MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT.

OF ECE

ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY AND Syllabus

TRANSMISSION LINES UNIT - I:

Electrostatics: Basics of coordinate system, Coulomb’s Law, Electric Field Intensity - Fields due
to Different Charge Distributions, Electric Flux Density, Gauss Law and Applications, Electric
Potential, Relations Between E and V, Maxwell's Equations for Electrostatic Fields, Energy

B.TECH Density, Dielectric Constant, Isotropic and Homogeneous Dielectrics, Continuity Equation,
Relaxation Time, Poisson's and Laplace's Equations; Capacitance - Parallel plate, Illustrative

(II YEAR – II SEM)

Problems.

UNIT - II:
Magneto statics: Biot - Savart's Law , Ampere's Circuital Law and Applications, Magnetic Flux
(2017-18) Density, Maxwell's Equations for Magnetostatic Fields, Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials,
Forces due to Magnetic Fields, Ampere's Force Law, Inductance and Magnetic Energy,
Illustrative Problem.
Maxwell's Equations (Time Varying Fields): Faraday's Law and Transformer EMF, Displacement
Current Density, Maxwell's Equations in Different Final Forms, Conditions at a Boundary
Prepared by: Surface: Dielectric - Dielectric, Illustrative Problems.
Mr. K.Mallikarjuna Lingam, Associate Professor
UNIT - III:
Ms.N.Saritha, Assistant Professor EM Wave Characteristics - I: Wave Equations for Conducting and Perfect Dielectric Media,
Uniform Plane Waves - Definition, Relation Between E & H, Wave Propagation in Lossless and
Conducting Media, Wave Propagation in Good Conductors and Good Dielectrics, Illustrative
Problems.
EM Wave Characteristics - II: Reflection and Refraction of Plane Waves - Normal for both
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering perfect Conductor and perfect Dielectrics, Brewster Angle, Critical Angle and Total Internal
Reflection, Surface Impedance, Poynting Vector and Poynting Theorem , Illustrative Problems.

UNIT - IV:
Transmission Lines - I: Types, Parameters, Transmission Line Equations, Primary & Secondary
Constants, Expressions for Characteristics Impedance, Propagation Constant, Phase and Group
Velocities, Infinite Line Concepts, Lossless transmission line, Distortion - Condition for
Distortionlessness and Minimum Attenuation, Illustrative Problems.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE UNIT - V:

OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY Transmission Lines - II: SC and OC Lines, Input Impedance Relations, Reflection Coefficient,
VSWR, λ/4, λ 2, λ /8 Lines - Impedance Transformations, Smith Chart - Configuration and
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India) Applications, Single Stub Matching, Illustrative Problems.
Recognized under 2(f) and 12 (B) of UGC ACT 1956
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NBA & NAAC – ‘A’ Grade - ISO 9001:2015 Certified)
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Kompally), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, India

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF ECE MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF ECE

UNIT – I- Electrostatics INTRODUCTION

Contents
VECTOR ALGEBRA
 Basics of coordinate system
 Coulomb’s Law Vector Algebra is a part of algebra that deals with the theory of vectors and vector spaces.
 Electric Field Intensity - Fields due to Different Charge Distributions
Most of the physical quantities are either scalar or vector quantities.
 Electric Flux Density
 Gauss Law and Applications,
 Electric Potential, SCALAR QUANTITY:
 Relations between E and V
 Maxwell’s Equations for Electrostatic Fields Scalar is a number that defines magnitude. Hence a scalar quantity is defined as a
 Energy Density quantity that has magnitude only. A scalar quantity does not point to any direction i.e. a
 Dielectric Constant scalar quantity has no directional component.
 Isotropic and Homogeneous Dielectrics,
 Continuity Equation For example when we say, the temperature of the room is 30o C, we don‘t specify the direction.
 Relaxation Time Hence examples of scalar quantities are mass, temperature, volume, speed etc.
 Poisson's and Laplace's Equations
 Capacitance - Parallel plate A scalar quantity is represented simply by a letter – A, B, T, V, S.
 Problems.
VECTOR QUANTITY:

A Vector has both a magnitude and a direction. Hence a vector quantity is a

quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

Examples of vector quantities are force, displacement, velocity, etc.

A vector quantity is represented by a letter with an arrow over it or a bold letter.

UNIT VECTORS:

When a simple vector is divided by its own magnitude, a new vector is created known as
the unit vector. A unit vector has a magnitude of one. Hence the name - unit vector.
A unit vector is always used to describe the direction of respective vector.

Hence any vector can be written as the product of its magnitude and its unit vector. Unit Vectors
along the co-ordinate directions are referred to as the base vectors. For example unit vectors
along X, Y and Z directions are ax, ay and az respectively.
̅̅̅̅ ):
Position Vector / Radius Vector (𝑂𝑃

A Position Vector / Radius vector define the position of a point(P) in space relative to
the origin(O).Hence Position vector is another way to denote a point in space.
2 ̅̅̅̅ 3
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑥𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑦𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝑧𝑎̅𝑧

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Displacement Vector 2. Cross Product (A X B):

Displacement Vector is the displacement or the shortest distance from one point to another. Cross Product of two vectors A and B is given as:

Vector Multiplication 𝐴̅𝑋 𝐵̅ = │𝐴̅││𝐵̅│ sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵 𝑎̅𝑁

When two vectors are multiplied the result is either a scalar or a vector depending on how Where 𝜃𝐴𝐵 is the angle formed between A and B and 𝑎̅𝑁 is a unit vector normal to both A and B.
they are multiplied. The two important types of vector multiplication are: Also θ ranges from 0 to π i.e. 0 ≤ 𝜃𝐴𝐵 ≤ π

 Dot Product/Scalar Product (A.B) The cross product is an operation between two vectors and the output is also a vector.
 Cross product (A x B)
Properties of Cross Product:
1. DOT PRODUCT (A. B):
1. If A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz) then,
Dot product of two vectors A and B is defined as:
𝐴̅. 𝐵̅ = │𝐴̅││𝐵̅│ cos 𝜃𝐴𝐵

Where 𝜃𝐴𝐵 is the angle formed between A and B.

Also 𝜃𝐴𝐵 ranges from 0 to π i.e. 0 ≤ 𝜃𝐴𝐵 ≤ π
The result of A.B is a scalar, hence dot product is also known as Scalar Product.
The resultant vector is always normal to both the vector A and B.
Properties of Dot Product:

1. If A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz) then

2. 𝐴̅𝑋𝐵̅ = 0, if sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 0 which means 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 00 or 1800;
𝐴̅. 𝐵̅= AxBx + AyBy + AzBz This shows that A and B are either parallel or antiparallel to each other.

2. 𝐴̅. 𝐵̅= |A| |B|, if cos𝜃𝐴𝐵 =1 which means θ AB = 00 ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ 𝑁 , if sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 0 which means 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 900.
6.3. 𝐴𝑋𝐵 =│𝐴││𝐵 │𝑎
This shows that A and B are orthogonal or perpendicular to each other.
This shows that A and B are in the same direction or we can also say that A and B are
parallel to each other.
4. Since we know the Cartesian base vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other, we have
3. 𝐴̅. 𝐵̅ = - |A| |B|, if cos 𝜃𝐴𝐵 =-1 which means 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 1800. 𝑎̅𝑥 𝑋 𝑎̅𝑥 = 𝑎̅𝑦 𝑋 𝑎̅𝑦 = 𝑎̅𝑧 𝑋𝑎̅𝑧 = 0
This shows that A and B are in the opposite direction or we can also say that A and B are 𝑎̅𝑥 𝑋 𝑎̅𝑦 = 𝑎̅𝑧 , 𝑎̅𝑦 𝑋 𝑎̅𝑧 = 𝑎̅𝑥 , 𝑎̅𝑧 𝑋 𝑎̅𝑥 = 𝑎̅𝑦
antiparallel to each other.

4.
5. 𝐴̅. 𝐵̅ = 0, if cos 𝜃𝐴𝐵 =0 which means 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 900.
This shows that A and B are orthogonal or perpendicular to each other.

