Internet of Things 18CS81

Module 1: Introduction to Internet of Things (IoT)

Sl.No Topic Page No
1. What is IoT, Genesis of IoT 2
2. IoT and Digitization, IoT Impact 3
3. Convergence of IT and IoT, IoT Challenges 8
4. IoT Network Architecture and Design 11
5. Drivers Behind New Network Architectures 12
6. Comparing IoT Architectures 12
7. A Simplified IoT Architecture 16
8. The Core IoT Functional Stack 17
9. IoT Data Management and Compute Stack 21

Textbooks
1. David Hanes, Gonzalo Salgueiro, Patrick Grossetete, Robert Barton,
Jerome Henry, “IoT Fundamentals: Networking Technologies,
Protocols, and Use Cases for the Internet of Things”, 1st Edition, Pearson
Education (Cisco Press Indian Reprint). (ISBN: 978-9386873743).
2. Srinivasa K G, “Internet of Things”,CENGAGE Leaning India, 2017

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1.1 What is IoT?

Internet is a global network of computers interconnected through some protocols, linked by
wired or wireless tchnologies, such that resources or information can be shared. Any physical
objects like computing devices, sensors are called Things. A network of Internet connected
objects which are able to collect and exchange data.

Figure 1: Evolution of Internet in Five Phases

1.2 Genesis of IoT

This highlights IoT’s place in the evolution and development of the Internet. Different phases
are described below:

1) Connectivity Phase

• The first phase, Connectivity, began in the mid-1990s. Earlier, the world was not
always connected as it is today. In the beginning, email and getting on the Internet
were luxuries for universities and corporations. Getting the average person online
involved dial-up modems, and even basic connectivity often seemed like a small
miracle.
• Even though connectivity and its speed continued to improve, a saturation point was
reached where connectivity was no longer the major challenge. The focus was now on
leveraging connectivity for efficiency and profit. This inflection point marked the
beginning of the second phase of the Internet evolution, called the Networked
Economy.

2) Networked economy
• Products and services are created and value is added through social networks
operating on large or global scales.With the Networked Economy, e-commerce and
digitally connected supply chains became the rage, and this caused one of the major

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disruptions of the past 100 years. The economy itself became more digitally
intertwined as suppliers, vendors, and consumers all became more directly connected.

3) Immersive Experiences
• This phase gave rise to emergence of social media, collaboration, and widespread
mobility on a variety of devices through texting, voice and video. The outcome has
transformed person-to-person interactions into digitized interaction.

Figure 2: Evolutionary Phases of the Internet

1.3 IoT and Digitization

• Digitization, as defined in its simplest form, is the conversion of information into a

digital format. In the context of IoT, digitization brings together things, data, and
business process to make networked connections more relevant and valuable.
• For example, the whole photography industry has been digitized. Pretty much
everyone has digital cameras these days, either standalone devices or built into their
mobile phones. Almost no one buys film and takes it to a retailer to get it developed.
The digitization of photography has completely changed our experience when it
comes to capturing images.
• Businesses such as Uber, Ola and Lyft (USA/Canada) use digital technologies to
allow people to get a ride using a mobile phone app. This app identifies the car, the
driver, and the fare. The rider then pays the fare by using the app. This digitization is
a major disruptive force to companies providing traditional taxi services.
• A good example of this that many people can relate to is in the area of home
automation with popular products, such as Nest.

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• Nest is just one example of digitization and IoT increasing the relevancy and value of
networked, intelligent connections and making a positive impact on our lives.
• The Nest app is IoT automation services that assist you to have a focus on devices and
keep correlated to your Nest devices anywhere with the help of internet connection in
the home place.
• The Nest Application uses the sensors and algorithms connected in the system of
devices to send notification, and this sensors used to transfer data from one device to
another, which helps to communicate for any further changes to save energy and to
notify for a further emergency for users phone devices by flashing alarm
automatically.

1.4 IoT Impact

A graphical look at the growth in the number of devices being connected. What these
numbers mean is that IoT will fundamentally shift the way people and businesses interact
with their surroundings. Managing and monitoring smart objects using real-time connectivity
enables a whole new level of data-driven decision making.
This results in the optimization of systems and processes and delivers new services
that save time for both people and businesses while improving the quality of life. Following
examples illustrate the benefits of IoT and their impact: connected roadways, connected
factory, smart connected buildings.

Figure 3: Rapid growth in the devices connected to internet

a) Connected roadways
• There was a demand for self-driving car, or autonomous vehicle, in literature and film
for decades. That fantasy is now becoming a reality with well-known projects like
Google’s self-driving car with the involvement of IoT.

