Water/ Hydrology 2B
WHDL201
Chapter 4
Abstractions From Precipitation
Dr. Mohammed Seyam
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Chapter 4
Abstractions From Precipitation
Chapter contents
- Brief description of Meteorology
- Evaporation and Evapotranspiration
- Interception
- Depression Storage
- Infiltration -- Ch.5
2
Evaporation
Evapotranspiration
Interception Depression Storage 3
Introduction
- In engineering hydrology, runoff is the prime subject of study
and evaporation and transpiration components are treated as
"losses".
- Evaporation and transpiration are water transferred to
the atmosphere as water vapour.
- Before the rainfall reaches the outlet of a basin as runoff,
certain demands of the catchment such as interception,
depression storage and infiltration have to be met.
- The hydrology of an area is largely influenced by:
Climate; Topography; and Geology.
4
4.1 Meteorology
• Meteorology can be defined as the scientific
study of climate and water.
• Includes study of humidity, temperature,
radiation, sun shine hours, wind speed and
direction , evaporation and precipitation.
Humidity
• Relates to the dryness of the atmospheric
air;
Humidity
• Water will evaporate from the dish and be
absorbed by air in the dome as water vapour;
• If the air in the dome is dry, the evaporation will
continue until the air becomes saturated with
water vapour, at which point evaporation will
cease;
• More water could only evaporate if some of the
water vapour first returned to the liquid state;
• This could happen if some of the water vapour
condensed to form water droplets on the sides of
the dome;
Humidity
The maximum vapour pressure at any given
temperature is known as the saturation vapour
pressure ( es).
Temperature
• Air temperature is recorded by thermometers
housed in open louvered boxes known as
Stevenson screens mounted above ground;
• The screen provides protection from
precipitation and the direct rays of the sun;
• Many temperature observations are made
using minimum and maximum
thermometers.
Radiation
• Most meteorogical recording stations are equipped
with radiometers to measure both incoming short-
wave radiation from sun and sky, and net radiation,
which is the algebraic sum of all incoming radiation
and the reflected short-wave radiation from the
earth’s surface;
• The net radiation is of great importance in
evaporation studies;
• In addition, the hours of sunshine during the day is
also recorded with the aid of a Campbell-Strokes
sunshine recorders.
Wind
• Wind speed and direction are measured by
anemometer and wind vane respectively;
• The conventional anemometer is the cup
anemometer;
Wind
• Consists of three (sometimes four) circlet cups
rotating around a vertical axis;
• The speed of the rotation measures the wind
speed and the total revolutions around the axis
gives a measure of wind run;
• The distance a particular parcel of air travels in
a specified time.
Measurement of Meteorological Variables
Traditional measurement
of data for
Air thermometer
(hygrometer)
To determine air
humidity
Sunshine recorder 13
4.2 Evaporation
Is the process in which a water changes from liquid to the
gaseous state at the free surface below the boiling point
through the transfer of heat energy.
When some molecules possess
sufficient kinetic energy, they may
cross over the water surface. The
net escape of water molecules from
the liquid state to the gaseous state
constitutes evaporation
14
Evaporation process
• The molecules of water are in constant motion with a wide range of
instantaneous velocities
• An addition of heat causes the molecules of water increasing in speed
• Some molecules possess sufficient kinetic energy and escape to the atmosphere
as the water vapor
• Energy breaks bonds that hold molecules
together (latent heat)
• Net evaporation occurs when the rate of
evaporation > the rate of condensation
• Evaporation is a cooling process to the
environment.
• Evaporation is difficult to quantify and its exists
everywhere in the hydrologic cycle.
15
The source of energy in the hydrologic system
The sun Heat stored in
water
Heat sored in Heat carried
land masses into the region
by wind
16
Factors Affecting Evaporation
1. Vapour pressures at the water surface and air above:
the rate of evaporation is proportional to the difference between the
saturation vapour pressure at the water surface (Dalton’s law)
Where
EL = C (ew – ea)
EL : rate of evaporation(mm/day)
C : a coefficient depend on wind velocity, atmospheric pressureand
other factors
ew : the saturation vapour pressure at the water surface (mm of
mercury)
ea : the actual vapour pressure of air (mm ofmercury)
17
Factor Affecting Evaporation
2. Air and water temperature: the rate of evaporation increases
with an increase in the water temperature.
3. Wind speed: the rate of evaporation increases with the wind
speed up to critical speed beyond which any further
increase in the wind speed has no influence on the
evaporation rate
4. Atmosphere pressure: a decrease in the barometric
pressure ( as in high altitudes), increases evaporation.