5. Since we know the Cartesian base vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other, we have

𝑎̅𝑥 . 𝑎̅𝑥 = 𝑎̅𝑦 . 𝑎̅𝑦 = 𝑎̅𝑧 . 𝑎̅𝑧 = 1

𝑎̅𝑥 . 𝑎̅𝑦 = 𝑎̅𝑦 . 𝑎̅𝑧 = 𝑎̅𝑧 . 𝑎̅𝑥 = 0

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF ECE MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF ECE

CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS Range of the variables:

It defines the minimum and the maximum value that x, y and z can have in Cartesian system.
Co-Ordinate system is a system of representing points in a space of given dimensions by -∞ ≤ x,y,z ≤ ∞
coordinates, such as the Cartesian coordinate system or the system of celestial longitude and
latitude. Differential Displacement / Differential Length (dl):

In order to describe the spatial variations of the quantities, appropriate coordinate system is It is given as
required. A point or vector can be represented in a curvilinear coordinate system that may be
orthogonal or non-orthogonal. An orthogonal system is one in which the coordinates are mutually ̅ = 𝑑𝑥𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎̅𝑧
𝑑𝑙
perpendicular to each other.
Differential length for a line parallel to x, y and z axis are respectively given as:
The different co-ordinate system available are:
dl = 𝑑𝑥𝑎̅𝑥 ---( For a line parallel to x-axis).
 Cartesian or Rectangular co-ordinate system.(Example: Cube, Cuboid) dl = 𝑑𝑦𝑎̅𝑦 ---( For a line Parallel to y-axis).
dl = 𝑑𝑧𝑎̅𝑧 ---( For a line parallel to z-axis).
 Circular Cylindrical co-ordinate system.(Example : Cylinder)
If there is a wire of length L in z-axis, then the differential length is given as dl = dz az. Similarly
 Spherical co-ordinate system. (Example: Sphere) if the wire is in y-axis then the differential length is given as dl = dy ay.

The choice depends on the geometry of the application. Differential Normal Surface (ds):
A set of 3 scalar values that define position and a set of unit vectors that define direction form Differential surface is basically a cross product between two parameters of the surface.
a co-ordinate system. The 3 scalar values used to define position are called co-ordinates. All The differential surface (area element) is defined as
coordinates are defined with respect to an arbitrary point called the origin. ̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑠𝑎̅𝑁
Where𝑎̅𝑁 , is the unit vector perpendicular to the surface.
1. Cartesian Co-ordinate System / Rectangular Co-ordinate System (x,y,z)
For the 1st figure,
̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑎̅𝑥

2nd figure,
̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑎̅𝑦

3rd figure,
̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑎̅𝑧

Differential Volume:

The differential volume element (dv) can be expressed in terms of the triple product.
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

A Vector in Cartesian system is represented as (Ax, Ay, Az) Or

𝐴̅ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎̅𝑧
Where𝑎̅𝑥 ,𝑎̅𝑦 and 𝑎̅𝑧are the unit vectors in x, y, z direction respectively.

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Range of the variables:

It defines the minimum and the maximum values of r, Φ and z.

0≤r≤∞
0 ≤ Φ ≤ 2π
-∞ ≤ z ≤ ∞

Figure shows Point P and Unit vectors in Cylindrical Co-ordinate System.

Differential Displacement / Differential Length (dl):

It is given as

̅ = 𝑑𝑟𝑎̅𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑎̅𝜑 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎̅𝑧

𝑑𝑙
2. Circular Cylindrical Co-ordinate System
Differential length for a line parallel to r, Φ and z axis are respectively given as:

A Vector in Cylindrical system is represented as (Ar, AǾ, Az) or dl = 𝑑𝑟𝑎̅𝑟 ---( For a line parallel to r-direction).
𝐴̅ = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎̅𝑟 + 𝐴∅ 𝑎̅∅ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎̅𝑧 dl = 𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑎̅𝜑 ---( For a line Parallel to Φ-direction).
dl = 𝑑𝑧𝑎̅𝑧 ---( For a line parallel to z-axis).
Where𝑎̅𝑟 , 𝑎̅∅ and 𝑎̅𝑧 are the unit vectors in r, Φ and z directions respectively.
Differential Normal Surface (ds):
The physical significance of each parameter of cylindrical coordinates:
Differential surface is basically a cross product between two parameters of the surface.
1. The value r indicates the distance of the point from the z-axis. It is the radius of the The differential surface (area element) is defined as
cylinder. ̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑠𝑎̅𝑁
2. The value Φ, also called the azimuthal angle, indicates the rotation angle around the z- Where𝑎̅𝑁 , is the unit vector perpendicular to the surface.
axis. It is basically measured from the x axis in the x-y plane. It is measured anti
clockwise. This surface describes a circular disc. Always remember- To define a circular disk we
3. The value z indicates the distance of the point from z-axis. It is the same as in the need two parameter one distance measure and one angular measure. An angular parameter
Cartesian system. In short, it is the height of the cylinder. will always give a curved line or an arc.
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In this case dΦ is measured in terms of change in arc.

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Arc is given as: Differential length:

Arc= radius * angle It is given as
̅̅̅ = 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑎̅𝑧
𝑑𝑠 ̅ = 𝑑𝑟𝑎̅𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎̅𝜃 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑𝑎̅𝜑
𝑑𝑙
̅̅̅ = 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝑧𝑎̅𝜑
𝑑𝑠
̅̅̅ = 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑎̅𝑟
𝑑𝑠 Differential length for a line parallel to r, θ and Φ axis are respectively given as:

Differential Volume: dl = 𝑑𝑟𝑎̅𝑟 --(For a line parallel to r axis)

The differential volume element (dv) can be expressed in terms of the triple product. dl = 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎̅𝜃 ---( For a line parallel to θ direction)
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑑𝑧
dl = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑𝑎̅𝜑 --(For a line parallel to Φ direction)
3. Spherical coordinate System:

Spherical coordinates consist of one scalar value (r), with units of distance, while the other two Differential Normal Surface (ds):
scalarvalues (θ, Φ) have angular units (degrees or radians).
Differential surface is basically a cross product between two parameters of the surface.
A Vector in Spherical System is represented as (Ar ,AӨ, AΦ) or The differential surface (area element) is defined as
𝐴̅ = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎̅𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎̅𝜃 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎̅𝜑 ̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑠𝑎̅𝑁
Where𝑎̅𝑟 ,𝑎̅𝜃 and 𝑎̅𝜑 are the unit vectors in r, θ and Φ direction respectively. Where𝑎̅𝑁 , is the unit vector perpendicular to the surface.

̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎̅𝜑
The physical significance of each parameter of spherical coordinates:
̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑𝑑𝜃𝑎̅𝑟
1. The value r expresses the distance of the point from origin (i.e. similar to ̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑎̅𝜃
altitude). It is the radius of the sphere.
2. The angle θ is the angle formed with the z- axis (i.e. similar to latitude). It is also Differential Volume:
called the co-latitude angle. It is measured clockwise.
The differential volume element (dv) can be expressed in terms of the triple product.
3. The angle Φ, also called the azimuthal angle, indicates the rotation angle around the z-
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑑𝜃
axis (i.e. similar to longitude). It is basically measured from the x axis in the x-y plane.
It is measured counter-clockwise.

Range of the variables:

It defines the minimum and the maximum value that r, θ and υ can have in spherical co-ordinate
system.

0≤r≤∞
0≤θ≤π
0 ≤ Φ≤ 2π

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Coordinate transformations:

DIVERGENCE THEOREM:

It states that the net outward flux of a vector field A through a closed surface S is equal to the
volume integral of the divergence of the field A inside the surface.

STOKES THEOREM:

It states that the circulation of a vector field A around a closed path L is equal to the
surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by L.

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Electrostatics:
Electrostatics is a branch of science that involves the study of various phenomena caused by
As shown in the Figure 1 let the position vectors of the point charges Q1and Q2 are given by
electric charges that are slow-moving or even stationary. Electric charge is a fundamental
property of matter and charge exist in integral multiple of electronic charge. Electrostatics as the
and . Let represent the force on Q1 due to charge Q2.
study of electric charges at rest.

The two important laws of electrostatics are

 Coulomb‘s Law.
 Gauss‘s Law.

Both these laws are used to find the electric field due to different charge configurations.

Coulomb‘s law is applicable in finding electric field due to any charge configurations where as
Gauss‘s law is applicable only when the charge distribution is symmetrical.

Coulomb's Law
Fig 1: Coulomb's Law
Coulomb's Law states that the force between two point charges Q1and Q2 is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance The charges are separated by a distance of . We define the unit vectors as
between them.
A point charge is a charge that occupies a region of space which is negligibly small compared to
the distance between the point charge and any other object. and
Point charge is a hypothetical charge located at a single point in space. It is an idealized model of
a particle having an electric charge.
can be defined as .

Mathematically, , where k is the proportionality constant. Similarly the force on Q1 due to charge Q2 can be calculated and if represents this force then

we can write
In SI units, Q1 and Q2 are expressed in Coulombs(C) and R is in meters.
When we have a number of point charges, to determine the force on a particular charge due to all
other charges, we apply principle of superposition. If we have N number of charges
Force F is in Newtons (N) and , is called the permittivity of free space.
Q1,Q2,.........QN located respectively at the points represented by the position vectors , ,......
(We are assuming the charges are in free space. If the charges are any other dielectric medium, , the force experienced by a charge Q located at is given by,
we will use instead where is called the relative permittivity or the dielectric
constant of the medium).

