If it
does, the equation must be integrated.

Area Expansion
Objects expand in all dimensions. That is, their areas and volumes, as well as their lengths, increase with temperature.

learning objectives
Express the area thermal expansion coefficient in the form of an equation

We learned about the linear expansion (in one dimension) in the previous Atom. Objects expand in all dimensions, and we can
extend the thermal expansion for 1D to two (or three) dimensions. That is, their areas and volumes, as well as their lengths,
increase with temperature.

Quiz
Before we look into details, here is an interesting question. Imagine that we have a rectangular sheet of metal with a circular hole in
the middle. If the metal is heated, we can guess that the the piece, in general, will get larger due to thermal expansion. Now, what is
going to happen with the circular hole in the middle? Is the hole going to be larger or smaller? Answer: Imagine that we have a

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similar metal sheet but without a hole. Draw an imaginary circular line representing the circular hole in our quiz. How does this
imaginary circle change as the metal is heated? Yes. It will get bigger. Therefore, you can guess that the hole in our quiz will get
larger.

Fig 1: In general, objects expand in all directions as temperature increases. In these drawings, the original boundaries of the objects
are shown with solid lines, and the expanded boundaries with dashed lines. (a) Area increases because both length and width
increase. The area of a circular plug also increases. (b) If the plug is removed, the hole it leaves becomes larger with increasing
temperature, just as if the expanding plug were still in place.

Area thermal expansion coefficient

The area thermal expansion coefficient relates the change in a material’s area dimensions to a change in temperature. It is the
1 dA
fractional change in area per degree of temperature change. Ignoring pressure, we may write: α A = , where is some area of
A dT

interest on the object, and dA

dT
is the rate of change of that area per unit change in temperature. The change in the linear dimension
can be estimated as: ΔA

A
= α ΔT . This equation works well as long as the linear expansion coefficient does not change much
A

over the change in temperature ΔT. If it does, the equation must be integrated.

Relationship to linear thermal expansion coefficient

For isotropic materials, and for small expansions, the linear thermal expansion coefficient is one half of the area coefficient. To
derive the relationship, let’s take a square of steel that has sides of length L. The original area will be A = L ,and the new area,
2

after a temperature increase, will be

2
A + ΔA = (L + ΔL) (12.3.3)
2 2
=L + 2LΔL + (ΔL) (12.3.4)
2
≈L + 2LΔL (12.3.5)

ΔL
= A + 2A (12.3.6)
L

ΔA ΔL
The approximation holds for a sufficiently small ΔL campared to L. Since =2 from the equation above (and from the
A L
definitions of the thermal coefficients), we get α
A
= 2αL .

Volume Expansion
Substances expand or contract when their temperature changes, with expansion or contraction occurring in all directions.

learning objectives
Compare the effects of the pressure on the expansion of gaseous and solid materials

The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is the most basic thermal expansion coefficient. illustrates that, in general, substances
expand or contract when their temperature changes, with expansion or contraction occurring in all directions. Such substances that
expand in all directions are called isotropic. For isotropic materials, the area and linear coefficients may be calculated from the
volumetric coefficient (discussed below).

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 Volumetric Expansion: In general, objects expand in all directions as temperature increases. In these drawings, the original
boundaries of the objects are shown with solid lines, and the expanded boundaries with dashed lines. (a) Area increases because
both length and width increase. The area of a circular plug also increases. (b) If the plug is removed, the hole it leaves becomes
larger with increasing temperature, just as if the expanding plug were still in place. (c) Volume also increases, because all three
dimensions increase.

AP Physics 2 - Thermal Expansion

Thermal Expansion – Volume Expansion: A brief introduction to thermal expansion for students.
Mathematical definitions of these coefficients are defined below for solids, liquids, and gasses:
1 ∂V
αV = ( )p. (12.3.7)
V ∂T

The subscript p indicates that the pressure is held constant during the expansion. In the case of a gas, the fact that the pressure is
held constant is important, as the volume of a gas will vary appreciably with pressure as well as with temperature.
For a solid, we can ignore the effects of pressure on the material, thus the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient can be written:

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 1 dV
αV = , (12.3.8)
V dT

where V is the volume of the material, and is dV/dT the rate of change of that volume with temperature. This means that the
volume of a material changes by some fixed fractional amount. For example, a steel block with a volume of 1 cubic meter might
expand to 1.002 cubic meters when the temperature is raised by 50 °C. This is an expansion of 0.2%. The volumetric expansion
coefficient would be 0.2% for 50 °C, or 0.004% per degree C.

Relationship to Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient

For isotropic material, and for small expansions, the linear thermal expansion coefficient is one third the volumetric coefficient. To
derive the relationship, let’s take a cube of steel that has sides of length L. The original volume will be V = L ,and the new
3

volume, after a temperature increase, will be:

3
V + ΔV = (L + ΔL) (12.3.9)

3 2 2 3
=L + 3 L ΔL + 3L(ΔL) + (ΔL) (12.3.10)

3 2
≈L + 3 L ΔL (12.3.11)

ΔL
= V + 3V . (12.3.12)
L

The approximation holds for a sufficiently small ΔL compared to L. Since:

ΔV ΔL
=3 (12.3.13)
V L

(and from the definitions of the thermal coefficients), we arrive at:

αV = 3 αL (12.3.14)

Special Properties of Water

Objects will expand with increasing temperature, but water is the most important exception to the general rule.

learning objectives
Describe thermal expansion properties of water

Special Properties of Water

In general, objects will expand with increasing temperature. However, a number of materials contract on heating within certain
temperature ranges; this is usually called negative thermal expansion, rather than “thermal contraction. ” Water is the most
important exception to the general rule. Water has this unique characteristic because of the particular nature of the hydrogen bond
in H2O.

Density of Water as Temperature Changes

At temperatures greater than 4ºC (40ºF) water expands with increasing temperature (its density decreases). However, it expands
with decreasing temperature when it is between +4ºC and 0ºC (40ºF to 32ºF). Water is densest at +4ºC.

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 Water Density vs. Temperature: The density of water as a function of temperature. Note that the thermal expansion is actually
very small. The maximum density at +4ºC is only 0.0075% greater than the density at 2ºC, and 0.012% greater than that at 0ºC.
Perhaps the most striking effect of this phenomenon is the freezing of water in a pond. When water near the surface cools down to
4ºC it is denser than the remaining water and thus will sink to the bottom. This “turnover” results in a layer of warmer water near
the surface, which is then cooled. Eventually the pond has a uniform temperature of 4ºC. If the temperature in the surface layer
drops below 4ºC, the water is less dense than the water below, and thus stays near the top.
As a result, the pond surface can completely freeze over, while the bottom may remain at 4ºC. The ice on top of liquid water
provides an insulating layer from winter’s harsh exterior air temperatures. Fish and other aquatic life can survive in 4ºC water
beneath ice, due to this unusual characteristic of water. It also produces circulation of water in the pond that is necessary for a
healthy ecosystem of the body of water.

Temperature in a Lake: Temperature distribution in a lake on warm and cold days in winter

Ice Versus Water

The solid form of most substances is denser than the liquid phase; thus, a block of most solids will sink in the liquid. However, a
block of ice floats in liquid water because ice is less dense. Upon freezing, the density of water decreases by about 9%.

Key Points
Inter-particle potential usually takes an asymmetric form, rather than a symmetric form as a function of particle-particle
distance. This is why matters expands and contracts as temperature changes.
The change in length measurements of an object due to thermal expansion is related to temperature change by a “linear
1 dL
expansion coefficient”, which is given as α L = .
L dT
The linear expansion coefficient is as an approximation over a narrow temperature interval only.
The area thermal expansion coefficient relates the change in a material’s area dimensions to a change in temperature. It is
1 dA
defined as α A = .
A dT
The relationship between the area and linear thermal expansion coefficient is given as the following: α = 2α .
A L

Just like the linear expansion coefficient, the area thermal expansion coefficient works as an approximation over a narrow
temperature interval only.
Substances that expand at the same rate in every direction are called isotropic.
In the case of a gas, expansion depends on how the pressure changed in the process because the volume of a gas will vary
appreciably with pressure as well as temperature.
For a solid, we can ignore the effects of pressure on the material, and the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient can be
1 dV
written as αV = . For isotropic materials, αV = 3 αL .
V dT
Water expands with increasing temperature (its density decreases) when it is at temperatures greater than 4ºC (40ºF). However,
it expands with decreasing temperature when it is between +4ºC and 0ºC (40ºF to 32ºF). Water is densest at +4ºC.
Due to the peculiar thermal expansion property of water, a pond surface can completely freeze over, while the bottom may
remain at 4ºC. Fish and other aquatic life can survive in 4ºC water beneath ice, due to this unusual characteristic of water.
The solid form of most substances is denser than the liquid phase; thus, a block of most solids will sink in the liquid. However,
a block of ice floats in liquid water because ice is less dense.

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Key Terms
potential: A curve describing the situation where the difference in the potential energies of an object in two different positions
depends only on those positions.
linear thermal expansion coefficient: The fractional change in length per degree of temperature change.
isotropic: Having properties that are identical in all directions; exhibiting isotropy.
hydrogen bond: A weak bond in which a hydrogen atom in one molecule is attracted to an electronegative atom (usually
nitrogen or oxygen) in the same or different molecule.
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12.4: Ideal Gas Law
learning objectives
Describe how ideal gas law was derived.

The ideal gas law is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas (an illustration is offered in ). In an ideal gas, there is no
molecule-molecule interaction, and only elastic collisions are allowed. It is a good approximation to the behavior of many gases
under many conditions, although it has several limitations. It was first stated by Émile Clapeyron in 1834 as a combination of
Boyle’s law and Charles’ law.

Atoms and Modules in a Gas: Atoms and molecules in a gas are typically widely separated, as shown. Because the forces
between them are quite weak at these distances, they are often described by the ideal gas law.

Empirical Derivation
Boyle’s law states that pressure P and volume V of a given mass of confined gas are inversely proportional:
1
P ∝ , (12.4.1)
V

while Charles’ law states that volume of a gas is proportional to the absolute temperature T of the gas at constant pressure

V ∝ T. (12.4.2)

By combining the two laws, we get

PV
= C, (12.4.3)
T

where C is a constant which is directly proportional to the amount of gas, n (representing the number of moles).
The proportionality factor is the universal gas constant, R, i.e. C = nR .
Hence the ideal gas law
PV = nRT (12.4.4)

Equivalently, it can be written as PV = NkT ,

where k is Boltzmann’s constant and N is the number of molecules.
(Since N = nNA, you can see that R = N Ak , where NA is Avogadro’s number. )
Note that the empirical derivation does not consider microscopic details. However, the equation can be derived from first principles
in the classical thermodynamics (which goes beyond the scope of this Atom ).

Microscopic version
We have seen in the Atom on “Origin of Pressure” that
¯
Nmv2
P = , (12.4.5)
3V

where P is the pressure, N is the number of molecules, m is the mass of the molecule, v is the speed of molecules, and V is the
volume of the gas. Therefore, we derive a microscopic version of the ideal gas law

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 1 ¯2
PV = Nmv (12.4.6)
3

Isotherms
An isothermal process is a change of a system in which the temperature remains constant: ΔT = 0 .

learning objectives
Identify conditions at which isothermal processes can occur.

An isothermal process is a change of a system in which the temperature remains constant: ΔT = 0. Typically this occurs when a
system is in contact with an outside thermal reservoir (heat bath), and the change occurs slowly enough to allow the system to
adjust continually to the temperature of the reservoir through heat exchange. In contrast, an adiabatic process occurs when a system
exchanges no heat with its surroundings (Q = 0). In other words, in an isothermal process, the value ΔT = 0 but Q ≠ 0, while in an
adiabatic process, ΔT ≠ 0 but Q = 0.
For an ideal gas, the product PV (P: pressure, V: volume) is a constant if the gas is kept at isothermal conditions (Boyle’s law).
According to the ideal gas law, the value of the constant is NkT, where N is the number of molecules of gas and k is Boltzmann’s
constant.
This means that p = NkT

V
=
Constant

V
holds.
The family of curves generated by this equation is shown in the graph presented in. Each curve is called an isotherm. Such graphs
are termed indicator diagrams—first used by James Watt and others to monitor the efficiency of engines. The temperature
corresponding to each curve in the figure increases from the lower left to the upper right.

Isotherms of an Ideal Gas: Several isotherms of an ideal gas on a PV diagram.

Calculation of Work
In thermodynamics, the work involved when a gas changes from state A to state B is simply:
VB

WA→B = ∫ PdV. (12.4.7)

VA

(This equation is derived in our Atom on “Constant Pressure” under kinetic theory. Note that P = F

A
. This definition is consistent
with our definition of work being force times distance. )
For an isothermal, reversible process, this integral equals the area under the relevant pressure-volume isotherm, and is indicated in
blue in for an ideal gas. Again, P = applies and with T being constant (as this is an isothermal process), we have:
nRT

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 Work Done by Gas During Expansion: The blue area represents “work” done by the gas during expansion for this isothermal
change.
VB VB
NkT
WA→B = ∫ pdV = ∫ dV (12.4.8)
VA VA
V

VB
= NkT ln . (12.4.9)
VA

By convention, work is defined as the work the system does on its environment. If, for example, the system expands by a piston
moving in the direction of force applied by the internal pressure of a gas, then the work is counted as positive. As this work is done
by using internal energy of the system, the result is that the internal energy decreases. Conversely, if the environment does work on
the system so that its internal energy increases, the work is counted as negative (for details on internal energy, check our Atom on
“Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas”).

Constant Pressure
Isobaric processis a thermodynamic process in which the pressure stays constant (at constant pressure, work done by a gas is
PΔV).

learning objectives
Describe behavior of monatomic gas during isobaric processes.

Under a certain constraint (e.g., pressure), gases can expand or contract; depending on the type of constraint, the final state of the
gas may change. For example, an ideal gas that expands while its temperature is kept constant (called isothermal process) will exist
in a different state than a gas that expands while pressure stays constant (called isobaric process). This Atom addresses isobaric
process and correlated terms. We will discuss isothermal process in a subsequent Atom.

Isobaric Process
An isobaric process is a thermodynamic process in which pressure stays constant: ΔP = 0 . For an ideal gas, this means the volume
of a gas is proportional to its temperature (historically, this is called Charles’ law ). Let’s consider a case in which a gas does work
on a piston at constant pressure P, referring to Fig 1 as illustration. Since the pressure is constant, the force exerted is constant and
the work done is given as W=Fd, where F (=PA) is the force on the piston applied by the pressure and d is the displacement of the
piston. Therefore, the work done by the gas (W) is:
W = PAd (12.4.10)

Because the change in volume of a cylinder is its cross-sectional area A times the displacement d, we see that Ad=ΔV, the change
in volume. Thus,
W = PΔV (12.4.11)

(as seen in Fig 2—isobaric process ). Note: if ΔV is positive, then W is positive, meaning that work is done by the gas on the
outside world. Using the ideal gas law PV = NkT(P = const) ,

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 Fig 2: A graph of pressure versus volume for a constant-pressure, or isobaric process. The area under the curve equals the work
done by the gas, since W=PΔV.
W = NkΔT (12.4.12)

(Eq. 1) for an ideal gas undergoing an isobaric process.