5. Soluble Salts and Quality of water: under identical
condition evaporation from sea water is about 2-3% less
that from fresh water. 18
Factor Affecting Evaporation
6. Evaporation is controlled by morphologic factors
• nature of the surface
-water bodies vs land masses
-presence of vegetation
• Elevation above sea level (a.s.l.)
• topography
19
Role of water availability
• Evaporation rate, Eo from open water surface governed by meteorological
conditions.
• Evapotranspiration rate, ET from vegetated surface governed by
meteorological conditions and water availability in soil.
• Evapotranspiration would occur at potential rate, PET (Potential
Evapotranspiration ) if there is an adequate water supply available
(unlimited water supply) to a fully vegetated surface.
• If the water supply available to the plants is less then PET, the deficit will
be drawn from soil moisture storage.
• Actual evapotranspiration drops below its Potential Evapotranspiration
(PET) level as the soil dries out.
20
Evaporation from soil
In order for evaporation to occur:
• Must continual supply of heat to meet latent heat
requirement.
• Vapor pressure in the atmosphere must be lower than the
vapor pressure at the surface.
• There must be a continual supply of water from of through
the interior of the soil to the location of evaporation.
21
Evaporation from water bodies – influencing factors
Evaporation from water bodies is influenced by
• Size and shape of the water body
in relation to blowing wind direction
⤷ humidity increases with distance
evaporation decreases
• Water depth
⤷ deep waters accumulate heat in warm
season due to high inertia then
evaporation phase-shifted
⤷ shallow waters are in phase with warm
season
• Elevation
Elevation a.s.l. [m] 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
• e.g. Swiss lakes
[Lugeon, PhD ETHZ, 1928] Evaporation [mm/yr] 700 420 290 250 220
22
Evaporation measurements vs estimates
Evaporation can be
• Measured by means of
– pan evaporimeters
– percolation gauges
– lysimeters
– atmometers
• Estimated by means of
– empirical relationships
– Analytical methods
• water budget methods
• energy balance methods
• mass transfer methods
23
Pan evaporimeter measurements of evaporation
Measuring principle
• measurement of the
lowering of the water level
or
• measurement of the water
volume necessary to keep
the original water level
24
Evaporation Measurement
Evaporimeter
Class A Evaporation Pan
- The most widely used method of
finding or monitoring the water body
evaporation.
- The standard National Weather
Bureau Class A pan ( 1.21 m
diameter, 25.5 cm depth, it is placed
on a wooden structure of 15 cm
height).
25
Pan-A evaporimeter
26
Pan Coefficient Cp
The actual evaporation from a nearby leak is less than
that of pan evaporation
Why ?
- The sides of the pan is exposed to the sun
- The temperature over the pan is higher that over the
lake
Lake evaporation = Cp x pan evaporation
27
To obtain the actual values of Ea the measurement quantity should be
multiplied with the pan coefficient.
Surface Pan Coefficient
Open Water 0.90
Forest 0.80
Grass 0.75
28
Example
Month Pan evaporation
Table shows the monthly pan (cm)
evaporation records of 2000 Jan 14
for station X. Feb 20
Mar 17
If the pan coefficient is 0.75,
Apr 18
estimate the actual water
May 16
volume that evaporated from a Jun 21
catchment area of 10 hectares. Jul 15
Aug 16
Sep 18
Actual evaporation = Cp x pan evaporation Oct 21
Nov 13
Dec 14
29
Empirical Evaporation Equation
Evaporation Estimations
Most of empirical formulae are based on the Dalton-type equation:
EL = Kf(u) (ew - ea)
EL = lake evaporation in mm / day,
ew = saturated vapour pressure at the water-surface temperature in
mm of mercury,
ea = actual vapour pressure of overlying air at a specified height in
mm of mercury,
f(u) = wind-speed correction function and
K = a coefficient.
The term ea is measured at the same height at which wind speed in
measured
-11 30
Meyer's Formula (1915):
EL = KM (ew - ea) ( I + u9/16 )
u9 = monthly mean wind velocity about 9 m above ground
KM = coefficient of 0.36 for large deep waters and 0.50 for small,
shallow waters
The limitations of the formula that it gives an approximate magnitude of the evaporation.