Therefore ....................... (1) 14 15

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Electric Field:

Electric field due to a charge is the space around the unit charge in which it experiences a force.
Electric field intensity or the electric field strength at a point is defined as the force per unit
charge.

Mathematically,
E=F/Q
Fig 2: Continuous Volume Distribution of Charge
OR
When this expression is integrated over the source region, we get the electric field at the point P
F=EQ
The force on charge Q is the product of a charge (which is a scalar) and the value of the due to this distribution of charges. Thus the expression for the electric field at P can be written
electric field (which is a vector) at the point where the charge is located. That is as:

or,
...............volume charge...........................
The electric field intensity E at a point r (observation point) due a point charge Q located at
Similar technique can be adopted when the charge distribution is in the form of a line charge
(source point) is given by:
density or a surface charge density.

.....................line charge ................

For a collection of N point charges Q1 ,Q2 ,.........QN located at , ,...... , the electric field

intensity at point is obtained as

..................surface charge......................

Electric Lines of Forces:

The expression (6) can be modified suitably to compute the electric filed due to a continuous
Electric line of force is a pictorial representation of the electric field.
distribution of charges.
Electric line of force (also called Electric Flux lines or Streamlines) is an imaginary straight or
In figure 2 we consider a continuous volume distribution of charge (t) in the region denoted as curved path along which a unit positive charge tends to move in an electric field.
the source region.
Properties Of Electric Lines Of Force:
For an elementary charge , i.e. considering this charge as point charge, we can
1. Lines of force start from positive charge and terminate either at negative
write the field expression as: charge or move to infinity.
2. Similarly lines of force due to a negative charge are assumed to start at
infinity and terminate at the negative charge.
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Gauss's Law:

Gauss's law is one of the fundamental laws of electromagnetism and it states that the total
electric flux through a closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by the surface.

3. The number of lines per unit area, through a plane at right angles to the lines, is
proportional to the magnitude of E. This means that, where the lines of force are close
together, E is large and where they are far apart E is small.

4. If there is no charge in a volume, then each field line which enters it must also leave it.

5. If there is a positive charge in a volume then more field lines leave it than enter it.

6. If there is a negative charge in a volume then more field lines enter it than leave it.

7. Hence we say Positive charges are sources and Negative charges are sinks of the field.
Fig 3: Gauss's Law
8. These lines are independent on medium.
Let us consider a point charge Q located in an isotropic homogeneous medium of dielectric
9. Lines of force never intersect i.e. they do not cross each other.
constant . The flux density at a distance r on a surface enclosing the charge is given by
10. Tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of the electric field E at that
point.

If we consider an elementary area ds, the amount of flux passing through the elementary area is
Electricfluxdensity:
given by
As stated earlier electric field intensity or simply ‘Electric field' gives the strength of the field at
a particular point. The electric field depends on the material media in which the field is being
considered. The flux density vector is defined to be independent of the material media (as we'll
see that it relates to the charge that is producing it).For a linear isotropic medium under
consideration; the flux density vector is defined as: But , is the elementary solid angle subtended by the area at the location of Q.

Therefore we can write

We define the electric flux as

For a closed surface enclosing the charge, we can write

which can seen to be same as what we have stated in the definition of Gauss's Law.

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can write,

This equation is called the 1st Maxwell's equation of electrostatics.

Application of Gauss's Law:

Gauss's law is particularly useful in computing or where the charge distribution has some Fig 4: Infinite Line Charge

symmetry. We shall illustrate the application of Gauss's Law with some examples.

1. due to an infinite line charge

2. Infinite Sheet of Charge
As the first example of illustration of use of Gauss's law, let consider the problem of
As a second example of application of Gauss's theorem, we consider an infinite charged sheet
determination of the electric field produced by an infinite line charge of density LC/m. Let us
consider a line charge positioned along the z-axis as shown in Fig. 4(a) (next slide). Since the covering the x-z plane as shown in figure 5. Assuming a surface charge density of for the
line charge is assumed to be infinitely long, the electric field will be of the form as shown in Fig. infinite surface charge, if we consider a cylindrical volume having sides placed symmetrically
4(b) (next slide). as shown in figure 5, we can write:

If we consider a close cylindrical surface as shown in Fig. 2.4(a), using Gauss's theorm we can
write,

Considering the fact that the unit normal vector to areas S1 and S3 are perpendicular to the
20 21
electric field, the surface integrals for the top and bottom surfaces evaluates to zero. Hence we

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF ECE MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF ECE

By applying Gauss's theorem,

Therefore

For the region ; the total enclosed charge will be

Fig 5: Infinite Sheet of Charge

By applying Gauss's theorem,

It may be noted that the electric field strength is independent of distance. This is true for the
infinite plane of charge; electric lines of force on either side of the charge will be perpendicular
to the sheet and extend to infinity as parallel lines. As number of lines of force per unit area gives
the strength of the field, the field becomes independent of distance. For a finite charge sheet, the
Electric Potential / Electrostatic Potential (V):
field will be a function of distance.
If a charge is placed in the vicinity of another charge (or in the field of another charge), it
experiences a force. If a field being acted on by a force is moved from one point to another, then
3. Uniformly Charged Sphere work is either said to be done on the system or by the system.
Let us consider a sphere of radius r0 having a uniform volume charge density of rv C/m3. To
Say a point charge Q is moved from point A to point B in an electric field E, then the
determine everywhere, inside and outside the sphere, we construct Gaussian surfaces of work done in moving the point charge is given as:
radius r < r0 and r > r0 as shown in Fig. 6 (a) and Fig. 6(b).
WA→B = - ∫AB (F . dl) = - Q ∫AB(E . dl)
For the region ; the total enclosed charge will be
where the – ve sign indicates that the work is done on the system by an external agent.

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Fig 6: Uniformly Charged Sphere

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF ECE MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF ECE

Thus the potential difference between two points in an electrostatic field is a scalar field that
is defined at every point in space and is independent of the path taken.
The work done per unit charge in moving a test charge from point A to point B is the
electrostatic potential difference between the two points(VAB).
- The work done in moving a point charge from point A to point B can be written as:
VAB = WA→B / Q
𝐵
WA→B = - Q [VB – VA] = −𝑄 ∫𝐴 𝐸̅ . 𝑑𝑙 ̅
- ∫AB(E . dl)
- Consider a point charge Q at origin O.
- ∫InitialFinal (E . dl)

If the potential difference is positive, there is a gain in potential energy in the movement,
external agent performs the work against the field. If the sign of the potential difference is
negative, work is done by the field.

The electrostatic field is conservative i.e. the value of the line integral depends only on
end points and is independent of the path taken.

Now if a unit test charge is moved from point A to Point B, then the potential difference between
them is given as:

- Since the electrostatic field is conservative, the electric potential can also be written as:

𝐵
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ∫ ̅ ̅
𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙
𝐴

𝑝0 𝐵
̅ −∫ 𝐸
̅ . 𝑑𝑙
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ∫ 𝐸 ̅
̅ . 𝑑𝑙 - Electrostatic potential or Scalar Electric potential (V) at any point P is given by:
𝐴 𝑝0
𝐵 𝐴
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ∫ 𝐸 ̅+ ∫ 𝐸
̅ . 𝑑𝑙 ̅
̅ . 𝑑𝑙 𝑃
𝑝0 𝑝0 ̅
𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸̅ . 𝑑𝑙
𝑃0

𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴

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The reference point Po is where the potential is zero (analogues to ground in a circuit). Second Maxwell’s Equation of Electrostatics:
The reference is often taken to be at infinity so that the potential of a point in space is
defined as The work done per unit charge in moving a test charge from point A to point B is the
electrostatic potential difference between the two points(VAB).
𝑃
̅
𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸̅ . 𝑑𝑙 VAB = VB – VA
∞

Similarly,
Basically potential is considered to be zero at infinity. Thus potential at any point ( rB = r) due
to a point charge Q can be written as the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive VBA = VA – VB
charge frominfinity to that point (i.e. rA → ∞)
Hence it‘s clear that potential difference is independent of the path taken. Therefore
Electric potential (V) at point r due to a point charge Q located at a point with position vector VAB = - VBA
r1 is given as:

VAB+ VBA = 0

∫AB (E . dl) + [ - ∫BA (E . dl) ] = 0

Similarly for N point charges Q1, Q2 ….Qn located at points with position vectors r1,
r2, r3…..rn, theelectric potential (V) at point r is given as:

The above equation is called the second Maxwell‘s Equation of Electrostatics in integral form..
The above equation shows that the line integral of Electric field intensity (E) along a closed path
is equal to zero.
The charge element dQ and the total charge due to different charge distribution is given as: In simple words―No work is done in moving a charge along a closed path in an electrostatic
field.
dQ = ρldl → Q = ∫L (ρldl) → (Line Charge)
Applying Stokes‘ Theorem to the above Equation, we have:
dQ = ρsds → Q = ∫S (ρsds) → (Surface Charge)

dQ = ρvdv → Q = ∫V (ρvdv) → (Volume Charge)

If the Curl of any vector field is equal to zero, then such a vector field is called an Irrotational or
Conservative Field. Hence an electrostatic field is also called a conservative field.
The above equation is called the second Maxwell‘s Equation of Electrostatics in differential
form.