Monatomic Gas
According to the first law of thermodynamics,
Q = ΔU + W (12.4.13)

(Eq. 2), where W is work done by the system, U is internal energy, and Q is heat. The law says that the heat transferred to the
system does work but also changes the internal energy of the system. Since,
U =
3

2
NkT for a monatomic gas, we get ΔU = 3

2
NkΔT

(Eq. 3; for the details on internal energy, see our Atom on “Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas”). By using the Equations 1 and 3, Eq. 2
can be written as:
Q=
5

2
NkΔT for monatomic gas in an isobaric process.

Specific Heat
Specific heat at constant pressure is defined by the following equation:
Q = ncPΔT

Here n is the amount of particles in a gas represented in moles. By noting that N = N An and R = kN (NA: Avogadro’s number,
A

R: universal gas constant), we derive:

cP =
5

2
kNA =
5

2
R for a monatomic gas.

Problem Solving
With the ideal gas law we can figure pressure, volume or temperature, and the number of moles of gases under ideal
thermodynamic conditions.

learning objectives
Identify steps used to solve the ideal gas equation.

The Ideal Gas Law is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas. It is a good approximation to the behavior of many gases
under many conditions, although it has several limitations. It is most accurate for monatomic gases at high temperatures and low
pressures.
The ideal gas law has the form:
PV = nRT, (12.4.14)

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where R is the universal gas constant, and with it we can find values of the pressure P, volume V, temperature T, or number of
moles n under a certain ideal thermodynamic condition. Typically, you are given enough parameters to calculate the unknown.
Variations of the ideal gas equation may help solving the problem easily. Here are some general tips.
The ideal gas law can also come in the form:

PV = NkT, (12.4.15)

where N is the number of particles in the gas and k is the Boltzmann constant.
To solve the ideal gas equation:
1. Write down all the information that you know about the gas.
2. If necessary, convert the known values to SI units.
3. Choose a relevant gas law equation that will allow you to calculate the unknown variable.
4. Substitute the known values into the equation. Calculate the unknown variable.
Remember that the general gas equation only applies if the molar quantity of the gas is fixed. For example, if a gas is mixed with
another gas, you may have to apply the equation separately for individual gases.

Example
Let’s imagine that at the beginning of a journey a truck tire has a volume of 30,000 cm3 and an internal pressure of 170 kPa. The
temperature of the tire is 16∘C. By the end of the trip, the volume of the tire has increased to 32,000 cm3 and the temperature of the
air inside the tire is 40∘C. What is the tire pressure at the end of the journey?

Tire Pressure: Tire pressure may change significantly during the operation of the vehicle. This is mostly due to the temperature
change of the air in tires.
Solution:
Step 1. Write down all the information that you know about the gas: P1= 170 kPa and P2 is unknown. V1 = 30,000 cm3 and V2 =
32,000 cm3. T1 = 16∘C and T2 = 40∘C.
Step 2. Convert the known values to SI units if necessary: Here, temperature must be converted into Kelvin. Therefore, T1 = 16 +
273 = 289 K, T2 = 40 + 273 = 313 K
Step 3. Choose a relevant gas law equation that will allow you to calculate the unknown variable: We can use the general gas
P1 V1 P2 V2
equation to solve this problem: =
T1
. T2

P1 ×V1 ×T2
Therefore, P 2 =
T1 ×V2
.

Step 4. Substitute the known values into the equation. Calculate the unknown variable:

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 170 × 30, 000 × 313
P2 = = 173 kPa (12.4.16)
289 × 32, 000

The pressure of the tire at the end of the journey is 173 kPa.
Note that in Step 2 we did not bother to convert the volume values to m3. In Step 4, pressure appears both in the numerator and
denominator. In this case the conversion was not necessary.

Avogador’s Number
The number of molecules in a mole is called Avogadro’s number (NA)—defined as 6.02x 1023 mol-1.

learning objectives
Explain relationship between Avogadro’s number and mole.

When measuring the amount of substance, it is sometimes easier to work with a unit other than the number of molecules. A mole
(abbreviated mol) is a base unit in the International System of Units (SI). It is defined as any substance containing as many atoms
or molecules as there are in exactly 12 grams (0.012 kg) of carbon-12. The actual number of atoms or molecules in one mole is
called Avogadro’s constant (NA), in recognition of Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro.

Amadeo Avogadro: Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856). He established the relationship between the masses of the same volume of
different gases (at the same temperature and pressure) corresponds to the relationship between their respective molecular weights.
Avogadro’s number (N) refers to the number of molecules in one gram-molecule of oxygen. This indicates an amount of substance
as opposed to an independent dimension of measurement. In 1811 Amedeo Avogadro first proposed that the volume of a gas (at a
given pressure and temperature) is proportional to the number of atoms or molecules, regardless of the nature of the gas (i.e., this
number is universal and independent of the type of gas). In 1926, Jean Perrin won the Nobel Prize in Physics, largely for his work
in determining the Avogadro constant (by several different methods). The value of Avogadro’s constant, NA , has been found to
equal 6.02×1023mol−1.

Role in Science
Avogadro’s constant is a scaling factor between macroscopic and microscopic (atomic scale) observations of nature. As such, it
provides the relation between other physical constants and properties. For example, it establishes a relationship between the gas
constant R and the Boltzmann constant k,

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 −1 −1
R = kNA = 8.314472(15)J mo l K ; (12.4.17)

and the Faraday constant F and the elementary charge e,

−1
F = NA e = 96485.3383(83)C mo l . (12.4.18)

Measuring NA
The determination of NA is crucial to the calculation of an atom’s mass, since the latter is obtained by dividing the mass of a mole
of the gas by Avogadro’s constant. In his study on Brownian motion in 1905, Albert Einstein proposed that this constant could be
determined based on the quantities observable in Brownian motion. Subsequently, Einstein’s idea was verified, leading to the first
determination of NA in 1908 through the experimental work of Jean Baptiste Perrin.

Absolute Temperature
Absolute temperature is the most commoly used thermodyanmic temperature unit and is the standard unit of temperature.

learning objectives
Describe relationship between absolute temperature and kinetic energy.

Thermodynamic temperature is the absolute measure of temperature. It is one of the principal parameters of thermodynamics and
kinetic theory of gases. Thermodynamic temperature is an “absolute” scale because it is the measure of the fundamental property
underlying temperature: its null or zero point (“absolute zero”) is the temperature at which the particle constituents of matter have
minimal motion and cannot become any colder. That is, they have minimal motion, retaining only quantum mechanical motion, as
diagramed in.

Graph of Pressure Versus Temperature: Graph of pressure versus temperature for various gases kept at a constant volume. Note
that all of the graphs extrapolate to zero pressure at the same temperature
At its simplest, “temperature” arises from the kinetic energy of the random motions of matter’s particle constituents such as
molecules or atoms, as seen in. Therefore, it is reasonable to choose absolute zero, where all classical motion ceases, as the
reference point (T=0) of our temperature system. By using the absolute temperature scale (Kelvin system), which is the most
commonly used thermodynamic temperature, we have shown that the average translational kinetic energy (KE) of a particle in a
gas has a simple relationship to the temperature:

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Translational Motion of Helium: Real gases do not always behave according to the ideal model under certain conditions, such as
high pressure. Here, the size of helium atoms relative to their spacing is shown to scale under 1950 atmospheres of pressure.
3
¯
KE = kT. (12.4.19)
2

Note that this equation would not look this elegant if the Fahrenheit scale were used instead.

The Kelvin scale

The kelvin (or “absolute temperature”) is the standard thermodyanmic temperature unit. It is one of the seven base units in the
International System of Units (SI) and is assigned the unit symbol K. By international agreement, the unit kelvin and its scale are
defined by two points: absolute zero and the triple point of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (water with a specified blend of
hydrogen and oxygen isotopes). Absolute zero, the lowest possible temperature, is defined precisely as 0 K and −273.15 °C. The
triple point of water is defined precisely as 273.16 K and 0.01 °C.

Key Points
Ideal gas law was derived empirically by combining Boyle’s law and Charles’ law.
Although the empirical derivation of the equation does not consider microscopic details, the ideal gas law can be derived from
first principles in the classical thermodynamics.
Pressure and volume of a gas can be related to the average velocity of molecues: PV = Nmv¯ .1

3
2

Isothermal processes typically occur when a system is in contact with an outside thermal reservoir ( heat bath), and the change
occurs slowly enough to allow the system to adjust continually to the temperature of the reservoir through heat exchange.
For an ideal gas, from the ideal gas law PV = NkT, PV remains constant through an isothermal process. A curve in a P-V
diagram generated by the equation PV = const is called an isotherm.
For an isothermal, reversible process, the work done by the gas is equal to the area under the relevant pressure -volume
VB
isotherm. It is given as W → B = NkT ln
A
VA
.
Gases can expand or contract under a certain constraint. Depending on the constraint, the final state of the gas may change.
The heat transferred to the system does work but also changes the internal energy of the system. In an isobaric process for a
monatomic gas, heat and the temperature change satisfy the following equation: Q = NkΔT .
5

For a monatomic ideal gas, specific heat at constant pressure is R.

5

Write down all the information that you know about the gas and convert the known values to SI units if necessary.
Choose a relevant gas law equation that will allow you to calculate the unknown variable, and substitute the known values into
the equation. Then calculate the unknown variable.
The general gas equation only applies if the molar quantity of the gas is fixed.
Avogadro hypothesized that equal volumes of gas, at the same pressure and temperature, contain equal numbers of molecules,
regardless of the type of gas.
Avogadro’s constant is a scaling factor between macroscopic and microscopic (atomic scale) observations of nature. It provides
the relation between other physical constants and properties.
Albert Einstein proposed that Avogadro’s number could be determined based on the quantities observable in Brownian motion.
NA was measured for the first time by Jean Baptiste Perrin in 1908.
Temperature arises from the kinetic energy of the random motions of matter ‘s particle constituents such as molecules or atoms.
Therefore, it is reasonable to choose absolute zero, where all classical motion ceases, as the reference point.

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 By international agreement, the unit kelvin and its scale are defined by two points: absolute zero and the triple point of the
standardized water.
At absolute zero, the particle constituents of matter have minimal motion and cannot become any colder. They retain minimal,
quantum mechanical motion.

Key Terms
mole: In the International System of Units, the base unit of amount of substance; the amount of substance of a system which
contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon-12. Symbol: mol.
ideal gas: A hypothetical gas whose molecules exhibit no interaction and undergo elastic collision with each other and with the
walls of the container.
Avogadro’s number: the number of constituent particles (usually atoms or molecules) in one mole of a given substance. It has
dimensions of reciprocal mol and its value is equal to 6.02214129·1023 mol-1
adiabatic: Occurring without gain or loss of heat.
internal energy: The sum of all energy present in the system, including kinetic and potential energy; equivalently, the energy
needed to create a system, excluding the energy necessary to displace its surroundings.
the first law of thermodynamics: A version of the law of energy conservation: the change in the internal energy of a closed
system is equal to the amount of heat supplied to the system, minus the amount of work done by the system on its surroundings.
specific heat: The ratio of the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a unit mass of substance by a unit degree to the
amount of heat needed to raise that of the same mass of water by the same amount.
SI units: International System of Units (abbreviated SI from French: Le Système international d’unités). It is the modern form
of the metric system.
gas constant: A universal constant, R, that appears in the ideal gas law, (PV = nRT), derived from two fundamental constants,
the Boltzman constant and Avogadro’s number, (R = NAk).
Faraday constant: The magnitude of electric charge per mole of electrons.
Brownian motion: Random motion of particles suspended in a fluid, arising from those particles being struck by individual
molecules of the fluid.
absolute zero: The coldest possible temperature: zero on the Kelvin scale and approximately -273.15°C and -459.67°F. The
total absence of heat; the temperature at which motion of all molecules would cease.
International System of Units: (SI): The standard set of basic units of measurement used in scientific literature worldwide.
Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water: A standard defining a standardized isotopic composition of water.
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12.5: Kinetic Theory
learning objectives
Express the relationship between the pressure and the average kinetic energy of gas molecules in the form of equation

In Newtonian mechanics, if pressure is the force divided by the area on which the force is exerted, then what is the origin of
pressure in a gas? What forces create the pressure? We can gain a better understanding of pressure (and temperature as well) from
the kinetic theory of gases, which assumes that atoms and molecules are in continuous random motion.

Microscopic Origin of Pressure

Pressure is explained by kinetic theory as arising from the force exerted by molecules or atoms impacting on the walls of a
container, as illustrated in the figure below. Consider a gas of N molecules, each of mass m, enclosed in a cubical container of
volume V=L3. When a gas molecule collides with the wall of the container perpendicular to the x coordinate axis and bounces off
in the opposite direction with the same speed (an elastic collision), then the momentum lost by the particle and gained by the wall (
Δp) is:

Translational Motion of Helium: Real gases do not always behave according to the ideal model under certain conditions, such as
high pressure. Here, the size of helium atoms relative to their spacing is shown to scale under 1950 atmospheres of pressure.
Δp = pi,x − pf ,x = pi,x − (−pi,x ) (12.5.1)

= 2 pi,x = 2mvx (12.5.2)

where vx is the x-component of the initial velocity of the particle.

The particle impacts one specific side wall once every Δt = 2L

vx
,

(where L is the distance between opposite walls). The force due to this particle is:
2
Δp mvx
F = = . (12.5.3)
Δt L

The total force on the wall, therefore, is:

¯2
Nmvx
F = (12.5.4)
L

where the bar denotes an average over the N particles. Since the assumption is that the particles move in random directions, if we
divide the velocity vectors of all particles in three mutually perpendicular directions, the average value of the squared velocity
along each direction must be same. (This does not mean that each particle always travel in 45 degrees to the coordinate axes. )

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 Pressure: Pressure arises from the force exerted by molecules or atoms impacting on the walls of a container.
¯2 ¯2
This gives v¯
2
x =
v

3
. We can rewrite the force as F = Nmv

3L
.
This force is exerted on an area L2. Therefore the pressure of the gas is:
¯2 ¯2
F Nmv nmv
P = = = , (12.5.5)
2
L 3V 3

where V=L3 is the volume of the box. The fraction n=N/V is the number density of the gas. This is a first non-trivial result of the
kinetic theory because it relates pressure (a macroscopic property) to the average (translational) kinetic energy per molecule which
is a microscopic property.

Speed Distribution of Molecules

A gas of many molecules has a predictable distribution of molecular speeds, known as the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.

learning objectives
Describe the shape and temperature dependence of the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve

The motion of molecules in a gas is random in magnitude and direction for individual molecules, but a gas of many molecules has a
predictable distribution of molecular speeds, known as the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution (illustrated in ). The distribution has a
long tail because some molecules may go several times the rms speed. The most probable speed vp (at the peak of the curve) is less
than the rms speed vrms. As shown in, the curve is shifted to higher speeds at higher temperatures, with a broader range of speeds.

Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution at Higher Temperatures: The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution is shifted to higher speeds and
is broadened at higher temperatures.

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 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution: The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of molecular speeds in an ideal gas. The most likely
speed v_p is less than the rms speed v_rms. Although very high speeds are possible, only a tiny fraction of the molecules have
speeds that are an order of magnitude greater than v_rms.

Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution is a probability distribution. It applies to ideal gases close to thermodynamic equilibrium, and is
given as the following equation:
2 2 2
m m(vx + vy + vz )
3/2
fv (vx , vy , vz ) = ( ) exp[− ], (12.5.6)
2πkT 2kT

where fv is the velocity probability density function. (Derivation of the formula goes beyond the scope of introductory physics. )
The formula calculates the probability of finding a particle with velocity in the infinitesimal element [dvx, dvy, dvz] about velocity v
= [vx, vy, vz] is:
fv (vx , vy , vz )dvx dvy dvz . (12.5.7)

It can also be shown that the Maxwell–Boltzmann velocity distribution for the vector velocity [vx, vy, vz] is the product of the
distributions for each of the three directions:

fv (vx , vy , vz ) = fv (vx )fv (vy )fv (vz ) (12.5.8)

where the distribution for a single direction is,

−−−−− 2
m −mv
i
fv (vi ) = √ exp[ ]. (12.5.9)
2πkT 2kT

This makes sense because particles are moving randomly, meaning that each component of the velocity should be independent.

Distribution for the Speed

Usually, we are more interested in the speeds of molecules rather than their component velocities. The Maxwell–Boltzmann
distribution for the speed follows immediately from the distribution of the velocity vector, above. Note that the speed is:
−−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2
v = √ vx + vy + vz (12.5.10)

and the increment of volume is:

2
dvx dvy dvz = v sin ϕ dv dθ dϕ, (12.5.11)

where θ and ϕ are the “course” (azimuth of the velocity vector) and “path angle” (elevation angle of the velocity vector).
Integration of the normal probability density function of the velocity, above, over the course (from 0 to 2π) and path angle (from 0
to π), with substitution of the speed for the sum of the squares of the vector components, yields the following probability density
function (known simply as the Maxwell distribution):
−−−−−− 2

f (v) = √(
m

2πkT
3 2
) 4π v exp(
−mv

2kT
) for speed v.

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Temperature
Temperature is directly proportional to the average translational kinetic energy of molecules in an ideal gas.

learning objectives
Describe relationship between temperature and energy of molecules in an ideal gas

Intuitively, hotter air suggests faster movement of air molecules. In this atom, we will derive an equation relating the temperature
of a gas (a macroscopic quantity) to the average kinetic energy of individual molecules (a microscopic quantity). This is a basic and
extremely important relationship in the kinetic theory of gases.

Microscopic View
We assume that a molecule is small compared with the separation of molecules in the gas (confined in a three dimensional
container), and that its interaction with other molecules can be ignored. Also, we assume elastic collisions when molecules hit the
wall of the container, as illustrated in.

Elastic Collisions When Molecules Hit the Wall of the Container: Gas in a box exerts an outward pressure on its walls. A
molecule colliding with a rigid wall has the direction of its velocity and momentum in the x-direction reversed. This direction is
perpendicular to the wall. The components of its velocity momentum in the y- and z-directions are not changed, which means there
is no force parallel to the wall.
We have seen in the Atom on “Origin of Pressure ” that, for an ideal gas under our assumptions:
¯2
Nmv
P = , (12.5.12)
3V

where P is the pressure, N is the number of molecules, m is the mass of the molecule, v is the speed of molecules, and V is the
volume of the gas. From the equation, we get:
1 ¯2
PV = Nmv (Eq. 1). (12.5.13)
3

What can we learn from this atomic and molecular version of the ideal gas law ? We can derive a relationship between temperature
and the average translational kinetic energy of molecules in a gas. Recall the macroscopic expression of the ideal gas law:

PV = NkT (Eq. 2), (12.5.14)

where N is the number of molecules, T is the temperature of the gas, and k is the Boltzmann constant.
Equating the right hand sides of the macroscopic and microscopic versions of the ideal gas law (Eq. 1 & 2) gives:
1 ¯2
mv = kT. (12.5.15)
3

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Thermal Energy
Note that the average kinetic energy (KE) of a molecule in the gas is:
1 ¯2
mv . (12.5.16)
2

Therefore, we derive the relation between average KE and temperature as follows:

1 ¯2 3
¯ =
KE mv = kT, (Eq. 3). (12.5.17)
2 2

The average translational kinetic energy of a molecule is called thermal energy.

RMS Speed
Eq. 3 is a molecular interpretation of temperature. It has been found to be valid for gases and reasonably accurate in liquids and
solids. It is another definition of temperature based on an expression of the molecular energy. It is sometimes useful to know the
average speed of molecules in a gas in terms of temperature:
−−−−
¯2 3kT
v = vrms = √ , (12.5.18)
m

where vrms stands for root-mean-square (rms) speed.

Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas

Internal energy is the total energy contained by a thermodynamic system, and has two major components: kinetic energy and
potential energy.

learning objectives
Determine the number of degrees of freedom and calculate the internal energy for an ideal gas molecule

In thermodynamics, internal energy is the total energy contained by a thermodynamic system. Internal energy has two major
components: kinetic energy and potential energy. The kinetic energy is due to the motion of the system’s particles (e.g.,
translations, rotations, vibrations). In ideal gases, there is no inter-particle interaction. Therefore, we will disregard potential energy
and only focus on the kinetic energy contribution to the internal energy.

Monatomic Gases
A monatomic gas is one in which atoms are not bound to each other. Noble gases (He, Ne, etc.) are typical examples. A helium
balloon is shown in the following figure. In this case, the kinetic energy consists only of the translational energy of the individual
atoms. Monoatomic particles do not vibrate, and their rotational energy can be neglected because atomic moment of inertia is so
small. Also, they are not electronically excited to higher energies except at very high temperatures. Therefore, practical internal
energy changes in an ideal gas may be described solely by changes in its translational kinetic energy.

Helium Blimp: Helium, like other noble gases, is a monatomic gas, which often can be described by the ideal gas law. It is the gas
of choice to fill airships such as the Goodyear blimp.
The average kinetic energy (KE) of a particle in an ideal gas is given as:
1 ¯2 3
¯
KE = mv = kT, (12.5.19)
2 2

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where k is the Boltzmann’s constant. (See the Atom on “Temperature” in kinetic theory. ) With N atoms in the gas, its total internal
energy U is given as:
3
U = NkT (12.5.20)
2

where N is the number of atoms in the gas. Note that there are three degrees of freedom in monatomic gases: translation in x, y and
z directions.
Since atomic motion is random (and therefore isotropic), each degrees of freedom contribute 1

2
kT per atom to the internal energy.

Diatomic gases
A diatomic molecule (H2, O2, N2, etc.) has 5 degrees of freedom (3 for translation in x, y and z directions, and 2 for rotation).
Therefore, the internal energy for diatomic gases is U = NkT. 5

Key Points
We can gain a better understanding of pressure (and temperature as well) from the kinetic theory of gases, which assumes that
atoms and molecules are in continuous random motion.
Pressure, a macroscopic property, can be related to the average (translational) kinetic energy per molecule which is a
¯
microscopic property by P = nmv2

3
.
Since the assumption is that the particles move in random directions, the average value of velocity squared along each direction
must be same. This gives: v¯ = v¯ = v¯ = v¯ /3 .
2
x
2
y
2
z
2

The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution has a long tail, and the most probable speed vp is less than the rms speed vrms. The
distribution curve is shifted to higher speeds at higher temperatures, with a broader range of speeds.
2 2 2
m( vx +vy +vz )
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution is given as follows: f v (vx , vy , vz ) = (
m

2πkT
)
3/2
exp[−
2kT
] . It is a product of three
independent 1D Maxwell-Boltzmann distributions.
−−−−−− 2

Molecular speed distribution is given as f (v) = √( m

2πkT
3
) 4π v
2
exp(
−mv

2kT
) . This is simply called Maxwell distribution.
The average translational kinetic energy of a molecule is equivalent to kT and is called thermal energy.
3

In kinematic theory of gases, macroscopic quantities (such as press and temperature) are explained by considering microscopic
(random) motion of molecules.
−−−
The rms speed of molecules in a gas is given as √ 3kT

m
.
In ideal gases, there is no inter-particle interaction. Therefore, only the kinetic energy contribute to the internal energy.
Each degrees of freedom contribute kT per atom to the internal energy.
1

For monatomic ideal gases with N atoms, its total internal energy U is given as U = NkT . For diatomic gases, U =
3

2
5

2
NkT .

Key Terms
kinetic theory of gases: The kinetic theory of gases describes a gas as a large number of small particles (atoms or molecules),
all of which are in constant, random motion.
Newtonian mechanics: Early classical mechanics as propounded by Isaac Newton, especially that based on his laws of motion
and theory of gravity.
rms: Root mean square: a statistical measure of the magnitude of a varying quantity.
ideal gas: A hypothetical gas whose molecules exhibit no interaction and undergo elastic collision with each other and with the
walls of the container.
Boltzmann’s constant: The physical constant relating energy at the particle level with temperature observed at the bulk level. It
is the gas constant R divided by Avogadro’s number, NA.
moment of inertia: A measure of a body’s resistance to a change in its angular rotation velocity
noble gas: Any of the elements of group 18 of the periodic table, being monatomic and (with very limited exceptions) inert.
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12.6: Phase Changes
learning objectives
Describe behavior of the medium during a phase transition

A phase of a thermodynamic system and the states of matter have uniform physical properties. During a phase transition of a given
medium certain properties of the medium change, often discontinuously, as a result of some external condition, such as temperature
or pressure. For example, a liquid may become gas upon heating to the boiling point, resulting in an abrupt change in volume. The
measurement of the external conditions at which the transformation occurs is termed the phase transition. The term is most
commonly used to describe transitions between solid, liquid and gaseous states of matter and, in rare cases, plasma.
As an example, if you boil water, it never goes above 100 degrees Celsius. Only after it has completely evaporated will it get any
hotter. This is because once water reaches the boiling point, extra energy is used to change the state of matter and increase the
potential energy instead of the kinetic energy. The opposite happens when water freezes. To boil or melt one mole of a substance, a
certain amount of energy is required. These amounts of energy are the molar heat of vaporization and molar heat of fusion. If that
amount of energy is added to a mole of that substance at boiling or freezing point, all of it will melt or boil, but the temperature
won’t change.
Temperature increases linearly with heat, until the melting point. But the heat added does not change the temperature; that heat
energy is instead used to break intermolecular bonds and convert ice into water. At this point, there is a mixture of both ice and
water. Once all ice has been melted, the temperature again rises linearly with heat added. At the boiling point, temperature no
longer rises with heat added because the energy is once again being used to break intermolecular bonds. Once all water has been
boiled to steam, the temperature will continue to rise linearly as heat is added.

Temperature vs. Heat: This graph shows the temperature of ice as heat is added.
The plots of pressure versus temperatures provide considerable insight into thermal properties of substances. There are well-
defined regions on these graphs that correspond to various phases of matter, so PT graphs are called phase diagrams. Using the
graph, if you know the pressure and temperature you can determine the phase of water. The solid lines—boundaries between
phases—indicate temperatures and pressures at which the phases coexist (that is, they exist together in ratios, depending on
pressure and temperature). For example, the boiling point of water is 100º C at 1.00 atm. As the pressure increases, the boiling
temperature rises steadily to 374º C at a pressure of 218 atm. A pressure cooker (or even a covered pot) will cook food faster
because the water can exist as a liquid at temperatures greater than 100º C without all boiling away. The curve ends at a point called
the critical point, because at higher temperatures the liquid phase does not exist at any pressure. The critical temperature for oxygen
is -118ºC, so oxygen cannot be liquefied above this temperature.

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 Phase Diagram of Water: In this typical phase diagram of water, the green lines mark the freezing point, and the blue line marks
the boiling point, showing how they vary with pressure. The dotted line illustrates the anomalous behavior of water. Note that water
changes states based on the pressure and temperature.

Humidity, Evaporation, and Boiling

The amount of water vapor in air is a result of evaporation or boiling, until an equilibrium is reached.

learning objectives
Explain why water boils at 100 °C

Overview
The term relative humidity refers to how much water vapor is in the air compared with the maximum possible. At its maximum,
denoted as saturation, the relative humidity is 100%, and evaporation is inhibited. The amount of water vapor the air can hold
depends on its temperature. For example, relative humidity rises in the evening, as air temperature declines, sometimes reaching the
dew point. At the dew point temperature, relative humidity is 100%, and fog may result from the condensation of water droplets if
they are small enough to stay in suspension. Conversely, if one wished to dry something, it is more effective to blow hot air over it
rather than cold air, because, among other things, hot air can hold more water vapor.

Evaporation
The capacity of air to hold water vapor is based on vapor pressure of water. The liquid and solid phases are continuously giving off
vapor because some of the molecules have high enough speeds to enter the gas phase, a process called evaporation; see (a). For the
molecules to evaporate, they must be located near the surface, be moving in the proper direction, and have sufficient kinetic energy
to overcome liquid-phase intermolecular forces. When only a small proportion of the molecules meet these criteria, the rate of
evaporation is low. Since the kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to its temperature, evaporation proceeds more quickly at
higher temperatures.
If a lid is placed over the container, as in (b), evaporation continues, increasing the pressure, until sufficient vapor has built up for
condensation to balance evaporation. Then equilibrium has been achieved, and the vapor pressure is equal to the partial pressure of
water in the container. Vapor pressure increases with temperature because molecular speeds are higher as temperature increases.
As the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy, and the temperature of the
liquid decreases. This phenomenon is also called evaporative cooling. This is why evaporating sweat cools the human body.
Evaporation also tends to proceed more quickly with higher flow rates between the gaseous and liquid phase and in liquids with
higher vapor pressure. For example, laundry on a clothes line will dry (by evaporation) more rapidly on a windy day than on a still
day.

Application for Boiling Water

Why does water boil at 100ºC? The vapor pressure of water at 100ºC is 1.01×105 Pa, or 1.00 atm. Thus, it can evaporate without
limit at this temperature and pressure. But why does it form bubbles when it boils? This is because water ordinarily contains
significant amounts of dissolved air and other impurities, which are observed as small bubbles of air in a glass of water. If a bubble

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starts out at the bottom of the container at 20ºC, it contains water vapor (about 2.30%). The pressure inside the bubble is fixed at
1.00 atm (we ignore the slight pressure exerted by the water around it). As the temperature rises, the amount of air in the bubble
stays the same, but the water vapor increases; the bubble expands to keep the pressure at 1.00 atm. At 100ºC, water vapor enters the
bubble continuously since the partial pressure of water is equal to 1.00 atm in equilibrium. It cannot reach this pressure, however,
since the bubble also contains air and total pressure is 1.00 atm. The bubble grows in size and thereby increases the buoyant force.
The bubble breaks away and rises rapidly to the surface, resulting in boiling. (See. )

Close-up of the Boiling Process: (a) An air bubble in water starts out saturated with water vapor at 20ºC. (b) As the temperature
rises, water vapor enters the bubble because its vapor pressure increases. The bubble expands to keep its pressure at 1.00 atm. (c)
At 100ºC, water vapor enters the bubble continuously because water’s vapor pressure exceeds its partial pressure in the bubble,
which must be less than 1.00 atm. The bubble grows and rises to the surface.

Key Points
The term is most commonly used to describe transitions between solid, liquid and gaseous states of matter and, in rare cases,
plasma.
Once water reaches the boiling point, extra energy is used to change the state of matter and increase the potential energy instead
of the kinetic energy.
Plots of pressure versus temperatures, an example of a phase diagram, provide considerable insight into thermal properties of
substances.
Relative humidity is the fraction of water vapor in a gas compared to the saturation value.
Since the kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to its temperature, evaporation proceeds more quickly at higher
temperatures.
Vapor pressure increases with temperature because molecular speeds are higher as temperature increases.
Water boils at 100 °C because the vapor pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure at this temperature.