31
Meyer's Formula (1945):
E = C (es – e) (1 + W/10)
Where, E: Lake evaporation (inches / day)
es – e: Water vapor deficit (difference between saturated vapor
pressur and actual vapor pressure of atmosphere in-Hg)
C: Constant (0.36 for open water, 0.5 for wet soil)
W: Wind Speed 25 ft above water level (mph) mile per hour
32
Dunne (1978)
E = (0.013 + 0.00016 u2) e [(100 – Rh) / 100]
Where,
E : Lake evaporation (cm/day)
Rh: The relative humidity in %
e: Vapor pressure of air (mill bars)
u2: Wind speed at 2 m above water in km/day
33
34
Example
Use Meyer 1945 formula and Dunn formula to find the lake evaporation for a lake with mean value of
air temperature is 87 F, and for water temperature is 63 F, average wind speed is 10 mph and relative
humidity is 20%.
Solution:
-Using Meyer formula: From table, the saturated vapor pressure,
es (@63oF= air temp) = 0.58 in. Hg
es (@87oF = water temp) = 1.29 in. Hg
E = C (es – e) (1 + W/10)
e = es * Rh
e = 1.29 x 0.20 = 0.26 in Hg
For open water, C = 0.36 then E = 0.36 (0.58 – 0.26) [1+10/10] = 0.23 in/day 35
- Using Dunne’s formula:
E = (0.013 + 0.00016 u2) e [(100 – Rh) / 100]
Converting wind speed to km/day = (10 mph) (24hr/d) (1.6 km/mi) = 384 km/d
Converting e to mb e = 1.29 x 0.20 = 0.26 in Hg / (0.03 Hg/mb) = 8.7 mb
E = [0.013 + (0.00016 x 384)] (8.7) [(100-20)/100]
= 0.518 cm/day or = 0.204 in/day
which is comparable to the previous value.
36
Analytical methods of Evaporation Estimation
The analytical methods for the determination of lake
evaporation can be broadly classified into three
categories as :
I. Water-budget method,
2. Energy-balance method, and
3. Mass-transfer method
37
Water-budget method, Extra study
It involves writing the hydrological continuity equation for the lake and
determining the evaporation from a knowledge or estimation of
other variables.
Thus considering the daily average values for a lake, the continuity
equation is written as:
EL = P + (Vis-Vos) + (Vig-Vog) – TL – Δ S
All quantities are in units of volume (m3) or depth (mm) over a reference
Area. p,.Vis,Vos and Δ S can be measured. However, it is not possible
to measure Vig,Vog and TL and therefore these quantities can only be estimated.
If the unit of time is kept large, say weeks or months, better accuracy in
the estimate of EL is possible. In view of the various uncertainties in the
estimated values and the possibilities of errors in measured variables,
the water-budget method cannot be expected to give very accurate
results.
-14 38
4.3 Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration summarizes all process that return liquid water back
into water vapor include :
- evaporation (E) : direct transfer of water from open water bodies or soil
surfaces
- transpiration (T) : indirect transfer of water from root- stomatal system
The water taken by the plants ~ 95% is returned to the atmosphere
through their stomata (only 5% is turned into biomass)
Before E and T can occur there must be:
- A flow of energy to the evaporating or transpiring surfaces
- A flow of liquid water to these surfaces
- A flow of vapor away from these surfaces
Total ET is change as a result of any changes that happens to any of these 3
39
Evapotranspiration takes place, the land area in which plants
stand also lose moisture by the evaporation of water from soil
and water bodies.
In hydrology and irrigation practice, it is found that
evaporation and transpiration processes can be considered
advantageously under one head as Evapotranspiration.
The term consumptive use is also used to denote this
loss by evapotranspiration.
40
Transpiration
Transpiration is the process by which water leaves the body of a
living plant and and reaches the atmosphere as water vapour.
The water is taken up by the plant-root system and escapes
through the leaves.