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Relationship Between Electric Field Intensity (E) and Electric Potential (V): Now bring in another point charge Q3 from infinity to position r3 in the system. In this case
we have to do work against the electric field generated by Q1 and Q2.
Since Electric potential is a scalar quantity, hence dV (as a function of x, y and z variables) can
be written as:
Hence, W3 = Q3 V31 + Q3 V32 = Q3 ( V31 + V32 )

where V31 and V32 are electrostatic potential at point r3 due to Q1 and Q2 respectively.

The work done is simply the sum of the work done against the electric field generated by
point charge Q1 and Q2 taken in isolation:

Hence the Electric field intensity (E) is the negative gradient of Electric potential (V).
The negative sign shows that E is directed from higher to lower values of V i.e. E is opposite to
the direction in which V increases.

Energy Density In Electrostatic Field / Work Done To Assemble Charges:

In case, if we wish to assemble a number of charges in an empty system, work is required to do - Thus the total work done in assembling the three charges is given as:
so. Also electrostatic energy is said to be stored in such a collection.

Let us build up a system in which we position three point charges Q1, Q2 and Q3 at position r1, WE = W1 + W2 + W3
r2 and r3 respectively in an initially empty system.
0 + Q2 V21 + Q3 ( V31 + V32 )
Consider a point charge Q1 transferred from infinity to position r1 in the system. It takes no
work to bring the first charge from infinity since there is no electric field to fight against (as the
system is empty i.e. charge free). Also total work done ( WE ) is given as:
Hence, W1 = 0 J

Now bring in another point charge Q2 from infinity to position r2 in the system. In this case we
have to do work against the electric field generated by the first charge Q1.
Hence, W2 = Q2 V21
If the charges were positioned in reverse order, then the total work done in assembling them
where V21 is the electrostatic potential at point r2 due to Q1. is given as:
WE = W3 + W2+ W1
- Work done W2 is also given as: = 0 + Q2V23 + Q3( V12+ V13)

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Where V23 is the electrostatic potential at point r2 due to Q3 and V12 and V13 are electrostatic Since ρv = ∇ . D and E = - ∇ V,
potential at point r1 due to Q2 and Q3 respectively.
Substituting the values in the above equation, work done in assembling a volume charge
distribution in terms of electric field and flux density is given as:
- Adding the above two equations we have,

2WE = Q1 (V12 + V13) + Q2 (V21 + V23) + Q3 (V31 + V32)

= Q1 V1 + Q2 V2 + Q3 V3
The above equation tells us that the potential energy of a continuous charge distribution
is stored in an electric field.

Hence
The electrostatic energy density wE is defined as:
WE =1 / 2 [Q1V1 + Q2V2 + Q3V3]

where V1, V2 and V3 are total potentials at position r1, r2 and r3 respectively.

ELECTROSTATICS-II
- The result can be generalized for N point charges as:
Properties of Materials and Steady Electric Current:
Electric field can not only exist in free space and vacuum but also in any material medium. When
an electric field is applied to the material, the material will modify the electric field either by
strengthening it or weakening it, depending on what kind of material it is.
Materials are classified into 3 groups based on conductivity / electrical property:
The above equation has three interpretation: This equation represents the potential energy of the
system.This is the work done in bringing the static charges from infinity and assembling them in
 Conductors (Metals like Copper, Aluminum, etc.) have high conductivity (σ >> 1).
the required system. This is the kinetic energy which would be released if the system gets
dissolved i.e. the charges returns back to infinity.  Insulators / Dielectric (Vacuum, Glass, Rubber, etc.) have low conductivity (σ << 1).
 Semiconductors (Silicon, Germanium, etc.) have intermediate conductivity.
In place of point charge, if the system has continuous charge distribution ( line, surface or
volume charge), then the total work done in assembling them is given as: Conductivity (σ) is a measure of the ability of the material to conduct electricity. It is
the reciprocal of resistivity (ρ). Units of conductivity are Siemens/meter and mho.

The basic difference between a conductor and an insulator lies in the amount of free electrons
available for conduction of current. Conductors have a large amount of free electrons where as
insulators have only a few number ofelectrons for conduction of current. Most of the conductors
obey ohm‘s law. Such conductors are also called ohmic conductors.

Due to the movement of free charges, several types of electric current can be caused.
The different types of electric current are:

 Conduction Current.
 Convection Current.
 Displacement Current.
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Electric current: Where angle θ is the angle between the normal to the area and direction of the current.

Electric current (I) defines the rate at which the net charge passes through a wire of From the above equation it‘s clear that electric current is a scalar quantity.
cross sectional surface area S.
CONVECTION CURRENT DENSITY:
Mathematically,
Convection current occurs in insulators or dielectrics such as liquid, vacuum and rarified gas.
If a net charge ΔQ moves across surface S in some small amount of time Δt, electric current(I) Convection current results from motion of electrons or ions in an insulating medium. Since
is defined as: convection current doesn‘t involve conductors, hence it does not satisfy ohm‘s law. Consider a
filament where there is a flow of charge ρv at a velocity u = uy ay.

How fast or how speed the charges will move depends on the nature of the material medium.

Current density:

Current density (J) is defined as current ΔI flowing through surface ΔS.

Imagine surface area ΔS inside a conductor at right angles to the flow of current. As the
area approaches zero, the current density at a point is defined as:

- Hence the current is given as:

The above equation is applicable only when current density (J) is normal to the surface.
In case if current density(J) is not perpendicular to the surface, consider a small area ds of
the conductor at an angle θ to the flow of current as shown:

In this case current flowing through the area is given as:

dI = J dS cosθ = J . dS and 𝐼 = ∫𝑆 𝐽 ̅ . ̅̅̅

𝑑𝑠

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Where uy is the velocity of the moving electron or ion and ρ v is the free volume charge density. Consider a conducting wire in which charges subjected to an electric field are moving with
drift velocity υd.
- Hence the convection current density in general is given as: Say there are Ne free electrons per cubic meter of conductor, then the free volume
charge density(ρv)within the wire is
J = ρv u
ρv= - e Ne
Conduction Current Density:
The charge ΔQ is given as:
Conduction current occurs in conductors where there are a large number of free electrons.
Conduction current occurs due to the drift motion of electrons (charge carriers). Conduction ΔQ = ρv ΔV = - e Ne ΔS Δl = - e Ne ΔS υd Δt
current obeys ohm‘s law.
When an external electric field is applied to a metallic conductor, conduction current - The incremental current is thus given as:
occurs due to the drift of electrons.

The charge inside the conductor experiences a force due to the electric field and hence should
accelerate but due to continuous collision with atomic lattice, their velocity is reduced. The net
effect is that the electrons moves or drifts with an average velocity called the drift
velocity (υd) which is proportional to the applied electric field (E).

Hence according to Newton‘s law, if an electron with a mass m is moving in an electric

field E with anaverage drift velocity υd, the the average change in momentum of the free
electron must be equal to the applied force (F = - e E).

The conduction current density is thus defined as:

where σ is the conductivity of the material.

The above equation is known as the Ohm‘s law in point form and is valid at every point
The drift velocity per unit applied electric field is called the mobility of electrons (μe). in space.
υd = - μe E In a semiconductor, current flow is due to the movement of both electrons and
holes, hence conductivity is given as:
where μe is defined as:
σ = ( Ne μe + Nh μh )e

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DIELECTRC CONSTANT: CONTINUITY EQUATION:

It is also known as Relative permittivity. The continuity equation is derived from two of Maxwell's equations. It states that the
divergence of the current density is equal to the negative rate of change of the charge density,
If two charges q 1 and q 2 are separated from each other by a small distance r. Then by
using the coulombs law of forces the equation formed will be

Derivation
One of Maxwell's equations, Ampère's law, states that
In the above equation is the electrical permittivity or you can say it, Dielectric constant.
If we repeat the above case with only one change i.e. only change in the separation
medium between the charges. Here some material medium must be used. Then the
equation formed will be. Taking the divergence of both sides results in

Now after division of above two equations but the divergence of a curl is zero, so that

Another one of Maxwell's equations, Gauss's law, states that

In the above figure

is the Relative Permittivity. Again one thing to notice is that the dielectric constant is
Substitute this into equation (1) to obtain
represented by the symbol (K) but permittivity by the symbol

which is the continuity equation.