Key Terms
intermolecular: from one molecule to another; between molecules
plasma: a state of matter consisting of partially ionized gas
thermodynamic: Relating to the conversion of heat into other forms of energy.
equilibrium: The state of a body at rest or in uniform motion, the resultant of all forces on which is zero.
vapor pressure: The pressure that a vapor exerts, or the partial pressure if it is mixed with other gases.
humidity: The amount of water vapor in the air.
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12.7: The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
learning objectives
Identify major implications of the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

There are a few ways to state the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics, but the simplest is as follows: systems that are in thermal
equilibrium exist at the same temperature.
Systems are in thermal equilibrium if they do not transfer heat, even though they are in a position to do so, based on other factors.
For example, food that’s been in the refrigerator overnight is in thermal equilibrium with the air in the refrigerator: heat no longer
flows from one source (the food) to the other source (the air) or back.
What the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics means is that temperature is something worth measuring, because it indicates whether
heat will move between objects. This will be true regardless of how the objects interact. Even if two objects don’t touch, heat may
still flow between them, such as by radiation (as from a heat lamp). However, according to the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics, if
the systems are in thermal equilibrium, no heat flow will take place.
There are more formal ways to state the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics, which is commonly stated in the following manner:
Let A, B, and C be three systems. If A and C are in thermal equilibrium, and A and B are in thermal equilibrium, then B and C are
in thermal equilibrium.
This statement is represented symbolically in. Temperature is not mentioned explicitly, but it’s implied that temperature exists.
Temperature is the quantity that is always the same for all systems in thermal equilibrium with one another.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: The double arrow represents thermal equilibrium between systems. If systems A and C are in
equilibrium, and systems A and B are in equilibrium, then systems B and C are in equilibrium. The systems A, B, and C are at the
same temperature.

Key Points
Assuming A, B, and C are three systems, if A and C are in thermal equilibrium, and A and B are in thermal equilibrium, then B
and C are in thermal equilibrium.
Two systems are in thermal equilibrium if they could transfer heat between each other, but do not.
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics implies that temperature is a quantity worth measuring.

Key Terms
thermal equilibrium: Two systems are in thermal equilibrium if they could transfer heat between each other, but don’t.
zeroth law of thermodynamics: Let A, B and C be three systems. If A and C are in thermal equilibrium, and A and B are in
thermal equilibrium, then B and C are in thermal equilibrium.
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12.8: Thermal Stresses
learning objectives
Formulate relationship between thermal stress and thermal expansion

Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion is the change in size or volume of a given mass with temperature. The expansion of alcohol in a thermometer is
one of many commonly encountered examples of this. Hot air rises because its volume increases, which causes the hot air’s density
to be smaller than the density of surrounding air, causing a buoyant (upward) force on the hot air. The same happens in all liquids
and gases, driving natural heat transfer upward in homes, oceans, and weather systems. Solids also undergo thermal expansion.
Railroad tracks and bridges, for example, have expansion joints to allow them to freely expand and contract with temperature
changes.

Thermal Expansion Joints: Thermal expansion joints like these in the Auckland Harbour Bridge in New Zealand allow bridges to
change length without buckling. (credit: Ingolfson, Wikimedia Commons)
What are the basic properties of thermal expansion? First, thermal expansion is clearly related to temperature change. The greater
the temperature change, the more a bimetallic strip will bend. Second, it depends on the material. In a thermometer, for example,
the expansion of alcohol is much greater than the expansion of the glass containing it.
What is the underlying cause of thermal expansion? An increase in temperature implies an increase in the kinetic energy of the
individual atoms. In a solid, unlike in a gas, the atoms or molecules are closely packed together, but their kinetic energy (in the
form of small, rapid vibrations) pushes neighboring atoms or molecules apart from each other. This neighbor-to-neighbor pushing
results in a slightly greater distance, on average, between neighbors, and adds up to a larger size for the whole body. For most
substances under ordinary conditions, there is no preferred direction, and an increase in temperature will increase the solid’s size by
a certain fraction in each dimension.
To be more quantitative, the change in length ΔL is proportional to length L. The dependence of thermal expansion on temperature,
substance, and length is summarized in the equation

ΔL = αLΔT (12.8.1)

where ΔL is the change in length L, ΔT is the change in temperature, and α is the coefficient of linear expansion, which varies
slightly with temperature.

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Thermal Stress
Thermal stress is created by thermal expansion or contraction. Thermal stress can be destructive, such as when expanding gasoline
ruptures a tank. It can also be useful, for example, when two parts are joined together by heating one in manufacturing, then
slipping it over the other and allowing the combination to cool. Thermal stress can explain many phenomena, such as the
weathering of rocks and pavement by the expansion of ice when it freezes.
Forces and pressures created by thermal stress can be quite large. Railroad tracks and roadways can buckle on hot days if they lack
sufficient expansion joints. Power lines sag more in the summer than in the winter, and will snap in cold weather if there is
insufficient slack. Cracks open and close in plaster walls as a house warms and cools. Glass cooking pans will crack if cooled
rapidly or unevenly, because of differential contraction and the stresses it creates. (Pyrex® is less susceptible because of its small
coefficient of thermal expansion. ) Nuclear reactor pressure vessels are threatened by overly rapid cooling, and although none have
failed, several have been cooled faster than considered desirable. Biological cells are ruptured when foods are frozen, detracting
from their taste. Repeated thawing and freezing accentuates the damage. Even the oceans can be affected. A significant portion of
the rise in sea level that is resulting from global warming is due to the thermal expansion of sea water.
Metal is regularly used in the human body for hip and knee implants. Most implants need to be replaced over time because, among
other things, metal does not bond with bone. Researchers are trying to find better metal coatings that would allow metal-to-bone
bonding. One challenge is to find a coating that has an expansion coefficient similar to that of metal. If the expansion coefficients
are too different, the thermal stresses during the manufacturing process lead to cracks at the coating-metal interface.
Another example of thermal stress is found in the mouth. Dental fillings can expand differently from tooth enamel. It can give pain
when eating ice cream or having a hot drink. Cracks might occur in the filling. Metal fillings (gold, silver, etc.) are being replaced
by composite fillings (porcelain), which have smaller coefficients of expansion, and are closer to those of teeth.

Key Points
Thermal expansion is the change in size or volume of a given mass with changing temperature.
An increase in temperature implies an increase in the kinetic energy of the individual atoms, which will increase a solid’s size
by a certain fraction in each dimension.
Thermal stress is created when thermal expansion is constrained.

Key Terms
stress: The internal distribution of force per unit area (pressure) within a body reacting to applied forces which causes strain or
deformation and is typically symbolized by σ.
differential: A qualitative or quantitative difference between similar or comparable things.
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12.9: Diffusion
learning objectives
Discuss the process and results of diffusion, identifying factors that affect its rate

Diffusion is the movement of particles move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium is
reached. A distinguishing feature of diffusion is that it results in mixing or mass transport without requiring bulk motion. Thus,
diffusion should not be confused with convection or advection, which are other transport mechanisms that use bulk motion to move
particles from one place to another.

Diffusion: Particles moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.
Molecular diffusion, often called simply diffusion, is the thermal motion of all (liquid or gas) particles at temperatures above
absolute zero. The rate of this movement is a function of temperature, viscosity of the fluid and the size (mass) of the particles.
Diffusion explains the net flux of molecules from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration. However,
diffusion can still occur in the absence of a concentration gradient.
The result of diffusion is a gradual mixing of material. In a phase with uniform temperature, absent external net forces acting on the
particles, the diffusion process will eventually result in complete mixing.

Key Points
Molecular diffusion, often called simply diffusion, is the thermal motion of all (liquid or gas) particles at temperatures above
absolute zero.
The result of diffusion is a gradual mixing of material. In a phase with uniform temperature, absent external net forces acting on
the particles, the diffusion process will eventually result in complete mixing.
Diffusion can also occur in the absence of a concentration gradient — equilibrium particles are still moving around their
container.

Key Terms
equilibrium: The state of a body at rest or in uniform motion, the resultant of all forces on which is zero.
diffusion: Diffusion is the movement of particles from regions of high concentration toward regions of lower concentration.
concentration: The proportion of a substance in a mixture.
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 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

13: Heat and Heat Transfer

13.1: Introduction
13.2: Specific Heat
13.3: Phase Change and Latent Heat
13.4: Methods of Heat Transfer
13.5: Global Warming
13.6: Phase Equilbrium

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1
13.1: Introduction
learning objectives
Distinguish three modes of heat transfer

Introduction to Heat and Heat Transfer

Energy can exist in many forms and heat is one of the most intriguing. Heat is often hidden, as it only exists when in transit, and is
transferred by a number of distinctly different methods. Heat transfer touches every aspect of our lives and helps us understand
how the universe functions. It explains the chill we feel on a clear breezy night, or why Earth’s core has yet to cool. This module
defines and explores heat transfer, its effects, and the methods by which heat is transferred. These topics are fundamental, as well
as practical, and will often be referred to in the modules ahead.

Examples of Heat Transfer: (a) The chilling effect of a clear breezy night is produced by the wind and by radiative heat transfer to
cold outer space. (b) There was once great controversy about the Earth’s age, but it is now generally accepted to be about 4.5
billion years old. Much of the debate is centered on the Earth’s molten interior. According to our understanding of heat transfer, if
the Earth is really that old, its center should have cooled off long ago. The discovery of radioactivity in rocks revealed the source of
energy that keeps the Earth’s interior molten, despite heat transfer to the surface, and from there to cold outer space.

Definitions
Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, in his 1871 classic Theory of Heat, was one of many who began to build on the already
established idea that heat was something to do with matter in motion. This was the same idea put forwards by Sir Benjamin
Thompson in 1798, who said he was only following on from the work of many others. One of Maxwell’s recommended books was
Heat as a Mode of Motion by John Tyndall. Maxwell outlined four stipulations for the definition of heat:
It is something which may be transferred from one body to another.
It is a measurable quantity, and thus treated mathematically.
It cannot be treated as a substance, because it may be transformed into something that is not a substance, such as mechanical
work.
Heat is one of the forms of energy.
In the following sections, we will define heat more rigorously, paying particular attention to how it can be measured and quantified.

Estimation of Quantity of Heat

The quantity of heat transferred by some process can either be directly measured, or determined indirectly through calculations
based on other quantities. Direct measurement is by calorimetry and is the primary empirical basis of the idea of quantity of heat
transferred in a process. The transferred heat is measured by changes in a body of known properties, for example, temperature rise,
change in volume or length, or phase change, such as melting of ice. Indirect estimations of quantity of heat transferred rely on the
law of conservation of energy, and, in particular cases, on the first law of thermodynamics (explored in the following sections).
Indirect estimation is the primary approach of many theoretical studies of quantity of heat transferred.

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Heat Transfer Methods
After defining and quantifying heat transfer and its effects on physical systems, we will discuss the methods by which heat is
transferred. So many processes involve heat transfer, so that it is hard to imagine a situation where no heat transfer occurs. Yet
every process involving heat transfer takes place by only three methods:
1. Conduction is heat transfer through stationary matter by physical contact. ( The matter is stationary on a macroscopic scale—we
know there is thermal motion of the atoms and molecules at any temperature above absolute zero. ) Heat transferred between
the electric burner of a stove and the bottom of a pan is transferred by conduction.
2. Convection is the heat transfer by the macroscopic movement of a fluid. This type of transfer takes place in a forced-air furnace
and in weather systems, for example.
3. Heat transfer by radiation occurs when microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, or another form of electromagnetic
radiation is emitted or absorbed. An obvious example is the warming of the Earth by the Sun. A less obvious example is
thermal radiation from the human body.

Heat as Energy Transfer

Heat is the spontaneous transfer of energy due to a temperature difference.

learning objectives
Identify SI and common units of heat

Heat as Energy Transfer

Consider two objects at different temperatures that are brought together. Energy is transferred from the hotter object to the cooler
one, until both objects reach thermal equilibrium (i.e., both become the same temperature). How is this energy transferred? No
work is done by either object, because no force acts through a distance. The transfer of energy is caused by the temperature
difference, and ceases once the temperatures are equal. This observation leads to the following definition of heat: Heat is the
spontaneous transfer of energy due to a temperature difference.

Heat Transfer and Equilibrium: (a) The soft drink and the ice have different temperatures, T1 and T2, and are not in thermal
equilibrium. (b) When the soft drink and ice are allowed to interact, energy is transferred until they reach the same temperature T,
achieving equilibrium. Heat transfer occurs due to the difference in temperatures. In fact, since the soft drink and ice are both in
contact with the surrounding air and bench, the equilibrium temperature will be the same for both.
Where Is the Most Heat Lost?: Use movable thermometers to discover where a house has poor insulation.

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 AP Physics 2 - Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer: A brief introduction to heat transfer for students.

Heat is often confused with temperature. For example, we may say the heat was unbearable, when we actually mean that the
temperature was high. Heat is a form of energy, whereas temperature is not. The misconception arises because we are sensitive to
the flow of heat, rather than the temperature.

Units
Owing to the fact that heat is a form of energy, it has the SI unit of joule (J). The calorie (cal) is a common unit of energy, defined
as the energy needed to change the temperature of 1.00 g of water by 1.00ºC —specifically, between 14.5ºC and 15.5ºC, since there
is a slight temperature dependence. Another common unit of heat is the kilocalorie (kcal), which is the energy needed to change the
temperature of 1.00 kg of water by 1.00ºC. Since mass is often specified in kilograms, kilocalorie is commonly used. Food calories
(given the notation Cal, and sometimes called “big calorie”) are actually kilocalories (1kilocalorie=1000 calories), a fact not easily
determined from package labeling in the United States, but more common in Europe and elsewhere. In some engineering fields, the
British Thermal Unit (BTU), equal to about 1.055 kilo-joules, is widely used.

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Figure 1 Equivalence of Heat and Work: Schematic depiction of Joule’s experiment that established the equivalence of heat and
work
The total amount of energy transferred as heat is conventionally written as Q for algebraic purposes. Heat released by a system into
its surroundings is by convention a negative quantity (Q < 0); when a system absorbs heat from its surroundings, it is positive (Q >
0).

Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

It is also possible to change the temperature of a substance by doing work. Work can transfer energy into or out of a system. This
realization helped establish the fact that heat is a form of energy. James Prescott Joule (1818–1889) performed many experiments
to establish the mechanical equivalent of heat—the work needed to produce the same effects as heat transfer. In terms of the units
used for these two terms, the best modern value for this equivalence is 1.000 kcal = 4186 J. We consider this equation as the
conversion between two different units of energy.
Figure 1 shows one of Joule’s most famous experimental setups for demonstrating the mechanical equivalent of heat. It
demonstrated that work and heat can produce the same effects, and helped establish the principle of conservation of energy.
Gravitational potential energy (PE) (work done by the gravitational force) is converted into kinetic energy (KE), and then
randomized by viscosity and turbulence into increased average kinetic energy of atoms and molecules in the system, producing a
temperature increase. His contributions to the field of thermodynamics were so significant that the SI unit of energy was named
after him.
Heat added or removed from a system changes its internal energy (a concept we will discuss in the following section) and thus its
temperature. Such a temperature increase is observed while cooking. However, adding heat does not necessarily increase the
temperature. An example is melting of ice; that is, when a substance changes from one phase to another. Work done on the system
or by the system can also change the internal energy of the system. Joule demonstrated that the temperature of a system can be
increased by stirring. If an ice cube is rubbed against a rough surface, work is done by the frictional force. A system has a well-
defined internal energy, but we cannot say that it has a certain “heat content” or “work content.” We use the phrase “heat transfer”
to emphasize its nature.