The important factors affecting transpiration is
1. Atmospheric vapour pressure,
2. Temperature,
3. Wind,
4. Sun light intensity and
5. Characteristics of the plant, such as the root and leaf systems
41
Transpiration
The process of water loss from plants through
stomata
( stomata are small openings found on the
underside of leaves that are connected to vascular
plant tissues)
Passive process that depends on :
-Humidity of the atmosphere
-The moisture content of the soil
Only 1 % of the water transpired used for growth
Transports nutrients from the soil into the roots and
carries the to the various cells of the plant
Keeps tissues from becoming overheated
42
Transpiration
Very efficient mechanism
Large evaporating surface
Exposed to turbulent airflow
Regulated by plants
Stomatal regulation – Most important in windy conditions
Measurement of evaporation loss from a vegetated land
surface is more complex
43
Evapotranspiration, ET
evaporation from soil + transpiration from plants
• Evapotranspiration is controlled by the
same climatic and morphologic factors as
evaporation
• Evapotranspiration is additionally
controlled by
• vegetation type
and
• soil water content
⤷ potential evapotranspiration ⤷ actual evapotranspiration
PET AET
– occurs when soil water content is not – occurs when soil water content is
limiting limiting
– it corresponds to the maximum – it corresponds to the highest
evapotranspiration for a given evapotranspiration achievable for the
vegetation type AET ≤ PET given soil water content (and veg. type)
44
Measurement of Evapotranspiration
Water budget method Lysimeters
Empirical formulae
Penman formula 1 Penman formula 2
Note : Penman formula 1 & 2 just for your info and reading only
45
Lysimeters
A container set in a field of growing plants. The
plant growing in the container then constitute a
sample of the field.
There is some arrangement made to weigh the
container. Its loss in weight corresponds to the
evapotranspiration. It takes into account
change in water storage in the ground.
Lysimeters are much more complex, more
expensive to construct and maintain, normally
for research studies.
ET = Rainfall –Percolation ± Weight
change
46
Water budget method, Described in Ch.1
The water balance over a selected time period can be evaluated:
𝜟𝑺
ET = P – Q – G -
𝜟𝒕
On an annual basis, the time chosen for the water balance is better when the
water stored in the ground and in surface storage is approximately the same
throughout the year.
Therefore, 𝜟𝑺 = 0
Assumption is also made for G = 0 due to groundwater movements into or
out of discharge area cannot be made easily.
47
Example
Table below shows the coefficient values for paddy plants according to plant
age. If the potential evaporation, PET is 0.5 cm/day, estimate the water
volume needed to water the paddy field with area of 100 hectares.
Plant age 1 2 3 4
(month)
Plant 0.5 0.75 1.01 0.8
coefficient K’
PET 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
ETa = PET * K’
Total ETa = Average Eta x plant x day
Volume of water needed = Area x Total ETa
48
Penman Formula 1 Extra study
This method requires temperature, air moisture and wind velocity.
Penman Equation:
ET = c [ W 𝑹𝒏 + ( 1 – W) f(u) (𝒆𝒂 - 𝒆𝒅 )]
ET = evapotranspiration (mm/day)
W = weight factor related to temperature
𝑅𝑛 = net radiation equivalent to evaporation
f(u) = function related to wind
(𝑒𝑎 - 𝑒𝑑 ) = the difference between saturated vapor pressure at average air temperature and
average actual saturated vapor pressure (m bar)
C = Regulator factor to compensate day and night effect
49
Penman Formula 1
Wind function f(u) : wind velocity effect on ET can be formulated as:
f(u) = 0.27 (1 + U/100)
U = total wind movement within 24 hour at 2m height (km/day)
Weight factor ( 1 – W) : wind effect and air moisture weight factor.
Weight factor W: Radiation effect on ET factor.
Net radiation factor 𝑹𝒏 ∶ 𝑹𝒏 is the difference between 𝑹𝒏 received and 𝑹𝒏 reflected.
𝑹𝒏 can be calculated using sunshine data, air temperature and air moisture.
𝑹𝒏 = 𝑹𝒏𝒔 - 𝑹𝒏𝟏
50
Penman Formula 1
𝑹𝒏 = 𝑹𝒏𝒔 - 𝑹𝒏𝟏
𝑹𝒏𝒔 is the radiation received and 𝑹𝒏𝟏 is the radiation loss. The following method can be
used to estimate 𝑹𝒏
- Choose 𝑹𝒂 (total radiation) (for particular latitude and month)
- Obtained 𝑹𝒔 value (radiation from air) using formula
𝑹𝒔 = (0.25 + 0.50 n/N) Ra
N (maximum sunlight radiation) value from Table 3.6
- To obtain 𝑹𝒏𝒔 (net short wave radiation), 𝑹𝒔 must be regulated using plants surface
reflection factor, i.e
𝑹𝒏𝒔 = 𝟏 − 𝒂 𝑹𝒔
For many plants a = 0.25
51
Penman Formula 1
𝑹𝒏𝟏 value (net long wave) base on Temperature and n/N value.
𝑹𝒏 = 𝑹𝒏𝒔 - 𝑹𝒏𝟏
Regulator factor, c: Penman Formulation assumed radiation value frequently at rate
medium to high, air moisture medium to high and wind velocity during day is two times
night. But this does not occur all the time.