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LAPLACE'S AND POISSON'S EQUATIONS: Polarization of Dielectric:

If a material contains polar molecules, they will generally be in random orientations when
A useful approach to the calculation of electric potentials is to relate that potential to the no electric field is applied. An applied electric field will polarize the material by orienting
charge density which gives rise to it. The electric field is related to the charge density by the the dipole moments of polar molecules.
divergence relationship

This decreases the effective electric

field between the plates and will
increase the capacitance of the parallel
plate structure. The dielectric must be
and the electric field is related to the electric potential by a gradient relationship a good electric insulator so as to
minimize any DC leakage current
through a capacitor.

Therefore the potential is related to the charge density by Poisson's equation

In a charge-free region of space, this becomes LaPlace's equation

The presence of the dielectric decreases the electric field produced by a given charge density.

This mathematical operation, the divergence of the gradient of a function, is called the
LaPlacian. Expressing the LaPlacian in different coordinate systems to take advantage of the
symmetry of a charge distribution helps in the solution for the electric potential V. For example, The factor k by which the effective field is decreased by the polarization of the
if the charge distribution has spherical symmetry, you use the LaPlacian in spherical polar dielectric is called the dielectric constant of the material.
coordinates.
Since the potential is a scalar function, this approach has advantages over trying to calculate the Capacitance:
electric field directly. Once the potential has been calculated, the electric field can be computed
by taking the gradient of the potential. The capacitance of a set of charged parallel plates is increased by the insertion of adielectric
material. The capacitance is inversely proportional to the electric field between the plates,
and the presence of the dielectric reduces the effective electric field. The dielectric is
characterized by a dielectric constant k, and the capacitance is multiplied by that factor.
Parallel Plate Capacitor

Show

The capacitance of flat, parallel metallic plates of area A and separation d is given by
the expression above where:
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= permittivity of space and

k = relative permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates.

k=1 for free space, k>1 for all media, approximately =1 for air.

The Farad, F, is the SI unit for capacitance and from the definition of capacitance is seen to
be equal to a Coulomb/Volt.
Fig 1.: Series Connection of Capacitors

Fig 2: Parallel Connection of Capacitors

Series and parallel Connection of capacitors
The same approach may be extended to more than two capacitors connected in series.
Capacitors are connected in various manners in electrical circuits; series and parallel connections
Parallel Case: For the parallel case, the voltages across the capacitors are the same.
are the two basic ways of connecting capacitors. We compute the equivalent capacitance for such
The total charge
connections.
Series Case: Series connection of two capacitors is shown in the figure 1. For this case we can
Therefore,
write,
Capacitance of Parallel Plates:

The electric field between two large parallel plates

is given by
.......................(1)

42 43
The voltage difference between the two plates can be expressed in terms of the workdone on
a positive test charge q when it moves from the positive to the negative plate.
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and taking the limits gives

It then follows from the definition of capacitance that
Further confirmation of this comes from examining the potential of a charged conducting sphere:

Spherical Capacitor:
Cylindrical Capacitor:
The capacitance for spherical or cylindrical conductors can be obtained by evaluating
For a cylindrical geometry like a coaxial cable, the capacitance is usually stated as a
the voltage difference between the conductors for a given charge on each. capacitance per unit length. The charge resides on the outer surface of the inner conductor and
By applying Gauss' law to an charged conducting sphere, the electric field outside it is found to the inner wall of the outer conductor. The capacitance expression is
be

The voltage between the spheres can be found by integrating the electric field along a radial line:

From the definition of capacitance, the capacitance is The capacitance for cylindrical orspherical conductors can be obtained by evaluating the voltage
difference between the conductors for a given charge on each. By applying Gauss' law to an
infinite cylinder in a vacuum, the electric field outside a charged cylinder is found to be

The voltage between the cylinders can be found by integrating the electric field along a
Isolated Sphere Capacitor: radial line:
An isolated charged conducting sphere has capacitance. Applications for such a capacitor may
not be immediately evident, but it does illustrate that a charged sphere has stored some energy as
a result of being charged. Taking the concentric sphere capacitance expression:

From the definition of capacitance and including the case where the volume is filled
by a dielectric of dielectric constant k, the capacitance per unit length is defined above.
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Solved problems: Problem-5

Problem1:

Problem-6

Problem-2

Problem-3 Problem-7

Problem-8
Problem-4

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Problem-9 Problem-12

Problem-10

Problem-13

Problem-11

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UNIT-II
MAGNETOSTATICS
Contents:
 Biot - Savart's Law
 Ampere's Circuital Law and Applications
 Magnetic Flux Density
 Maxwell’s Equations for Magnetostatic Fields
 Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials
 Forces due to Magnetic Fields
 Ampere's Force Law
 Inductance and Magnetic Energy
 Illustrative Problem.
Maxwell's Equations (Time Varying Fields):
 Faraday's Law
 Transformer EMF
 Displacement Current Density
 Maxwell's Equations in Different Final Forms
 Conditions at a Boundary Surface: Dielectric - Dielectric,
 Illustrative Problems.

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Introduction: The magnetic field intensity at P can be written as,

In previous chapters we have seen that an electrostatic field is produced by static or stationary charges.
The relationship of the steady magnetic field to its sources is much more complicated.

The source of steady magnetic field may be a permanent magnet, a direct current or an electric
field changing with time. In this chapter we shall mainly consider the magnetic field produced by
a direct current. The magnetic field produced due to time varying electric field will be discussed
later.
There are two major laws governing the magneto static fields are:
 Biot-Savart Law where is the distance of the current element from the point P.
The value of the constant of proportionality 'K' depends upon a property called permeability of
 Ampere's Law
the medium around the conductor. Permeability is represented by symbol 'm' and the constant 'K'
is expressed in terms of 'm' as
Usually, the magnetic field intensity is represented by the vector . It is customary to represent the
direction of the magnetic field intensity (or current) by a small circle with a dot or cross sign
depending on whether the field (or current) is out of or into the page as shown in Fig. 2.1.

Magnetic field 'B' is a vector and unless we give the direction of 'dB', its description is not
complete. Its direction is found to be perpendicular to the plane of 'r' and 'dl'.

If we assign the direction of the current 'I' to the length element 'dl', the vector product dl x r has
(or l ) out of the page (or l ) into the page magnitude r dl sinq and direction perpendicular to 'r' and 'dl'.
Fig. Representation of magnetic field (or current)
Hence, Biot–Savart law can be stated in vector form to give both the magnitude as well as
direction of magnetic field due to a current element as
Biot- Savart’s Law:

This law relates the magnetic field intensity dH produced at a point due to a differential
current element as shown in Fig.

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Similar to different charge distributions, we can have different current distribution such as
line current, surface current and volume current. These different types of current densities are ̅ Due to infinitely long straight conductor:
𝑯
shown in Fig. 2.3.
We consider a finite length of a conductor carrying a current placed along z-axis as shown in
the Fig 2.4. We determine the magnetic field at point P due to this current carrying conductor.

Line Current Surface Current Volume Current

Fig. 2.3: Different types of current distributions

By denoting the surface current density as K (in amp/m) and volume current density as J
(in amp/m2) we can write: Fig. 2.4: Field at a point P due to a finite length current carrying conductor

With reference to Fig. 2.4, we find that

( It may be noted that )

Employing Biot -Savart Law, we can now express the magnetic field intensity H. In terms of
these current distributions as Applying Biot - Savart's law for the current element We can write,

............................. for line current............................

Substituting we can write,

........................ for surface current ....................

We find that, for an infinitely long conductor carrying a current I , and
Therefore

....................... for volume current......................

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Ampere's Circuital Law: Applications of Ampere's circuital law:

Ampere's circuital law states that the line integral of the magnetic field (circulation of H ) ̅ and 𝐵̅ due to any type of current distribution.
1. It is used to find 𝐻
around a closed path is the net current enclosed by this path. Mathematically, ̅ ̅
2. If 𝐻 or 𝐵 is known then it is also used to find current enclosed by any closed path.