Internal Energy
The internal energy of a system is the sum of all kinetic and potential energy in a system.

learning objectives
Express the internal energy in terms of kinetic and potential energy

Internal Energy
James Joule showed that both heat and work can produce the same change in the internal energy of a substance, establishing the
principle of the mechanical equivalence of heat. Heat is emphatically a quantity that solely describes energy being transferred. It
makes no sense to speak of the total ‘heat’ an object or system contains. However, a system does contain a quantifiable amount of

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energy called the internal energy of a system. The internal energy of a system is the quantity that changes with the addition or
subtraction of work or heat. It is closely related to temperature.

Definition
The internal energy is the energy required to create a system, excluding the energy necessary to displace its surroundings. Internal
energy has two components: kinetic energy and potential energy. The kinetic energy consists of all the energy involving the
motions of the particles constituting the system, including translation, vibration, and rotation. The potential energy is associated
with the static constituents of matter, static electric energy of atoms within molecules or crystals, and the energy from chemical
bonds. The equation describing the total internal energy of a system is then:
U = Ukinetic + Upotential. (13.1.1)

We can also think of the internal energy as the sum of all the energy states of each component in the system:

U = ∑ Ei . (13.1.2)
i

At any finite temperature, kinetic and potential energies are constantly converted into each other, but the total energy remains
constant in an isolated system. The kinetic energy portion of internal energy gives rise to the temperature of the system. We can use
statistical mechanics to relate the (somewhat) random motions of particles in a system to the mean kinetic energy of the ensemble
of particles, and thus the empirically measurable quantity expressed as temperature.
We can see that internal energy is an extensive property: it depends on the size of the system or on the amount of substance it
contains.
In most cases, we are not concerned with the total amount of internal energy in the system, as it is rarely convenient or necessary to
consider all energies belonging to the system. Rather, we are far more interested in the change in internal energy, given some
transfer of work or heat. This can be expressed as:
ΔU = Q + Wmech + Wother . (13.1.3)

Q is heat added to a system and Wmech is the mechanical work performed by the surroundings due to pressure or volume changes in
the system. All other perturbations and energies added by other processes, such as an electric current introduced into an electronic
circuit, is summarized as the term Wextra.
We can calculate a small change in internal energy of the system by considering the infinitesimal amount of heat δQ added to the
system minus the infinitesimal amount of work δW done by the system:
dU = δQ − δW. (13.1.4)

This expression is the first law of thermodynamics.

The Sun and Internal Energy: Nuclear fusion in the sun converts nuclear potential energy into available internal energy and
keeps the temperature of the Sun very high.

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Key Points
Heat is a crucial concept that touches every aspect of our lives. James Clerk Maxwell set down important principles that couple
into the definition of heat.
The quantity of heat transfer can be directly measured or estimated indirectly through the science of calorimetry.
There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation.
If two objects at different temperature are brought together, energy will transfer from the hotter object to the cooler one until
both are at the same temperature. This transfer of energy is known as heat.
Heat should not be confused with temperature. Temperature describes the internal state of an object, while heat refers to the
energy transferred to or from the object.
Since heat is a form of energy, its SI unit is the joule. Other common units of heat energy include the calorie and kilocalorie,
equal to 4.186 and 4,186 joules, respectively.
Because heat and work both involve the transfer of energy, they can each produce the same effects. The concept of the
mechanical equivalent of heat was instrumental in establishing the principle of conservation of energy.
While a system does not contain ‘ heat,’ it does contain a total amount of energy called internal energy.
The internal energy is the energy necessary to create a system, minus the energy necessary to displace its surroundings.
Most of the time, we are interested in the change in internal energy rather than the total internal energy.
The first law of thermodynamics, dU = ΔQ − ΔW , describes small changes in internal energy.

Key Terms
heat transfer: The transmission of thermal energy via conduction, convection, or radiation.
calorimetry: The science of measuring the heat absorbed or evolved during the course of a chemical reaction or change of
state.
kilocalorie: A non-SI unit of energy equal to 1,000 calories or 4,186 joules; equal to the “calorie” or “Calorie” used in
nutritional labeling. Symbol: kcal.
thermal equilibrium: Two systems are in thermal equilibrium if they could transfer heat between each other, but don’t.
mechanical equivalent of heat: The work needed to produce the same effects as heat transfer.
internal energy: The sum of all energy present in the system, including kinetic and potential energy; equivalently, the energy
needed to create a system, excluding the energy necessary to displace its surroundings.
isolated system: A system that does not interact with its surroundings, that is, its total energy and mass stay constant.
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13.2: Specific Heat
learning objectives
Explain the enthalpy in a system with constant volume and pressure

Heat capacity (usually denoted by a capital C, often with subscripts), or thermal capacity, is the measurable physical quantity that
characterizes the amount of heat required to change a substance’s temperature by a given amount. In SI units, heat capacity is
expressed in units of joules per kelvin (J/K).
An object’s heat capacity (symbol C) is defined as the ratio of the amount of heat energy transferred to an object to the resulting
increase in temperature of the object.
Q
C = . (13.2.1)
ΔT

Heat capacity is an extensive property, so it scales with the size of the system. A sample containing twice the amount of substance
as another sample requires the transfer of twice as much heat (Q) to achieve the same change in temperature (ΔT). For example, if
it takes 1,000 J to heat a block of iron, it would take 2,000 J to heat a second block of iron with twice the mass as the first.

The Measurement of Heat Capacity

The heat capacity of most systems is not a constant. Rather, it depends on the state variables of the thermodynamic system under
study. In particular, it is dependent on temperature itself, as well as on the pressure and the volume of the system, and the ways in
which pressures and volumes have been allowed to change while the system has passed from one temperature to another. The
reason for this is that pressure-volume work done to the system raises its temperature by a mechanism other than heating, while
pressure-volume work done by the system absorbs heat without raising the system’s temperature. (The temperature dependence is
why the definition a calorie is formally the energy needed to heat 1 g of water from 14.5 to 15.5 °C instead of generally by 1 °C. )
Different measurements of heat capacity can therefore be performed, most commonly at constant pressure and constant volume.
The values thus measured are usually subscripted (by p and V, respectively) to indicate the definition. Gases and liquids are
typically also measured at constant volume. Measurements under constant pressure produce larger values than those at constant
volume because the constant pressure values also include heat energy that is used to do work to expand the substance against the
constant pressure as its temperature increases. This difference is particularly notable in gases where values under constant pressure
are typically 30% to 66.7% greater than those at constant volume.

Thermodynamic Relations and Definition of Heat Capacity

The internal energy of a closed system changes either by adding heat to the system or by the system performing work. Recalling
the first law of thermodynamics,
dU = δQ − δW. (13.2.2)

For work as a result of an increase of the system volume we may write,

dU = δQ − PdV. (13.2.3)

If the heat is added at constant volume, then the second term of this relation vanishes and one readily obtains
∂U ∂Q
( )V = ( )V = CV . (13.2.4)
∂T ∂T

This defines the heat capacity at constant volume, CV. Another useful quantity is the heat capacity at constant pressure, CP. With
the enthalpy of the system given by
H = U + PV, (13.2.5)

our equation for dU changes to

dH = δQ + VdP, (13.2.6)

and therefore, at constant pressure, we have

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 ∂H ∂Q
( )P = ( )P = CP . (13.2.7)
∂T ∂T

Specific Heat
The specific heat is an intensive property that describes how much heat must be added to a particular substance to raise its
temperature.

learning objectives
Summarize the quantitative relationship between heat transfer and temperature change

Specific Heat
The heat capacity is an extensive property that describes how much heat energy it takes to raise the temperature of a given system.
However, it would be pretty inconvenient to measure the heat capacity of every unit of matter. What we want is an intensive
property that depends only on the type and phase of a substance and can be applied to systems of arbitrary size. This quantity is
known as the specific heat capacity (or simply, the specific heat), which is the heat capacity per unit mass of a material.
Experiments show that the transferred heat depends on three factors: (1) The change in temperature, (2) the mass of the system, and
(3) the substance and phase of the substance. The last two factors are encapsulated in the value of the specific heat.

Heat Transfer and Specific Heat Capacity: The heat Q transferred to cause a temperature change depends on the magnitude of
the temperature change, the mass of the system, and the substance and phase involved. (a) The amount of heat transferred is
directly proportional to the temperature change. To double the temperature change of a mass m, you need to add twice the heat. (b)
The amount of heat transferred is also directly proportional to the mass. To cause an equivalent temperature change in a doubled
mass, you need to add twice the heat. (c) The amount of heat transferred depends on the substance and its phase. If it takes an
amount Q of heat to cause a temperature change ΔT in a given mass of copper, it will take 10.8 times that amount of heat to cause
the equivalent temperature change in the same mass of water assuming no phase change in either substance.

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 Chemistry 10.2 Speci c Heat Capacity

Specific Heat Capacity: This lesson relates heat to a change in temperature. We discuss how the amount of heat needed for a
temperature change is dependent on mass and the substance involved, and that relationship is represented by the specific heat
capactiy of the substance, C.
The dependence on temperature change and mass are easily understood. Because the (average) kinetic energy of an atom or
molecule is proportional to the absolute temperature, the internal energy of a system is proportional to the absolute temperature and
the number of atoms or molecules. Since the transferred heat is equal to the change in the internal energy, the heat is proportional to
the mass of the substance and the temperature change. The transferred heat also depends on the substance so that, for example, the
heat necessary to raise the temperature is less for alcohol than for water. For the same substance, the transferred heat also depends
on the phase (gas, liquid, or solid).
The quantitative relationship between heat transfer and temperature change contains all three factors:

Q = mcΔT, (13.2.8)

where Q is the symbol for heat transfer, m is the mass of the substance, and ΔT is the change in temperature. The symbol c stands
for specific heat and depends on the material and phase.
The specific heat is the amount of heat necessary to change the temperature of 1.00 kg of mass by 1.00ºC. The specific heat c is a
property of the substance; its SI unit is J/(kg⋅K) or J/(kg⋅C). Recall that the temperature change (ΔT) is the same in units of kelvin
and degrees Celsius. Note that the total heat capacity C is simply the product of the specific heat capacity c and the mass of the
substance m, i.e.,
C C
C = mc or c = = , (13.2.9)
m ρV

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where ϱ is the density of the substance and V is its volume.
Values of specific heat must generally be looked up in tables, because there is no simple way to calculate them. Instead, they are
measured empirically. In general, the specific heat also depends on the temperature. The table below lists representative values of
specific heat for various substances. Except for gases, the temperature and volume dependence of the specific heat of most
substances is weak. The specific heat of water is five times that of glass and ten times that of iron, which means that it takes five
times as much heat to raise the temperature of water the same amount as for glass and ten times as much heat to raise the
temperature of water as for iron. In fact, water has one of the largest specific heats of any material, which is important for
sustaining life on Earth.

Specific Heats: Listed are the specific heats of various substances. These values are identical in units of cal/(g⋅C).3. cv at constant
volume and at 20.0ºC, except as noted, and at 1.00 atm average pressure. Values in parentheses are cp at a constant pressure of 1.00
atm.

Calorimetry
Calorimetry is the measurement of the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes.

learning objectives
Analyze the relationship between the gas constant for an ideal gas yield and volume

Calorimetry
Overview
Calorimetry is the science of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes. Calorimetry is performed with a
calorimeter. A simple calorimeter just consists of a thermometer attached to a metal container full of water suspended above a

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combustion chamber. The word calorimetry is derived from the Latin word calor, meaning heat. Scottish physician and scientist
Joseph Black, who was the first to recognize the distinction between heat and temperature, is said to be the founder of calorimetry.
Calorimetry requires that the material being heated have known thermal properties, i.e. specific heat capacities. The classical rule,
recognized by Clausius and by Kelvin, is that the pressure exerted by the calorimetric material is fully and rapidly determined
solely by its temperature and volume; this rule is for changes that do not involve phase change, such as melting of ice. There are
many materials that do not comply with this rule, and for them, more complex equations are required than those below.

Ice Calorimeter: The world’s first ice-calorimeter, used in the winter of 1782-83, by Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon Laplace,
to determine the heat evolved in variouschemical changes; calculations which were based on Joseph Black’s prior discovery of
latent heat. These experiments mark the foundation of thermochemistry.

Basic Calorimetry at Constant Value

Constant-volume calorimetry is calorimetry performed at a constant volume. This involves the use of a constant-volume
calorimeter (one type is called a Bomb calorimeter). For constant-volume calorimetry:
δQ = CVΔT = mcVΔT (13.2.10)

where δQ is the increment of heat gained by the sample, CV is the heat capacity at constant volume, cv is the specific heat at
constant volume, and ΔT is the change in temperature.

Measuring Enthalpy Change

To find the enthalpy change per mass (or per mole) of a substance A in a reaction between two substances A and B, the substances
are added to a calorimeter and the initial and final temperatures (before the reaction started and after it has finished) are noted.
Multiplying the temperature change by the mass and specific heat capacities of the substances gives a value for the energy given off
or absorbed during the reaction:
δQ = ΔT(mA cA + mB cB ) (13.2.11)

Dividing the energy change by how many grams (or moles) of A were present gives its enthalpy change of reaction. This method is
used primarily in academic teaching as it describes the theory of calorimetry. It does not account for the heat loss through the
container or the heat capacity of the thermometer and container itself. In addition, the object placed inside the calorimeter shows
that the objects transferred their heat to the calorimeter and into the liquid, and the heat absorbed by the calorimeter and the liquid
is equal to the heat given off by the metals.

Constant-Pressure Calorimetry
A constant-pressure calorimeter measures the change in enthalpy of a reaction occurring in solution during which the atmospheric
pressure remains constant. An example is a coffee-cup calorimeter, which is constructed from two nested Styrofoam cups and a lid

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with two holes, allowing insertion of a thermometer and a stirring rod. The inner cup holds a known amount of a solute, usually
water, that absorbs the heat from the reaction. When the reaction occurs, the outer cup provides insulation. Then
WΔH
CP = (13.2.12)
MΔT

where Cp is the specific heat at constant pressure, ΔH is the enthalpy of the solution, ΔT is the change in temperature, W is the
mass of the solute, and M is the molecular mass of the solute. The measurement of heat using a simple calorimeter, like the coffee
cup calorimeter, is an example of constant-pressure calorimetry, since the pressure (atmospheric pressure) remains constant during
the process. Constant-pressure calorimetry is used in determining the changes in enthalpy occurring in solution. Under these
conditions the change in enthalpy equals the heat (Q=ΔH).

Specific Heat for an Ideal Gas at Constant Pressure and Volume

An ideal gas has different specific heat capacities under constant volume or constant pressure conditions.

learning objectives
Explain how to derive the adiabatic index

Specific Heat for an Ideal Gas at Constant Pressure and Volume

The heat capacity at constant volume of nR = 1 J·K−1 of any gas, including an ideal gas is:
∂U
( )V = cv (13.2.13)
∂T

This represents the dimensionless heat capacity at constant volume; it is generally a function of temperature due to intermolecular
forces. For moderate temperatures, the constant for a monoatomic gas is cv=3/2 while for a diatomic gas it is cv=5/2 (see ).
Macroscopic measurements on heat capacity provide information on the microscopic structure of the molecules.