Therefore requires regulator factor.
52
Penman Formula 2 study only
Penman Equation is also stated as follows:
∆𝐻+0.27 𝐸
ET =
∆+0.27
∆ = the slope of the saturated vapor pressure curve of air at absolute temp (mm Hg/ °F )
H = the daily heat budget at the surface (estimate of net radiation) (mm/day)
E = daily evaporation (mm)
ET = the evapotranspiration or consumptive use for a given period (mm/day)
53
Penman Formula 2
The variable E and H are calculated using the following equations:
E = 0.35 (𝒆𝒂 - 𝒆𝒅 ) (1 + 0.0098 𝑼𝟐 )
Where
𝑒𝑎 - 𝑒𝑑 = the difference between saturated vapor pressure at average air temperature and
average actual saturated vapor pressure in the air (m bar)
𝑈2 = the mean wind speed at 2m above the ground (mi/day)
The equation used to determined the daily heat budget at the surface, H, is :
H = R ( 1- r) (0.18 + 0.55S) – B ( 0.56 – 0.092ed0.5 ) (0.10 + 0.90S)
Where
R = the mean monthly extraterrestrial radiation (mm H2O evaporated per day)
r = the estimated percentage of reflecting surface
B = a temperature – dependent concentration
S = the estimated ratio of actual duration of bright sunshine to maximum possible duration of
bright sunshine.
54
4.4 Interception
“If you ever run for cover under a large
tree when it began to rain, you have
experienced interception in action”
[J.C. Manning]
Definition:
Interception is the process of
vegetation canopy capturing
precipitation before it reaches
the ground
⤷ it depends on the storage capacity
of and the evaporation from the
surface of canopy
⤷ The precipitation detained by interception is dissipated as stem flow down the trunks of the
trees and evaporation from the leaf surface. The amount of precipitation reaching the ground
falling through the canopy is called “throughfall”
⤷ Interception reduces infiltration and overland flow
55
Interception
rainfall
throughfall
stemflow
Interception = Rainfall – stemflow – throughfall
1. Interception loss : rain water retained by the vegetationas surface storage
>>>> evaporate
2. Througfall : rain water can drip off the plant leaves to join the ground surface or
the surface flow
3. Stemflow: the rain water may run along the leaves and braches and down the 56
stem to reach the ground surface
Interception losses
• the storage capacity of vegetation canopy depends on
canopy density and canopy type
conifers have higher storage capacity than broad-leaved trees
• evaporation from vegetation canopy depends on storm duration
– it increases for intermittent, it decreases for continuous rainfall
• at the annual scale interception losses reach 10-20% of the total
precipitation, with higher values for conifers
57
5
7
Measurement of canopy interception
the canopy interception over a
duration T is “measured” by
computing the difference between
⤷ gross precipitation, P
⤷ and stem flow + throughfall,
Pʹ + Pʺ
I T PT PT' PT''
PT, PTʺ measured with raingauges
PTʹguided along the trunk by a metal
gutter and collected in a
graduated/recording tank
58
5
8
Measurement of canopy interception
59
5
9
Influencing Factors
1. Storm characteristics : rainfall intensity, duration,wind
…etc
2. The vegetation : species, age, density of plantsand
trees
3. Season of the year: time of plant growing
It is estimated of that : of the total rainfall in area during
plant-growing season, the interception loss is 10-20 %.
-20 60
Interception loss as
100
Beech trees
% Rainfall
80
60
40
20
5 10 15 20 30
Rainfall (mm)
Estimation of interception can be significant in annual or long-term models
For heavy rainfalls during individual storm events interception is neglected
61
Estimation of Interception
Most interception loss develops during the initial storm
period and the rate of interception rapidly approach to zero.
Horton equation:
Ii = 0.015+ 0.23 P (ash trees)
Ii = 0.03+ 0.22 P (oak trees)
For p > 1 mm
62
Estimation of Interception
Ii = Si + KiEt
Ii = the volume of water intercepted (mm)
SI = the interception storage whose values varies from 0.25 to 1.5
depending on the nature of vegetation
Ki = ration of vegetal surface area to its projected area
E = Evaporation rate in (mm/h) during the precipitation
t = duration of rainfall in hours
63
4.5 Depression Storage
When the precipitation of a storm reaches the ground, it must fill up all
depressions before it can flow over the surface
The volume of water trapped in these depressions called depression storage
64