We illustrate the application of Ampere's Law with some examples.

The total current I enc can be written as, ̅ Due to infinitely long straight conductor :( using Ampere's circuital law)
𝑯

We compute magnetic field due to an infinitely long thin current carrying conductor as
shown in Fig. 2.5. Using Ampere's Law, we consider the close path to be a circle of
By applying Stoke's theorem, we can write radius as shown in the Fig. 4.5.

If we consider a small current element , is perpendicular to the plane

containing both and . Therefore only component of that will be present is

,i.e., .

By applying Ampere's law we can write,

Which is the Ampere's circuital law in the point form and Maxwell’s equation for magneto static
fields.

Fig. Magnetic field due to an infinite thin current carrying conductor

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̅ Due to infinitely long coaxial conductor :( using Ampere's circuital law)

𝑯 Magnetic Flux Density:

We consider the cross section of an infinitely long coaxial conductor, the inner conductor In simple matter, the magnetic flux density related to the magnetic field intensity as
carrying a current I and outer conductor carrying current - I as shown in figure 2.6. We
compute the magnetic field as a function of as follows: where called the permeability. In particular when we consider the free space

where H/m is the permeability of the free space. Magnetic flux density is
In the region
measured in terms of Wb/m 2 .
The magnetic flux density through a surface is given by:

Wb
In the case of electrostatic field, we have seen that if the surface is a closed surface, the net flux
In the region passing through the surface is equal to the charge enclosed by the surface. In case of magnetic
field isolated magnetic charge (i. e. pole) does not exist. Magnetic poles always occur in pair (as
N-S). For example, if we desire to have an isolated magnetic pole by dividing the magnetic bar
successively into two, we end up with pieces each having north (N) and south (S) pole as shown
in Fig. 6 (a). This process could be continued until the magnets are of atomic dimensions; still
we will have N-S pair occurring together. This means that the magnetic poles cannot be isolated.

Fig. 2.6: Coaxial conductor carrying equal and opposite currents in the region

Fig. 6: (a) Subdivision of a magnet (b) Magnetic field/ flux lines of a straight current carrying
conductor
Maxwell’s 2nd equation for static magnetic fields:
In the region
Similarly if we consider the field/flux lines of a current carrying conductor as shown in Fig. 6
(b), we find that these lines are closed lines, that is, if we consider a closed surface, the number
of flux lines that would leave the surface would be same as the number of flux lines that would
enter the surface.
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......................................in integral form Fig. 7: Cross Section of a Coaxial Line

which is the Gauss's law for the magnetic field. If Vm is the magnetic potential then,
By applying divergence theorem, we can write:

Hence, ................................... in point/differential form If we set Vm = 0 at then c=0 and

which is the Gauss's law for the magnetic field in point form.

Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials:

We observe that as we make a complete lap around the current carrying conductor , we reach
In studying electric field problems, we introduced the concept of electric potential that simplified
again but Vm this time becomes
the computation of electric fields for certain types of problems. In the same manner let us relate
the magnetic field intensity to a scalar magnetic potential and write:

We observe that value of Vm keeps changing as we complete additional laps to pass through the
From Ampere's law , we know that same point. We introduced Vm analogous to electostatic potential V.
But for static electric fields,

Therefore, and

But using vector identity, we find that is valid only where . whereas for steady magnetic field wherever but even if

Thus the scalar magnetic potential is defined only in the region where . Moreover, Vm in along the path of integration.

general is not a single valued function of position. This point can be illustrated as follows. Let us We now introduce the vector magnetic potential which can be used in regions where

consider the cross section of a coaxial line as shown in fig 7. current density may be zero or nonzero and the same can be easily extended to time varying
cases. The use of vector magnetic potential provides elegant ways of solving EM field problems.

In the region , and

Since and we have the vector identity that for any vector , , we

can write .

Here, the vector field is called the vector magnetic potential. Its SI unit is Wb/m.

Thus if can find of a given current distribution, can be found from through a curl

operation. We have introduced the vector function and related its curl to . A vector

function is defined fully in terms of its curl as well as divergence. The choice of is made as
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By using vector identity,

.
Great deal of simplification can be achieved if we choose . The magnetic flux through a given area S is given by
Putting , we get which is vector poisson equation.
In Cartesian coordinates, the above equation can be written in terms of the components as Substituting

.
Vector potential thus have the physical significance that its integral around any closed path is
equal to the magnetic flux passing through that path.

The form of all the above equation is same as that of

for which the solution is

In case of time varying fields we shall see that , which is known as Lorentz condition, V being

the electric potential. Here we are dealing with static magnetic field, so .
By comparison, we can write the solution for Ax as

Computing similar solutions for other two components of the vector potential, the vector
potential can be written as

This equation enables us to find the vector potential at a given point because of a volume current

density .
Similarly for line or surface current density we can write
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Forces due to magnetic fields

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To further illustrate the concept of inductance, let us consider two closed

loops C1 and C2 as shown in the figure 8, S1 and S2 are respectively the areas of C1 and C2 .

Fig:8
If a current I1 flows in C1 , the magnetic flux B1 will be created part of which will be linked to
C2 as shown in Figure 8:

In a linear medium, is proportional to I 1. Therefore, we can write

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where L12 is the mutual inductance. For a more general case, if C2 has N2 turns then

and We will later see that is an induced voltage.

or is the voltage drop that appears across the coil and thus voltage opposes the
i.e., the mutual inductance can be defined as the ratio of the total flux linkage of the second change of current.
circuit to the current flowing in the first circuit. Therefore in order to maintain the increase of current, the electric source must do an work
As we have already stated, the magnetic flux produced in C1 gets linked to itself and if C1 has against this induced voltage.

N1 turns then , where is the flux linkage per turn.

Therefore, self inductance .

= (Joule)

As some of the flux produced by I1 links only to C1 & not C2. which is the energy stored in the magnetic circuit.
We can also express the energy stored in the coil in term of field quantities.
For linear magnetic circuit

Further in general, in a linear medium, and Now,

where A is the area of cross section of the coil. If l is the length of the coil

Magnetic energy or Energy stored in Magnetic Field:

So far we have discussed the inductance in static forms. In earlier chapter we discussed
the fact that work is required to be expended to assemble a group of charges and this work is
Al is the volume of the coil. Therefore the magnetic energy density i.e., magnetic energy/unit
stated as electric energy. In the same manner energy needs to be expended in sending currents
volume is given by
through coils and it is stored as magnetic energy. Let us consider a scenario where we consider a
coil in which the current is increased from 0 to a value I. As mentioned earlier, the self
inductance of a coil in general can be written as
In vector form

J/mt3

or is the energy density in the magnetic field.

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MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS (Time varying Fields)

Symbols Used
Introduction:
In our study of static fields so far, we have observed that static electric fields are produced by E = Electric field ρ = charge density i = electric current
electric charges, static magnetic fields are produced by charges in motion or by steady current.
B = Magnetic field ε0 = permittivity J = current density
Further, static electric field is a conservative field and has no curl, the static magnetic field is
continuous and its divergence is zero. The fundamental relationships for static electric fields D = Electric displacement μ0 = permeability c = speed of light
among the field quantities can be summarized as:

(1) H = Magnetic field strength M = Magnetization P = Polarization

(2) Integral form in the absence of magnetic or polarizable media:

For a linear and isotropic medium,

(3) I. Gauss' law for electricity

Similarly for the magnetostatic case

(4)

(5)
Gauss' law for magnetism
(6)

It can be seen that for static case, the electric field vectors and and magnetic field

vectors and form separate pairs.

In this chapter we will consider the time varying scenario. In the time varying case we III. Faraday's law of induction
will observe that a changing magnetic field will produce a changing electric field and vice versa.
We begin our discussion with Faraday's Law of electromagnetic induction and then
present the Maxwell's equations which form the foundation for the electromagnetic theory.
Maxwell's equations represent one of the most elegant and concise ways to state the
fundamentals of electricity and magnetism. From them one can develop most of the working
relationships in the field. Because of their concise statement, they embody a high level of
mathematical sophistication and are therefore not generally introduced in an introductory
treatment of the subject, except perhaps as summary relationships.
These basic equations of electricity and magnetism can be used as a starting point for advanced
courses, but are usually first encountered as unifying equations after the study of electrical and
magnetic phenomena.