Molecular internal vibrations: When a gas is heated, translational kientic energy of molecules in the gas will increase. In
addition, molecules in the gas may pick up many characteristic internal vibrations. Potential energy stored in these internal degrees
of freedom contributes to specific heat of the gas.
The heat capacity at constant pressure of 1 J·K−1 ideal gas is:
∂H
( )V = cp = cv + R (13.2.14)
∂T

where H=U+pV is the enthalpy of the gas.

Measuring the heat capacity at constant volume can be prohibitively difficult for liquids and solids. That is, small temperature
changes typically require large pressures to maintain a liquid or solid at constant volume (this implies the containing vessel must be
nearly rigid or at least very strong). It is easier to measure the heat capacity at constant pressure (allowing the material to expand or
contract freely) and solve for the heat capacity at constant volume using mathematical relationships derived from the basic
thermodynamic laws.
Utilizing the Fundamental Thermodynamic Relation we can show:

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 ∂P ∂V
Cp − CV = T( )V , N( )p,N (13.2.15)
∂T ∂T

where the partial derivatives are taken at: constant volume and constant number of particles, and at constant pressure and constant
number of particles, respectively.
The heat capacity ratio or adiabatic index is the ratio of the heat capacity at constant pressure to heat capacity at constant volume. It
is sometimes also known as the isentropic expansion factor:
CP cp
γ = = (13.2.16)
CV cv

For an ideal gas, evaluating the partial derivatives above according to the equation of state, where R is the gas constant for an ideal
gas yields:
pV = RT (13.2.17)

∂P ∂V
Cp − CV = T( )V ( )p (13.2.18)
∂T ∂T

∂P ∂V
2
Cp − CV = −T( )V ( )p (13.2.19)
∂V ∂T

RT ∂P −RT −P
P = n→ ( )T = = (13.2.20)
2
V ∂V V V

2
RT ∂V R
2
V = n→ ( )p = (13.2.21)
2
P ∂T P

substituting:
2
∂P ∂V −P R
2
−T( )V ( )p = −T =R (13.2.22)
2
∂V ∂T V P

This equation reduces simply to what is known as Mayer’s relation:

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 Julius Robert Mayer: Julius Robert von Mayer (November 25, 1814 – March 20, 1878), a German physician and physicist, was
one of the founders of thermodynamics. He is best known for his 1841 enunciation of one of the original statements of the
conservation of energy (or what is now known as one of the first versions of the first law of thermodynamics): “Energy can be
neither created nor destroyed. ” In 1842, Mayer described the vital chemical process now referred to as oxidation as the primary
source of energy for any living creature. His achievements were overlooked and credit for the discovery of the mechanical
equivalent of heat was attributed to James Joule in the following year. von Mayer also proposed that plants convert light into
chemical energy.
CP − CV = R. (13.2.23)

It is a simple equation relating the heat capacities under constant temperature and under constant pressure.

Solving Problems with Calorimetry

Calorimetry is used to measure the amount of heat produced or consumed in a chemical reaction.

learning objectives
Explain a bomb calorimeter is used to measure heat evolved in a combustion reaction

Calorimeters are designed to minimize energy exchange between the system being studied and its surroundings. They range from
simple coffee cup calorimeters used by introductory chemistry students to sophisticated bomb calorimeters used to determine the
energy content of food.
Calorimetry is used to measure amounts of heat transferred to or from a substance. To do so, the heat is exchanged with a calibrated
object (calorimeter). The change in temperature of the measuring part of the calorimeter is converted into the amount of heat (since
the previous calibration was used to establish its heat capacity ). The measurement of heat transfer using this approach requires the
definition of a system (the substance or substances undergoing the chemical or physical change) and its surroundings (the other
components of the measurement apparatus that serve to either provide heat to the system or absorb heat from the system).
Knowledge of the heat capacity of the surroundings, and careful measurements of the masses of the system and surroundings and
their temperatures before and after the process allows one to calculate the heat transferred as described in this section.
A calorimeter is a device used to measure the amount of heat involved in a chemical or physical process. For example, when an
exothermic reaction occurs in solution in a calorimeter, the heat produced by the reaction is absorbed by the solution, which
increases its temperature. When an endothermic reaction occurs, the heat required is absorbed from the thermal energy of the
solution, which decreases its temperature. The temperature change, along with the specific heat and mass of the solution, can then
be used to calculate the amount of heat involved in either case.

Coffee-Cup Calorimeters
General chemistry students often use simple calorimeters constructed from polystyrene cups. These easy-to-use “coffee cup”
calorimeters allow more heat exchange with their surroundings, and therefore produce less accurate energy values.

Structure of the Constant Volume (or “Bomb”) Calorimeter

Bomb Calorimeter: This is the picture of a typical setup of bomb calorimeter.

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A different type of calorimeter that operates at constant volume, colloquially known as a bomb calorimeter, is used to measure the
energy produced by reactions that yield large amounts of heat and gaseous products, such as combustion reactions. (The term
“bomb” comes from the observation that these reactions can be vigorous enough to resemble explosions that would damage other
calorimeters.) This type of calorimeter consists of a robust steel container (the “bomb”) that contains the reactants and is itself
submerged in water. The sample is placed in the bomb, which is then filled with oxygen at high pressure. A small electrical spark is
used to ignite the sample. The energy produced by the reaction is trapped in the steel bomb and the surrounding water. The
temperature increase is measured and, along with the known heat capacity of the calorimeter, is used to calculate the energy
produced by the reaction. Bomb calorimeters require calibration to determine the heat capacity of the calorimeter and ensure
accurate results. The calibration is accomplished using a reaction with a known q, such as a measured quantity of benzoic acid
ignited by a spark from a nickel fuse wire that is weighed before and after the reaction. The temperature change produced by the
known reaction is used to determine the heat capacity of the calorimeter. The calibration is generally performed each time before
the calorimeter is used to gather research data.

Example 13.2.1: Identifying a Metal by Measuring Specific Heat

A 59.7 g piece of metal that had been submerged in boiling water was quickly transferred into 60.0 mL of water initially at
22.0 °C. The final temperature is 28.5 °C. Use these data to determine the specific heat of the metal. Use this result to identify
the metal.

Solution
Assuming perfect heat transfer, the heat given off by metal is the negative of the heat taken in by water, or:

qmetal = −qwater (13.2.24)

In expanded form, this is:

cmetal × mmetal × (Tf ,metal − Ti,metal) = cwater × mwater × (Tf ,water − Ti,water) (13.2.25)

Noting that since the metal was submerged in boiling water, its initial temperature was 100.0 °C; and that for water, 60.0 mL =
60.0 g; we have:
o o o
(cmetal )(59.7g)(28.5 C − 100.0 C) = (4.18J/ g C)(60.0g)(28.5oC − 22.0oC) (13.2.26)

Solving this:
o o
−(4.184J/ g C)(60.0g)(6.5 C)
o
cmetal = = 0.38J/ g C (13.2.27)
o
(59.7g)(−71.5 C)

Our experimental specific heat is closest to the value for copper (0.39 J/g °C), so we identify the metal as copper.

Key Points
Heat capacity is the measurable physical quantity that characterizes the amount of heat required to change a substance’s
temperature by a given amount. It is measured in joules per Kelvin and given by.
The heat capacity is an extensive property, scaling with the size of the system.
The heat capacity of most systems is not constant (though it can often be treated as such). It depends on the temperature,
pressure, and volume of the system under consideration.
Unlike the total heat capacity, the specific heat capacity is independent of mass or volume. It describes how much heat must be
added to a unit of mass of a given substance to raise its temperature by one degree Celsius. The units of specific heat capacity
are J/(kg °C) or equivalently J/(kg K).
The heat capacity and the specific heat are related by C = cm or c = . C

The mass m, specific heat c, change in temperature ΔT, and heat added (or subtracted) Q are related by the equation:
Q = mcΔT .

Values of specific heat are dependent on the properties and phase of a given substance. Since they cannot be calculated easily,
they are empirically measured and available for reference in tables.
A calorimeter is used to measure the heat generated (or absorbed) by a physical change or chemical reaction. The science of
measuring these changes is known as calorimetry.
In order to do calorimetry, it is crucial to know the specific heats of the substances being measured.

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 Calorimetry can be performed under constant volume or constant pressure. The type of calculation done depends on the
conditions of the experiment.
The specific heat at constant volume for a gas is given as ( ) = c .
∂U

∂T
V v

The specific heat at constant pressure for an ideal gas is given as ( ) = c = c + R .

∂H

∂T
V p v

The heat capacity ratio (or adiabatic index ) is the ratio of the heat capacity at constant pressure to heat capacity at constant
volume.
Calorimetry is used to measure amounts of heat transferred to or from a substance.
A calorimeter is a device used to measure the amount of heat involved in a chemical or physical process.
This means that the amount of heat produced or consumed in the reaction equals the amount of heat absorbed or lost by the
solution.

Key Terms
heat capacity: The amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of an object or unit of matter by one degree Celsius;
in units of joules per kelvin (J/K).
enthalpy: the total amount of energy in a system, including both the internal energy and the energy needed to displace its
environment
specific heat capacity: The amount of heat that must be added (or removed) from a unit mass of a substance to change its
temperature by one degree Celsius. It is an intensive property.
constant-pressure calorimeter: An instrument used to measure the heat generated during changes that do not involve changes
in pressure.
calorimeter: An apparatus for measuring the heat generated or absorbed by either a chemical reaction, change of phase or some
other physical change.
constant-volume calorimeter: An instrument used to measure the heat generated during changes that do not involve changes in
volume.
Fundamental Thermodynamic Relation: In thermodynamics, the fundamental thermodynamic relation expresses an
infinitesimal change in internal energy in terms of infinitesimal changes in entropy, and volume for a closed system in thermal
equilibrium in the following way: dU=TdS-PdV. Here, U is internal energy, T is absolute temperature, S is entropy, P is pressure
and V is volume.
adiabatic index: The ratio of the heat capacity at constant pressure to heat capacity at constant volume.
specific heat: The ratio of the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a unit mass of substance by a unit degree to the
amount of heat needed to raise that of the same mass of water by the same amount.
heat of reaction: The enthalpy change in a chemical reaction; the amount of heat that a systems gives up to its surroundings so
it can return to its initial temperature.
combustion: A process where two chemicals are combined to produce heat.
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13.3: Phase Change and Latent Heat
learning objectives
Describe the latent heat as a form of energy

Latent Heat
Previously, we have discussed temperature change due to heat transfer. No temperature change occurs from heat transfer if ice
melts and becomes liquid water (i.e., during a phase change). For example, consider water dripping from icicles melting on a roof
warmed by the Sun. Conversely, water freezes in an ice tray cooled by lower-temperature surroundings.

Melting Icicle: Heat from the air transfers to the ice causing it to melt.
Energy is required to melt a solid because the cohesive bonds between the molecules in the solid must be broken apart so that the
molecules can move around at comparable kinetic energies; thus, there is no rise in temperature. Similarly, energy is needed to
vaporize a liquid, because molecules in a liquid interact with each other via attractive forces. There is no temperature change until a
phase change is complete. The temperature of a glass of lemonade initially at 0 ºC stays at 0 ºC until all the ice has melted.
Conversely, energy is released during freezing and condensation, usually in the form of thermal energy. Work is done by cohesive
forces when molecules are brought together. The corresponding energy must be given off (dissipated) to allow them to stay
together.
The energy involved in a phase change depends on two major factors: the number and strength of bonds or force pairs. The number
of bonds is proportional to the number of molecules and thus to the mass of the sample. The strength of forces depends on the type
of molecules. The heat Q required to change the phase of a sample of mass m is given by
Q = mLf (melting or freezing)
Q = mLv (evaporating or condensing)
where the latent heat of fusion, Lf, and latent heat of vaporization, Lv, are material constants that are determined experimentally.

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Phase Transitions: (a) Energy is required to partially overcome the attractive forces between molecules in a solid to form a liquid.
That same energy must be removed for freezing to take place. (b) Molecules are separated by large distances when going from
liquid to vapor, requiring significant energy to overcome molecular attraction. The same energy must be removed for condensation
to take place. There is no temperature change until a phase change is complete.
Latent heat is an intensive property measured in units of J/kg. Both Lf and Lv depend on the substance, particularly on the strength
of its molecular forces as noted earlier. Lf and Lv are collectively called latent heat coefficients. They are latent, or hidden, because
in phase changes, energy enters or leaves a system without causing a temperature change in the system; so, in effect, the energy is
hidden. Note that melting and vaporization are endothermic processes in that they absorb or require energy, while freezing and
condensation are exothermic process as they release energy.

STEMbite: Heating Up Ice

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 Heating Up Ice: Andrew Vanden Heuvel explores latent heat while trying to cool down his soda.
Significant amounts of energy are involved in phase changes. Let us look, for example, at how much energy is needed to melt a
kilogram of ice at 0º C to produce a kilogram of water at 0°C. Using the equation for a change in temperature and the value for
water (334 kJ/kg), we find that Q=mLf=(1.0kg)(334kJ/kg)=334kJ is the energy to melt a kilogram of ice. This is a lot of energy as
it represents the same amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of liquid water from 0ºC to 79.8ºC. Even more
energy is required to vaporize water; it would take 2256 kJ to change 1 kg of liquid water at the normal boiling point (100ºC at
atmospheric pressure) to steam (water vapor). This example shows that the energy for a phase change is enormous compared to
energy associated with temperature changes without a phase change.
Phase changes can have an enormous stabilizing effect (see figure below). Consider adding heat at a constant rate to a sample of ice
initially at -20 ºC. Initially the temperature of the ice rises linearly, absorbing heat at a constant rate of 0.50 cal/g⋅C until it reaches
0 ºC. Once at this temperature, the ice begins to melt until all the entire sample has melted, absorbing a total of 79.8 cal/g of heat.
The temperature remains constant at 0 ºC during this phase change. Once all the ice has melted, the temperature of the liquid water
rises, absorbing heat at a new constant rate of 1.00 cal/g⋅C (remember that specific heats are dependent on phase). At 100ºC, the
water begins to boil and the temperature again remains constant until the water absorbs 539 cal/g of heat to complete this phase
change. When all the liquid has become steam, the temperature rises again, absorbing heat at a rate of 0.482 cal/g⋅C.

Heating and Phase Changes of Water: A graph of temperature versus energy added. The system is constructed so that no vapor
evaporates while ice warms to become liquid water, and so that, when vaporization occurs, the vapor remains in of the system. The
long stretches of constant temperature values at 0ºC and 100ºC reflect the large latent heat of melting and vaporization,
respectively.
A phase change we have neglected to mention thus far is sublimation, the transition of solid directly into vapor. The opposite case,
where vapor transitions directly into a solid, is called deposition. Sublimation has its own latent heat Ls and can be used in the
same way as Lvand Lf.

Key Points
Energy is required to change the phase of a substance, such as the energy to break the bonds between molecules in a block of
ice so it may melt.

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 During a phase change energy my be added or subtracted from a system, but the temperature will not change. The temperature
will change only when the phase change has completed.
The heat Q required to change the phase of a sample of mass m is given by Q = mL (melting or freezing) and Q = mL
f v

(evaporating or condensing), where L and L are the latent heat of fusion and the latent heat of vaporization, respectively.
f v

Key Terms
latent heat of fusion: the energy required to transition one unit of a substance from solid to liquid; equivalently, the energy
liberated when one unit of a substance transitions from liquid to solid.
latent heat of vaporization: the energy required to transition one unit of a substance from liquid to vapor; equivalently, the
energy liberated when one unit of a substance transitions from vapor to liquid.
sublimation: the transition of a substance from the solid phase directly to the vapor state such that it does not pass through the
intermediate, liquid phase
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13.4: Methods of Heat Transfer
learning objectives
Assess why particular characteristics are necessary for effective conduction

Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat through stationary matter by physical contact. (The matter is stationary on a macroscopic scale—
we know there is thermal motion of the atoms and molecules at any temperature above absolute zero.) Heat transferred from an
electric stove to the bottom of a pot is an example of conduction.
Some materials conduct thermal energy faster than others. For example, the pillow in your room may the same temperature as the
metal doorknob, but the doorknob feels cooler to the touch. In general, good conductors of electricity (metals like copper,
aluminum, gold, and silver) are also good heat conductors, whereas insulators of electricity (wood, plastic, and rubber) are poor
heat conductors.
Microscopic Description of Conduction
On a microscopic scale, conduction occurs as rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and molecules interact with neighboring particles,
transferring some of their kinetic energy. Heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as
electrons move from one atom to another. Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid
objects in thermal contact. Conduction is greater in solids because the network of relatively close fixed spatial relationships
between atoms helps to transfer energy between them by vibration.
Fluids and gases are less conductive than solids. This is due to the large distance between atoms in a fluid or (especially) a gas:
fewer collisions between atoms means less conduction.

Microscopic Illustration of Conduction: The molecules in two bodies at different temperatures have different average kinetic
energies. Collisions occurring at the contact surface tend to transfer energy from high-temperature regions to low-temperature
regions. In this illustration, a molecule in the lower temperature region (right side) has low energy before collision, but its energy
increases after colliding with the contact surface. In contrast, a molecule in the higher temperature region (left side) has high energy
before collision, but its energy decreases after colliding with the contact surface.
The (average) kinetic energy of a molecule in the hot body is higher than in the colder body. If two molecules collide, an energy
transfer from the hot to the cold molecule occurs (see the above figure). The cumulative effect from all collisions results in a net
flux of heat from the hot body to the colder body. The heat flux thus depends on the temperature difference T = T − T hot .
cold

Therefore, you will get a more severe burn from boiling water than from hot tap water. Conversely, if the temperatures are the
same, the net heat transfer rate falls to zero, and equilibrium is achieved. Owing to the fact that the number of collisions increases
with increasing area, heat conduction depends on the cross-sectional area. If you touch a cold wall with your palm, your hand cools
faster than if you just touch it with your fingertip.
Factors Affecting the Rate of Heat Transfer Through Conduction
In addition to temperature and cross-sectional area, another factor affecting conduction is the thickness of the material through
which the heat transfers. Heat transfer from the left side to the right side is accomplished by a series of molecular collisions. The

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thicker the material, the more time it takes to transfer the same amount of heat. If you get cold during the night, you may retrieve a
thicker blanket to keep warm.

Effect of Thickness on Heat Conduction: Heat conduction occurs through any material, represented here by a rectangular bar.
The temperature of the material is T on the left and T on the right, where T is greater than T . The rate of heat transfer by
2 1 2 1

conduction is directly proportional to the surface area A , the temperature difference T − T , and the substance’s conductivity kk.
2 1

The rate of heat transfer is inversely proportional to the thickness d.

Lastly, the heat transfer rate depends on the material properties described by the coefficient of thermal conductivity. All four factors
are included in a simple equation that was deduced from and is confirmed by experiments. The rate of conductive heat transfer
Q kA( T2 −T1 ) Q
through a slab of material, such as the one in the figure above is given by = t d
where is the rate of heat transfer in
t

Joules per second (Watts), k is the thermal conductivity of the material, A and d are its surface area and thickness, and (T − T )
2 1

is the temperature difference across the slab.

Convection
Convection is the heat transfer by the macroscopic movement of a fluid, such as a car’s engine kept cool by the water in the cooling
system.

learning objectives
Illustrate the mechanisms of convection with phase change

Example 13.4.1:

Calculating Heat Transfer by Convection: Convection of Air Through the Walls of a House.
Most houses are not airtight: air goes in and out around doors and windows, through cracks and crevices, following wiring to
switches and outlets, and so on. The air in a typical house is completely replaced in less than an hour.
Suppose that a moderately-sized house has inside dimensions 12.0 m × 18.0 m × 3.00 m high, and that all air is replaced in
30.0 min. Calculate the heat transfer per unit time in watts needed to warm the incoming cold air by 10.0 ºC, thus replacing the
heat transferred by convection alone.
Strategy:
Q
Heat is used to raise the temperature of air so that Q = mcΔT . The rate of heat transfer is then , where t is the time for air
t

turnover. We are given that ΔT is 10.0ºC, but we must still find values for the mass of air and its specific heat before we can
calculate QQ. The specific heat of air is a weighted average of the specific heats of nitrogen and oxygen, which is
c = cp ≅1000 J/kg ⋅ C (note that the specific heat at constant pressure must be used for this process).

Solution
(1) Determine the mass of air from its density and the given volume of the house. The density is given from the density ρ and
the volume m = ρV = (1.29 kg/m3)(12.0 m × 18.0 m × 3.00 m) = 836 kg

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 (2) Calculate the heat transferred from the change in air temperature: Q = mcΔT so that
6
Q = (836 kg)(1000 J/kg ⋅ ∘C)(10 ∘ C) = 8.36 × 10 J

(3) Calculate the heat transfer from the heat Q and the turnover time t . Since air is turned over in t = 0.500 h = 1800 s , the
6
Q
heat transferred per unit time is =
t
8.36×10

1800 s
= 4.64 kW .
J

This rate of heat transfer is equal to the power consumed by about forty-six 100-W light bulbs.
Newly constructed homes are designed for a turnover time of 2 hours or more, rather than 30 minutes for the house of this
example. Weather stripping, caulking, and improved window seals are commonly employed. More extreme measures are
sometimes taken in very cold (or hot) climates to achieve a tight standard of more than 6 hours for one air turnover. Still longer
turnover times are unhealthy, because a minimum amount of fresh air is necessary to supply oxygen for breathing and to dilute
household pollutants. The term used for the process by which outside air leaks into the house from cracks around windows,
doors, and the foundation is called “air infiltration.”

Convection
Convection (illustrated in ) is the concerted, collective movement of ensembles of molecules within fluids (e.g., liquids, gases).
Convection of mass cannot take place in solids, since neither bulk current flows nor significant diffusion can occur in solids.
Instead heat diffusion in solids is called heat conduction, which we’ve just reviewed.

Convection Cells: Convection cells in a gravity field.

Convection is driven by large-scale flow of matter. In the case of Earth, the atmospheric circulation is caused by the flow of hot air
from the tropics to the poles, and the flow of cold air from the poles toward the tropics. (Note that Earth’s rotation causes changes
in the direction of airflow depending on latitude.). An example of convection is a car engine kept cool by the flow of water in the
cooling system, with the water pump maintaining a flow of cool water to the pistons.
While convection is usually more complicated than conduction, we can describe convection and perform some straightforward,
realistic calculations of its effects. Natural convection is driven by buoyant forces: hot air rises because density decreases as
temperature increases. This principle applies equally with any fluid. For example, the pot of water on the stove in is kept warm in
this manner; ocean currents and large-scale atmospheric circulation transfer energy from one part of the globe to another.

Convection in a Pot of Water: Convection plays an important role in heat transfer inside this pot of water. Once conducted to the
inside, heat transfer to other parts of the pot is mostly by convection. The hotter water expands, decreases in density, and rises to
transfer heat to other regions of the water, while colder water sinks to the bottom. This process keeps repeating.

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Convection and Insulation
Although air can transfer heat rapidly by convection, it is a poor conductor and thus a good insulator. The amount of available
space for airflow determines whether air acts as an insulator or conductor. The space between the inside and outside walls of a
house, for example, is about 9 cm (3.5 in)—large enough for convection to work effectively. The addition of wall insulation
prevents airflow, so heat loss (or gain) is decreased. Similarly, the gap between the two panes of a double-paned window is about 1
cm, which prevents convection and takes advantage of air’s low conductivity to prevent greater loss. Fur, fiber and fiberglass also
take advantage of the low conductivity of air by trapping it in spaces too small to support convection. In animals, fur and feathers
are lightweight and thus ideal for their protection.
Convection and Phase Changes
Some interesting phenomena happen when convection is accompanied by a phase change. It allows us to cool off by sweating, even
if the temperature of the surrounding air exceeds body temperature. Heat from the skin is required in order for sweat to evaporate
from the skin, but without air flow the air becomes saturated and evaporation stops. Air flow caused by convection replaces the
saturated air by dry air and thus evaporation continues.
Another important example of the combination of phase change and convection occurs when water evaporates from the ocean.
Heat is removed from the ocean when water evaporates. If the water vapor condenses in liquid droplets as clouds form, heat is
released in the atmosphere (this heat release is latent heat) . Thus, an overall transfer of heat from the ocean to the atmosphere
occurs. This process is the driving power behind thunderheads—great cumulus clouds that rise as much as 20.0 km into the
stratosphere. Water vapor carried in by convection condenses, releasing tremendous amounts of energy, and this energy allows air
to become more buoyant (warmer than its surroundings) and rise. As the air continues to rise, more condensation occurs, which in
turn drives the cloud even higher. Such a mechanism is called positive feedback, since the process reinforces and accelerates itself.
These systems sometimes produce violent storms with lightning and hail, and constitute the mechanism that drives hurricanes.

Cumulus Clouds: Cumulus clouds are caused by water vapor that rises because of convection. The rise of clouds is driven by a
positive feedback mechanism.

Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic energy

learning objectives
Explain how the energy of electromagnetic radiation corresponds with wavelength

Radiation
You can feel heat transfer from a fire or the Sun. Yet the space between Earth and the Sun is largely empty, without any possibility
of heat transfer by convection or conduction. Similarly, you can tell that an oven is hot without touching it or looking inside—it just
warms you as you walk by.
In these examples, heat is transferred by radiation. The hot body emits electromagnetic waves that are absorbed by our skin, and no
medium is required for them to propagate. We use different names for electromagnetic waves of different wavelengths: radio
waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays .

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 Radiation from a Fire: Most of the heat transfer from this fire to the observers is through infrared radiation. The visible light,
although dramatic, transfers relatively little thermal energy. Convection transfers energy away from the observers as hot air rises,
while conduction is negligibly slow here. Skin is very sensitive to infrared radiation so that you can sense the presence of a fire
without looking at it directly.
The energy of electromagnetic radiation depends on its wavelength (color) and varies over a wide range; a smaller wavelength (or
higher frequency) corresponds to a higher energy. We can write this as:
hc
E = hf = (13.4.1)
λ

where E is the energy, f is the frequency, λ is the wavelength, and h is a constant.

Because more heat is radiated at higher temperatures, a temperature change is accompanied by a color change. For example, an
electrical element on a stove glows from red to orange, while the higher-temperature steel in a blast furnace glows from yellow to
white. The radiation you feel is mostly infrared, which is lower in temperature still.
The radiated energy depends on its intensity, which is represented by the height of the distribution .

Radiation Spectrum: (a) A graph of the spectra of electromagnetic waves emitted from an ideal radiator at three different
temperatures. The intensity or rate of radiation emission increases dramatically with temperature, and the spectrum shifts toward
the visible and ultraviolet parts of the spectrum. The shaded portion denotes the visible part of the spectrum. It is apparent that the
shift toward the ultraviolet with temperature makes the visible appearance shift from red to white to blue as temperature increases.
(b) Note the variations in color corresponding to variations in flame temperature.
Heat Transfer
All objects absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation. The rate of heat transfer by radiation is largely determined by the color of
the object. Black is the most effective, and white the least. People living in hot climates generally avoid wearing black clothing, for
instance. Similarly, black asphalt in a parking lot will be hotter than the adjacent gray sidewalk on a summer day, because black

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absorbs better than gray. The reverse is also true—black radiates better than gray. Thus, on a clear summer night the asphalt will be
colder than the gray sidewalk because black radiates energy more rapidly than gray.
An ideal radiator, often called a blackbody, is the same color as an ideal absorber, and captures all the radiation that falls on it. In
contrast, white is a poor absorber and also a poor radiator. A white object reflects all radiation, like a mirror. (A perfect, polished
white surface is mirror-like in appearance, and a crushed mirror looks white. )
There is a clever relation between the temperature of an ideal radiator and the wavelength at which it emits the most radiation. It is
called Wien’s displacement law and is given by:
λm axT = b (13.4.2)

where b is a constant equal to 2.9 × 10 −3

m⋅K .
Gray objects have a uniform ability to absorb all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Colored objects behave in similar but more
complex ways, which gives them a particular color in the visible range and may make them special in other ranges of the
nonvisible spectrum. Take, for example, the strong absorption of infrared radiation by the skin, which allows us to be very sensitive
to it .

Good and Poor Radiators: A black object is a good absorber and a good radiator, while a white (or silver) object is a poor
absorber and a poor radiator. It is as if radiation from the inside is reflected back into the silver object, whereas radiation from the
inside of the black object is “absorbed” when it hits the surface and finds itself on the outside and is strongly emitted.
The rate of heat transfer by emitted radiation is determined by the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation:
Q
4
= σeAT (13.4.3)
t

where σ = 5.67 × 10
−8 J
4
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, A is the surface area of the object, and T is its absolute
s⋅ m2 ⋅ K

temperature in kelvin. The symbol e stands for the emissivity of the object, which is a measure of how well it radiates. An ideal jet-
black (or blackbody) radiator has e=1e=1, whereas a perfect reflector has e = 0 . Real objects fall between these two values. For
example, tungsten light bulb filaments have an ee of about 0.5, and carbon black (a material used in printer toner), has the (greatest
known) emissivity of about 0.99.
The radiation rate is directly proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature—a remarkably strong temperature
dependence. Furthermore, the radiated heat is proportional to the surface area of the object. If you knock apart the coals of a fire,
there is a noticeable increase in radiation due to an increase in radiating surface area.
Net Rate of Heat Transfer
The net rate of heat transfer by radiation (absorption minus emission) is related to both the temperature of the object and that of its
surroundings. Assuming that an object with a temperature T is surrounded by an environment with uniform temperature T , the
1 2

net rate of heat transfer by radiation is:

\[\mathrm{\dfrac{Q_{net}}{t}=eAσ(T_2^4−T_1^4)}\)

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where e is the emissivity of the object alone. In other words, it does not matter whether the surroundings are white, gray, or black;
the balance of radiation into and out of the object depends on how well it emits and absorbs radiation. When T > T , the quantity
2 1

Q
net

t
is positive; that is, the net heat transfer is from hotter objects to colder objects.