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IV. Ampere's law

118

II. Gauss' law for magnetism

Differential form in the absence of magnetic or polarizable media:

III. Faraday's law of induction

I. Gauss' law for electricity

IV. Ampere's law

Gauss' law for magnetism

III. Faraday's law of induction

Faraday's Law:
Michael Faraday, in 1831 discovered experimentally that a current was induced in a conducting
loop when the magnetic flux linking the loop changed. In terms of fields, we can say that a time
varying magnetic field produces an electromotive force (emf) which causes a current in a closed
circuit. The quantitative relation between the induced emf (the voltage that arises from
conductors moving in a magnetic field or from changing magnetic fields) and the rate of change
IV. Ampere's law of flux linkage developed based on experimental observation is known as Faraday's law.

Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage (emf) to be
"induced" in the coil. No matter how the change is produced, the voltage will be generated.
The change could be produced by changing the magnetic field strength, moving a magnet
toward or away from the coil, moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field, rotating the coil
relative to the magnet, etc.
Faraday's law is a fundamental relationship which comes from Maxwell's equations. It serves as
a succinct summary of the ways a voltage (or emf) may be generated by a changing magnetic
Differential form with magnetic and/or polarizable media: environment. The induced emf in a coil is equal to the negative of the rate of change of
magnetic flux times the number of turns in the coil. It involves the interaction of charge with
magnetic field.
I. Gauss' law for electricity
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When two current carrying conductors are placed next to each other, we notice that each induces The emf can be written as
a force on the other. Each conductor produces a magnetic field around itself (Biot– Savart law)
and the second experiences a force that is given by the Lorentz force.
Emf =
Continuing with equation (3), over a closed contour 'C' we can write

Emf =

where is the induced electric field on the conductor to sustain the current.
Further, total flux enclosed by the contour 'C ' is given by

Where S is the surface for which 'C' is the contour.

From (11) and using (12) in (3) we can write

Mathematically, the induced emf can be written as

By applying stokes theorem

Emf = Volts

where is the flux linkage over the closed path.

Therefore, we can write
A non zero may result due to any of the following:
(a) time changing flux linkage a stationary closed path.
(b) relative motion between a steady flux a closed path. which is the Faraday's law in the point form
(c) a combination of the above two cases.
The negative sign in equation (7) was introduced by Lenz in order to comply with the We have said that non zero can be produced in a several ways. One particular case is when a
polarity of the induced emf. The negative sign implies that the induced emf will cause a current time varying flux linking a stationary closed path induces an emf. The emf induced in a
flow in the closed loop in such a direction so as to oppose the change in the linking magnetic stationary closed path by a time varying magnetic field is called a transformer emf .
flux which produces it. (It may be noted that as far as the induced emf is concerned, the closed
path forming a loop does not necessarily have to be conductive).
If the closed path is in the form of N tightly wound turns of a coil, the change in the
magnetic flux linking the coil induces an emf in each turn of the coil and total emf is the sum of
the induced emfs of the individual turns, i.e.,

Emf = Volts
By defining the total flux linkage as
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Inconsistency of amperes law

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Boundary Condition for Magnetic Fields: Since is small, we can write

Similar to the boundary conditions in the electro static fields, here we will consider the behavior
of and at the interface of two different media. In particular, we determine how the
tangential and normal components of magnetic fields behave at the boundary of two regions
having different permeabilities. or, ...................................(4.40)

The figure 4.9 shows the interface between two media having permeabities and , being
the normal vector from medium 2 to medium 1. That is, the normal component of the magnetic flux density vector is continuous across the
interface.

In vector form,

...........................(4.41)

To determine the condition for the tangential component for the magnetic field, we consider a
closed path C as shown in figure 4.8. By applying Ampere's law we can write

Since h -->0 ,

We have shown in figure 4.8, a set of three unit vectors , and such that they

satisfy (R.H. rule). Here is tangential to the interface and is the vector
perpendicular to the surface enclosed by C at the interface.

o determine the condition for the normal component of the flux density vector , we consider a
small pill box P with vanishingly small thickness h and having an elementary area for the
faces. Over the pill box, we can write
if Js = 0, the tangential magnetic field is also continuous. If one of the medium is a perfect
conductor Js exists on the surface of the perfect conductor.
....................................................(4.36)
In vector form we can write,
Since h --> 0, we can neglect the flux through the sidewall of the pill box.

...........................(4.37)

and ..................(4.38) Therefore,

where
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Solved problems:
Problem1: Problem2:

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Problem3:

Problem4:

Problem5:

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Problem7:

Problem6:

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Problem8:

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UNIT – III Wave equations:

The Maxwell's equations in the differential form are
EM Wave Characteristics - I:

 Wave Equations for Conducting and Perfect Dielectric Media

 Uniform Plane Waves - Definition, Relation between E & H
 Wave Propagation in Lossless and Conducting Media
 Wave Propagation in Good Conductors and Good Dielectrics
 Illustrative Problems. Let us consider a source free uniform medium having dielectric constant , magnetic
permeability and conductivity . The above set of equations can be written as
EM Wave Characteristics - II:

 Reflection and Refraction of Plane Waves - Normal for both perfect Conductor and
Perfect dielectric

 Brewster Angle
Using the vector identity ,
 Critical Angle
 Total Internal Reflection
We can write from 2
 Surface Impedance
 Poynting Vector
 Poynting Theorem
 Illustrative Problems.
Substituting from 1

But in source free( ) medium (eq3)

In the same manner for equation eqn 1

Since from eqn 4, we can write

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These two equations

are known as wave equations.

Uniform plane waves:

A uniform plane wave is a particular solution of Maxwell's equation assuming electric
field (and magnetic field) has same magnitude and phase in infinite planes perpendicular to the Figure : Plane wave traveling in the + z direction
direction of propagation. It may be noted that in the strict sense a uniform plane wave doesn't As can be seen from the figure, at successive times, the wave travels in the +z direction.
exist in practice as creation of such waves are possible with sources of infinite extent. However, If we fix our attention on a particular point or phase on the wave (as shown by the dot) i.e. ,
= constant
at large distances from the source, the wave front or the surface of the constant phase becomes
Then we see that as t is increased to , z also should increase to so that
almost spherical and a small portion of this large sphere can be considered to plane. The
characteristics of plane waves are simple and useful for studying many practical scenarios
Or,
Let us consider a plane wave which has only Ex component and propagating along z .
Since the plane wave will have no variation along the plane perpendicular to z
Or,
When ,
i.e., xy plane, . The Helmholtz's equation reduces to,

we write = phase velocity .

The solution to this equation can be written as

If the medium in which the wave is propagating is free space i.e.,

are the amplitude constants (can be determined from boundary conditions). Then
Where 'C' is the speed of light. That is plane EM wave travels in free space with the speed of
In the time domain, light.
The wavelength is defined as the distance between two successive maxima (or minima or
any other reference points).
assuming are real constants.
i.e.,
Here, represents the forward traveling wave. The plot of
for several values of t is shown in the Figure below or,

or,
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Substituting ,

or,
Thus wavelength also represents the distance covered in one oscillation of the wave.
Similarly, represents a plane wave traveling in the -z direction.
The associated magnetic field can be found as follows:
From (6.4),

Figure : E & H fields of a particular plane wave at time t.

Poynting Vector and Power Flow in Electromagnetic Fields:

Electromagnetic waves can transport energy from one point to another point. The electric and
magnetic field intensities asscociated with a travelling electromagnetic wave can be related to the
rate of such energy transfer.
Let us consider Maxwell's Curl Equations:

= Using vector identity

where is the intrinsic impedance of the medium.

the above curl equations we can write
When the wave travels in free space

is the intrinsic impedance of the free space.