Key Points
On a microscopic scale, conduction occurs as rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and molecules interact with neighboring
particles, transferring some of their kinetic energy.
Conduction is the most significant form of heat transfer within a solid object or between solids in thermal contact.
Conduction is most significant in solids, and less though in liquids and gases, due to the space between molecules.
The rate of heat transfer by conduction is dependent on the temperature difference, the size of the area in contact, the thickness
of the material, and the thermal properties of the material(s) in contact.
Convection is driven by the large scale flow of matter in fluids. Solids cannot transport heat through convection.
Natural convection is driven by buoyant forces: hot air rises because density decreases as temperature increases. This principle
applies equally with any fluid.
Convection can transport heat much more efficiently than conduction. Air is a poor conductor and a good insulator if the space
is small enough to prevent convection.
Convection often accompanies phase changes, such as when sweat evaporates from your body. This mass flow during
convection allows humans to cool off even if the surrounding air’s temperature exceeds the body temperature.
The energy of electromagnetic radiation depends on the wavelength (color) and varies over a wide range: a smaller wavelength
(or higher frequency) corresponds to a higher energy.
All objects emit and absorb electromagnetic energy. The color of an object is related emissivity, or its efficiency of radiating
away energy. Black is the most effective while white is the least effective (e = 1 and e = 0 , respectively).
An ideal radiator, often called a blackbody, is the same color as an ideal absorber and captures all the radiation that falls on it.
Q
The rate of heat transfer by emitted radiation is determined by the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation: = σAT where
t
4

σ = 5.67 × 10
−8 J
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, A is the surface area of the object, and T is its absolute
4
s⋅ m2 ⋅ K

temperature in kelvin.
The net rate of heat transfer is related to the temperature of the object and the temperature of its surroundings. The larger the
difference, the higher the net heat flux.
The temperature of an object is very significant, because the radiation emitted is proportional to this quantity to the fourth
power.

Key Terms
thermal conductivity: the measure of a material’s ability to conduct heat
natural convection: A method for heat transport. A fluid surrounding a heat source receives heat, becomes less dense and rises.
The surrounding, cooler fluid then moves to replace it. This cooler fluid is then heated and the process continues, forming a
convection current.
positive feedback: a feedback loop in which the output of a system is amplified with a net positive gain each cycle.
blackbody: A theoretical body, approximated by a hole in a hollow black sphere, that absorbs all incident electromagnetic
radiation and reflects none; it has a characteristic emission spectrum.
emissivity: The energy-emitting propensity of a surface, usually measured at a specific wavelength.
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13.5: Global Warming
learning objectives
Describe effect of greenhouse gases on the Earth’s equilibrium temperature

Radiation is a natural process of heat transfer; everything is constantly radiating heat. When a system is at equilibrium, we do not
notice this exchange of energy because every object absorbs and emits precisely the amount of energy it receives, but this
equilibrium is dynamic–the exchange is always taking place. In general, as the temperature of an object increases, it emits energy
more rapidly by emitting photons at a faster rate, and by emitting photons of a greater average energy.
If we approximate the Earth as a perfect absorber and emitter of the radiation received from the sun (called a blackbody), we would
expect the Earth to be at an average temperature of 5°C, rather than the 14°C which we observe. The extra temperature comes from
the Earth and it’s atmosphere selectively absorbing certain wavelengths of radiation while reflecting other wavelengths. The 9°C
discrepancy is due to the greenhouse effect. The gases of the atmosphere are “selective absorbers”; energy in the visible part of the
electromagnetic spectrum passes through the atmosphere directly to the Earth’s surface (with some reflection occurring as well).
The Earth absorbs this energy and then re-emits radiation in the infrared portion of the spectrum. The gases in the atmosphere,
primarily CO2 and water vapor are highly absorbent in the infrared part of the spectrum. The atmosphere absorbs the infrared
radiation from the Earth, preventing it from escaping to space. Because all objects are continually emitting radiation, the
atmosphere (having absorbed the Earth’s radiation) then emits radiation, some of which is then reabsorbed by the Earth’s surface.
Thus the greenhouse effect is a continuous cycle of absorption and emission of energy between the Earth and atmosphere. This
causes the Earth’s atmosphere and surface to be warmer than otherwise expected.

Radiative Transfer
The greenhouse effect is a phenomenon of radiative transfer, the process by which the energy of light waves is exchanged in matter.
Radiative transfer dictates what energy is reflected, absorbed, and emitted.

The greenhouse effect: A summary of the heat transfer in the Earth’s atmosphere.

Atmospheric Absorbers
The radiative transfer properties of atmospheric chemicals depend on the energy of the radiation (both for absorption and
emission), and those properties are unique to each chemical. In the context of global warming, we find that it is important to
consider both how chemicals and particles reflect sunlight and how they absorb energy radiated from the Earth. Atmospheric
reflecters, notably sulfates and nitrates, reflect and scatter light before it ever hits the surface of the Earth, effectively reducing the
power that the Earth receives. On the other hand, greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous
oxide (N2O) are characteristically strong absorbers of the energy radiated by the Earth’s surface. They absorb so strongly because
they typically exhibit resonant absorption behavior in the same energy range as the radiation emitted by the earth. These trap heat
before it leaves the Earth, insulating the Earth and increasing the Earth’s equilibrium temperature.

Entropy and Solar Radiation

The Second Law of Thermodynamics implies that in order to produce energy sources, entropy must be produced. On a planetary
scale, this production of entropy is primarily accounted for by the absorption and re-emisson of radiation. In general, the earth

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radiates the same energy that it receives. (If greenhouse gases increase, then temperature increases, and higher temperatures cause
the Earth to radiate more, compensating for the greater energy absorbed in the atmosphere. ) With light radiation, we find the
entropy carried by the photons decreases as temperature increases, S∝1TS∝1T. Since the Earth is cooler than the Sun, as the Earth
absorbs radiation from the Sun and re-emits radiation from the Earth’s surface, there is a net production of entropy. This net
production of entropy allows energy to be stored and reused, particularly in the form of chemical energy stored by cells through
photosynthesis.

Key Points
The atmosphere can both absorb and reflect radiation, either increasing or decreasing the Earth’s average temperature.
All bodies naturally emit radiation; warmer bodies emit more photons, with higher average energies.
In absorbing sunlight and emitting infrared radiation, the Earth produces entropy.

Key Terms
selective absorber: An object that will absorb radiation over a particular set of wavelengths but will not (is transparent) at other
wavelengths.
greenhouse effect: The process by which a planet is warmed by its atmosphere.
greenhouse gas: Any gas, such as carbon dioxide or CFCs, that contributes to the greenhouse effect when released into the
atmosphere.
radiative transfer: The transfer of radiation (energy) leaving one object and being absorbed by another.
blackbody: An object that is a perfect absorber and emitter of radiation.
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13.6: Phase Equilbrium
learning objectives
Illustrate the causes for evaporation near the surface of a liquid

Evaporation is a type of vaporization of a liquid that only occurs on the liquid’s surface. Usually, the molecules in a glass of water
do not have enough heat energy to escape from the liquid. With sufficient heat, however, the liquid would quickly turn into vapor.
When the molecules collide, they transfer energy to each other in varying degrees. Sometimes the transfer is so one-sided for a
molecule near the surface that it achieves enough energy to escape the liquid.
Three key parts to evaporation are heat, atmospheric pressure (determines the percent humidity) and air movement. For molecules
of a liquid to evaporate, they must be located near the surface, be moving in the proper direction, and have sufficient kinetic energy
to overcome liquid- phase intermolecular forces. When only a small proportion of the molecules meet these criteria, the rate of
evaporation is low. Since the kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to its temperature, evaporation proceeds more quickly at
higher temperatures. As the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy, and the
temperature of the liquid decreases. This phenomenon is also called evaporative cooling. This is why evaporating sweat cools the
human body. Evaporation also tends to proceed more quickly with higher flow rates between the gaseous and liquid phases and in
liquids with higher vapor pressure. For example, laundry on a clothes line will dry (by evaporation) more rapidly on a windy day
than on a still day.

Vapor Pressure Diagram: (a) Because of the distribution of speeds and kinetic energies, some water molecules can break away to
the vapor phase even at temperatures below the ordinary boiling point. (b) If the container is sealed, evaporation will continue until
there is enough vapor density for the condensation rate to equal the evaporation rate. This vapor density and the partial pressure it
creates are the saturation values. They increase with temperature and are independent of the presence of other gases, such as air.
They depend only on the vapor pressure of water.
Evaporation is an essential part of the water cycle. The sun (solar energy) drives evaporation of water from oceans, lakes, moisture
in the soil, and other sources of water. In hydrology, evaporation and transpiration (which involves evaporation within plant
stomata) are collectively termed evapotranspiration. Evaporation of water occurs when the surface of the liquid is exposed,
allowing molecules to escape and form water vapor; this vapor can then rise and form clouds.

The Evaporating Atmosphere

At equilibrium, evaporation and condensation processes exactly balance and there is no net change in the volume of either phase.

learning objectives
Explain how a substance can have multiple distinct phases in the same environment

Phase Equilibrium
Left to equilibration, many compositions will form a uniform single phase, but depending on the temperature and pressure even a
single substance may separate into two or more distinct phases. Within each phase, the properties are uniform but between the two

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phases properties differ.
Water in a closed jar with an air space over it forms a two phase system. Most of the water is in the liquid phase, where it is held by
the mutual attraction of water molecules. Even at equilibrium, molecules are constantly in motion and, once in a while, a molecule
in the liquid phase gains enough kinetic energy to break away from the liquid phase and enter the gas phase. Likewise, every once
in a while a vapor molecule collides with the liquid surface and condenses into the liquid. At equilibrium, evaporation and
condensation processes exactly balance and there is no net change in the volume of either phase.
At room temperature and pressure, the water jar reaches equilibrium when the air over the water has a humidity of about 3%. This
percentage increases as the temperature goes up. At 100 °C and atmospheric pressure, equilibrium is not reached until the air is
100% water. If the liquid is heated a little over 100 °C, the transition from liquid to gas will occur not only at the surface, but
throughout the liquid volume: the water boils.
The Earth’s atmosphere is not unchanging. The water vapor in it changes phases. It is in a phase equilibrium. Collisions between
water molecules in the atmosphere allows some to condense and some to remain in vapor. Similarly, several lighter gases can
escape the gravitational field entirely.

Water Vapor in the Atmosphere: Water vapor condenses in the atmosphere

Key Points
Evaporation turns liquids into gas.
Evaporation can take place at temperatures below boiling point since the molecules in the liquid have different energies.
As the molecules in a liquid collide, some achieve higher energies, allowing them to escape. This process lowers the energy of
the remaining molecules and is the source of cooling in evaporating liquids.
The atmosphere is made of gases in a phase equilibrium.
As molecules in the atmosphere collide, they gain and lose energy.
As water evaporates from the surface of the earth, water condenses in the atmosphere.

Key Terms
Vaporization: a conversion of a solid or a liquid into a gas
Evaporation: The process of a liquid converting to the gaseous state.
condensation: The conversion of a gas to a liquid; the condensate so formed
equilibrium: The state of a body at rest or in uniform motion, the resultant of all forces on which is zero.
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 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

14: Thermodynamics
Topic hierarchy
14.1: Introduction
14.2: The First Law of Thermodynamics
14.3: The Second Law of Thermodynamics
14.4: Entropy
14.5: The Third Law of Thermodynamics

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1
14.1: Introduction
learning objectives
Analyze the necessity to exclude energy transferred between system as heat from mechanical work

Work
In thermodynamics, work performed by a closed system is the energy transferred to another system that is measured by mechanical
constraints on the system. Thermodynamic work encompasses mechanical work (gas expansion, ) plus many other types of work,
such as electrical. As such, thermodynamic work is a generalization of the concept of mechanical work in mechanics. It necessarily
excludes energy transferred between systems as heat, which is modeled distinctly in thermodynamics. For closed systems, energy
changes in a system other than as work transfer are as heat.

Fig 1: An isobaric expansion of a gas requires heat transfer during the expansion to keep the pressure constant. Since pressure is
constant, the work done is PΔV.

Heat and Work

Heat transfer (often represented by Q) and doing work (W) are the two everyday means of bringing energy into or taking energy
out of a system. The processes are quite different. Heat transfer, a less organized process, is driven by temperature differences.
Work, a quite organized process(as in gas expansion), involves a macroscopic force exerted through a distance. Nevertheless, heat
and work can produce identical results. Both heat and work can cause a temperature increase.
Heat transfer into a system, such as when the Sun warms the air in a bicycle tire, can increase its temperature, and so can work
done on the system, as when the bicyclist pumps air into the tire. Once the temperature increase has occurred, it is impossible to tell
whether it was caused by heat transfer or by doing work.
This uncertainty is an important point. Heat transfer and work are both energy in transit—neither is stored as such in a system.
However, both can change the internal energy of a system. Internal energy is a form of energy completely different from either heat
or work.

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A Review of the Zeroth Law
Zeroth law justifies the use of thermodynamic temperature, defined as the shared temperature of three designated systems at
equilibrium.

learning objectives
Discuss how the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics justifies the use of thermodynamic temperature

AP Physics 2 - Thermodynamics and PV Diagrams

Thermodynamics and PV Diagrams: A brief introduction to the zeroth and 1st laws of thermodynamics as well as PV diagrams
for students.

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 Thermometer: A thermometer calibrated in degrees Celsius
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states: If two systems, A and B, are in thermal equilibrium with each other, and B is in
thermal equilibrium with a third system, C, then A is also in thermal equilibrium with C.
This law was postulated in the 1930s, after the first and second laws of thermodynamics had been developed and named. It is called
the “zeroth” law because it comes logically before the first and second laws (discussed in Atoms on the 1st and 2nd laws).
Two systems are in thermal equilibrium if they could transfer heat between each other, but don’t. Indeed, experiments have shown
that if two systems, A and B, are in thermal equilibrium with each other, and B is in thermal equilibrium with a third system C, then
A is also in thermal equilibrium with C. This conclusion may seem obvious, because all three have the same temperature, but
zeroth law is basic to thermodynamics. Zeroth law justifies the use of thermodynamic temperature: the common “label” that the
three systems in the definition above share is defined as the temperature of the systems.

Temperature
Thermometers actually take their own temperature, not the temperature of the object they are measuring. This raises the question of
how we can be certain that a thermometer measures the temperature of the object with which it is in contact. The answer lies in the
fact that any two systems placed in thermal contact (meaning heat transfer can occur between them) will reach the same
temperature. That is, heat will flow from the hotter object to the cooler one until they reach exactly the same temperature. The
objects are then in thermal equilibrium, and no further changes will occur. The systems interact and change because their
temperatures differ, and the changes stop once their temperatures are the same. Thus, if enough time is allowed for this transfer of
heat to run its course, the temperature a thermometer registers does represent the system with which it achieves thermal
equilibrium.

Key Points
Thermodynamic work is a generalization of the concept of mechanical work in mechanics.
For closed systems, energy changes in a system other than as work transfer are as heat.
Work in thermodynamics is a quite organized process (as in gas expansion), involving a macroscopic force exerted through a
distance.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when systems, A and B, are in thermal equilibrium with each other, and B is in
thermal equilibrium with a third system, C, then A is also in thermal equilibrium with C.
Two systems are in thermal equilibrium if they could transfer heat between each other, but don’t.

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 If enough time is allowed for heat transfer to occur between a thermometer and a system, the temperature the thermometer
registers does represent the system with which it achieves thermal equilibrium.

Key Terms
heat: energy transferred from one body to another by thermal interactions
thermodynamics: a branch of natural science concerned with heat and its relation to energy and work
internal energy: The sum of all energy present in the system, including kinetic and potential energy; equivalently, the energy
needed to create a system, excluding the energy necessary to displace its surroundings.
thermal equilibrium: Two systems are in thermal equilibrium if they could transfer heat between each other, but don’t.
thermodynamic temperature: Temperature defined in terms of the laws of thermodynamics rather than the properties of a real
material: expressed in kelvins
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