In the time domain, .............................................(1)
In simple medium where and are constant, we can write

Which represents the magnetic field of the wave traveling in the +z direction.
For the negative traveling wave,

and

For the plane waves described, both the E & H fields are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation, and these waves are called TEM (transverse electromagnetic) waves.
The E & H field components of a TEM wave is shown in Fig below 94 Applying Divergence theorem we can write, 95

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...........................(2) Since A and B are periodic with period , the time average value of the product form AB,
denoted by can be written as

The term represents the rate of change of energy stored in the electric

and magnetic fields and the term represents the power dissipation within the volume.
Hence right hand side of the equation (6.36) represents the total decrease in power within the .....................................(4)
volume under consideration.
Further, considering the phasor quantities A and B, we find that

The left hand side of equation (6.36) can be written as where

(W/mt2) is called the Poynting vector and it represents the power density vector associated with
the electromagnetic field. The integration of the Poynting vector over any closed surface gives and , where * denotes complex conjugate.
the net power flowing out of the surface. Equation (6.36) is referred to as Poynting theorem and
it states that the net power flowing out of a given volume is equal to the time rate of decrease in
the energy stored within the volume minus the conduction losses.
..............................................(5)
Poynting vector for the time harmonic case:
The poynting vector can be expressed as
For time harmonic case, the time variation is of the form , and we have seen that
instantaneous value of a quantity is the real part of the product of a phasor quantity and when ...................................(6)
is used as reference. For example, if we consider the phasor
If we consider a plane electromagnetic wave propagating in +z direction and has only
component, from (6.42) we can write:
then we can write the instanteneous field as

.................................(1) Using (6)

when E0 is real.
Let us consider two instanteneous quantities A and B such that

..................(2)
........................................(7)

where A and B are the phasor quantities. where and , for the plane wave under consideration.
For a general case, we can write
i.e,

.....................(8)
Therefore, We can define a complex Poynting vector

..............................(3)
and time average of the instantaneous Poynting vector is given by .
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Polarization of plane wave:

The polarization of a plane wave can be defined as the orientation of the electric field and ....................................(2)
vector as a function of time at a fixed point in space. For an electromagnetic wave, the
specification of the orientation of the electric field is sufficient as the magnetic field components To keep the things simple, let us consider a =0 and . Further, let us study the nature of the
are related to electric field vector by the Maxwell's equations. electric field on the z =0 plain.
Let us consider a plane wave travelling in the +z direction. The wave has both E x and Ey From equation (2) we find that,
components.

The corresponding magnetic fields are given by,

.....................................(3)

and the electric field vector at z = 0 can be written as

.............................................(4)
Depending upon the values of Eox and Eoy we can have several possibilities:
1. If Eoy = 0, then the wave is linearly polarised in the x-direction.
2. If Eoy = 0, then the wave is linearly polarised in the y-direction. Assuming , the plot of for various values of t is hown in figure 2
3. If Eox and Eoy are both real (or complex with equal phase), once again we get a linearly

polarised wave with the axis of polarisation inclined at an angle , with respect to the x-
axis. This is shown in fig1 below

Fig1 : Linear Polarisation

4. If Eox and Eoy are complex with different phase angles, will not point to a single spatial Figure 2 : Plot of E(o,t)
direction. This is explained as follows: From equation (6.47) and figure (6.5) we observe that the tip of the arrow representing electric
field vector traces qn ellipse and the field is said to be elliptically polarised.
Let

Then,
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Behaviour of Plane waves at the inteface of two media:

We have considered the propagation of uniform plane waves in an unbounded
homogeneous medium. In practice, the wave will propagate in bounded regions where several
values of will be present. When plane wave travelling in one medium meets a different
medium, it is partly reflected and partly transmitted. In this section, we consider wave reflection
and transmission at planar boundary between two media.

Figure 3: Polarisation ellipse

The polarisation ellipse shown in figure 3 is defined by its axial ratio(M/N, the ratio of
semimajor to semiminor axis), tilt angle (orientation with respect to xaxis) and sense of
rotation(i.e., CW or CCW). Linear polarisation can be treated as a special case of elliptical
polarisation, for which the axial ratio is infinite.

In our example, if , from equation the tip of the arrow representing electric field
Fig 6 : Normal Incidence at a plane boundary
vector traces out a circle. Such a case is referred to as Circular Polarisation. For circular
polarisation the axial ratio is unity Case1: Let z = 0 plane represent the interface between two media. Medium 1 is characterised by
and medium 2 is characterized by .Let the subscripts 'i' denotes incident,
'r' denotes reflected and 't' denotes transmitted field components respectively.
The incident wave is assumed to be a plane wave polarized along x and travelling in medium 1

along direction. From equation (6.24) we can write

..................(1)

......................(2)

Figure 5: Circular Polarisation (RHCP)

Further, the circular polarisation is aside to be right handed circular polarisation (RHCP) if the where and .
electric field vector rotates in the direction of the fingers of the right hand when the thumb points Because of the presence of the second medium at z =0, the incident wave will undergo partial
in the direction of propagation-(same and CCW). If the electric field vector rotates in the
opposite direction, the polarisation is asid to be left hand circular polarisation (LHCP) (same as reflection and partial transmission.The reflected wave will travel along in medium 1.
CW).In AM radio broadcast, the radiated electromagnetic wave is linearly polarised with the The reflected field components are:
field vertical to the ground( vertical polarisation) where as TV signals are horizontally polarised
waves. FM broadcast is usually carried out using circularly polarised waves.In radio ...............................................(3)
communication, different information signals can be transmitted at the same frequency at
orthogonal polarisation ( one signal as vertically polarised other horizontally polarised or one as
RHCP while the other as LHCP) to increase capacity. Otherwise, same signal can be transmitted
.........(4)
at orthogonal polarisation to obtain diversity gain to improve reliability of transmission.
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The transmitted wave will travel in medium 2 along for which the field components are
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............................................(5)
or,

............................................(6)
........................................(9)
is called the transmission coefficient.
where and We observe that,

In medium 1, ........................................(10)
and The following may be noted
and in medium 2, (i) both and T are dimensionless and may be complex
and (ii)
Applying boundary conditions at the interface z = 0, i.e., continuity of tangential field Let us now consider specific cases:
components and noting that incident, reflected and transmitted field components are tangential at
the boundary, we can write Case I: Normal incidence on a plane conducting boundary

The medium 1 is perfect dielectric and medium 2 is perfectly conducting .

&
From equation 3to 6 we get,

................................................................(7)

..............................................................(8)
From (9) and (10)
Eliminating Eto ,
= -1
and T =0
Hence the wave is not transmitted to medium 2, it gets reflected entirely from the interface to the
medium 1.

or,

or,
& .................................(11)
Proceeding in the same manner for the magnetic field in region 1, we can show that,
...............(8)
is called the reflection coefficient.
From equation (8), we can write ...................................................................................(12)
The wave in medium 1 thus becomes a standing wave due to the super position of a forward
travelling wave and a backward travelling wave. For a given ' t', both and vary
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sinusoidally with distance measured from z = 0. This is shown in figure 6.9. 103

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..................(16)
From (6.61), we can see that, in medium 1 we have a traveling wave component with amplitude
TEio and a standing wave component with amplitude 2JE io. The location of the maximum and the
minimum of the electric and magnetic field components in the medium 1from the interface can
be found as follows. The electric field in medium 1 can be written as

..................(17)

If i.e. >0
The maximum value of the electric field is
Figure 7: Generation of standing wave
Zeroes of E1(z,t) and Maxima of H1(z,t). ..................(18)

Maxima of E1(z,t) and zeroes of H1(z,t). and this occurs when

or , n = 0, 1, 2, 3.......................(19)

The minimum value of is

.................(20)
Case2: Normal incidence on a plane dielectric boundary : If the medium 2 is not a perfect
And this occurs when
conductor (i.e. ) partial reflection will result. There will be a reflected wave in the
medium 1 and a transmitted wave in the medium 2.Because of the reflected wave, standing wave
is formed in medium 1.
From equation (10) and equation (13) we can write or , n = 0, 1, 2, 3.............................(21)

..................(14) For i.e. <0

Let us consider the scenario when both the media are dissipation less i.e. perfect dielectrics (
The maximum value of is which occurs at the zmin locations and the minimum
)
value of is which occurs at zmax locations as given by the equations (6.64) and
(6.66).

..................(15) From our discussions so far we observe that can be written as

In this case both and become real numbers.

104 .................(22) 105

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The quantity S is called as the standing wave ratio. Critical angle:

As the range of S is given by In geometric optics, at a refractive boundary, the smallest angle of incidence at which total
From (6.62), we can write the expression for the magnetic field in medium 1 as internal reflection occurs. The critical angle is given by

.................(23)

From (6.68) we find that will be maximum at locations where is minimum and vice
versa.
In medium 2, the transmitted wave propagates in the + z direction. Where Өc is the critical angle, n 1 is the refractive index of the less dense medium, and n 2 is the
refractive index of the denser medium.
Oblique Incidence of EM wave at an interface: So far we have discuss the case of normal
incidence where electromagnetic wave traveling in a lossless medium impinges normally at the
Angle of incidence: The angle between an incident ray and the normal to a reflecting or
interface of a second medium. In this section we shall consider the case of oblique incidence. As
refracting surface
before, we consider two cases
i.When the second medium is a perfect conductor.
ii.When the second medium is a perfect dielectric.
A plane incidence is defined as the plane containing the vector indicating the direction of
propagation of the incident wave and normal to the interface. We study two specific cases when
the incident electric field is perpendicular to the plane of incidence (perpendicular
polarization) and is parallel to the plane of incidence (parallel polarization). For a general
case, the incident wave may have arbitrary polarization but the same can be expressed as a linear
combination of these two individual cases.

106 107

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