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• Connected roadways is the term associated with both the driver and driverless cars
fully integrating with the surrounding transportation infrastructure.

• Basic sensors reside in cars already. They monitor oil pressure, tyre pressure,
temperature, and other operating conditions, and provide data around the core car
functions. From behind the steering wheel, the driver can access this data while also
controlling the car using equipment such as a steering wheel, pedals, and so on.

• The need for all this sensory information and control is obvious. The driver must be
able to understand, handle, and make critical decisions while concentrating on driving
safely. In addition, new sensors and communication technologies are being developed
to allow vehicles to “talk” to other vehicles, traffic signals, school zones, and other
elements of the transportation infrastructure.

Figure 4: Google’s Self-driving Car

b) Connected factory
The main challenges facing manufacturing in a factory environment today include the
following:
 Accelerating new product and service introductions to meet customer and market
opportunities.
 Increasing plant production, quality, and uptime while decreasing cost.
 Improving worker productivity and safety.

For example, executive management is looking for new ways to manufacture in a more cost-
effective manner while balancing the rising energy and material costs. Product development
has time to market as the top priority.

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Figure 5: Four Industrial Revolutions

c) Smart Connected Buildings

 IoT is making a disruptive impact in the smart connected buildings space. In recent
years, buildings have become increasingly complex, with systems overlaid one upon
another, resulting in complex intersections of structural, mechanical, electrical, and IT
components.
 Over time, these operational networks that support the building environment have
matured into sophisticated systems; however, for the most part, they are deployed and
managed as separate systems that have little to no interaction with each other.
 Work areas need to be kept at a comfortable temperature and the fire alarm and
suppression system needs to be carefully managed, as do the door and physical security
alarm systems.
 Motion detection occupancy sensors work great if everyone is moving around in a
crowded room and can automatically shut the lights off when everyone has left, but
what if a person in the room is out of sight of the sensor? It is a frustrating matter to
be at the mercy of an unintelligent sensor on the wall that wants to turn off the lights
on you.
 Temperature sensors are spread throughout the building to control the heating,
ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system and are used to influence the building
management system’s (BMS’s) control of air flow into a room.

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Figure 6: Convergence of Building Technologies to IP

A framework for the digital ceiling is specified in figure below:

Figure 7: A Framework for the Digital Ceiling

 The lighting system uses central to digital ceiling technology. As you are probably
aware, the lighting market is currently going through a major shift toward light-

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emitting diodes (LEDs). Lower energy consumption and far longer life are the
advantages of using LEDs.
 The lower power requirements of LED fixtures allow them to run on Power over
Ethernet (PoE), permitting them to be connected to standard network switches.
 In a digital ceiling environment, every lighting fixture is directly network-attached,
providing control and power over the same infrastructure. This means that LEDs can
be managed by the IT network, supporting voice, video, and other data applications.

1.5 Convergence of IT and IoT

 The connections to the Internet along with related data and technology systems is
supported by Information Technology (IT) and is focused on the secure flow of data
across an organization.
 The devices and processes on physical operational systems are monitored and
controlled by Operational Technology (OT).
 These systems include assembly lines, utility distribution networks, production
facilities, roadway systems, and many more. Typically, IT did not get involved with
the production and logistics of OT environments.
 IT organization is responsible for the information systems of a business, such as
email, file and print services, databases, and so on. In comparison, OT is responsible
for the devices and processes acting on industrial equipment, such as factory
machines, meters, actuators, electrical distribution automation devices, SCADA
(supervisory control and data acquisition) systems.
 Example: The machines cannot function, and production may come to a standstill if
the network connecting the machines in a factory fails. This will cause negative
impact on business on the order of millions of dollars.
 The key differences between IT and OT networks and their various challenges are
specified in table below:

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Table 1: Comparison between Information Technology (IT) and Operational

Technology (OT)

 The rise of IoT and standards-based protocols, such as IPv6, the IT and OT worlds are
converging or, more accurately, OT is beginning to adopt the network protocols,
technology, transport, and methods of the IT organization, and the IT organization is
beginning to support the operational requirements used by OT.
 When IT and OT begin using the same networks, protocols, and processes, there are
clear economies of scale. With this convergence, networks become easier to operate,
and the flexibility of open standards allows faster growth and adaptability to new
technologies.
 Several challenges are posed by the convergence of IT and OT to a single
consolidated network.
 Example: When IT schedules a weekend shutdown to update software without regard
to production requirements, the OT organization is baffled. On the other hand, the IT

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group does not understand the prevalence of proprietary or specialized systems and
solutions deployed by OT.
 The overall benefit of IT and OT working together is a more efficient and profitable
business due to reduced downtime, lower costs through economy of scale, reduced
inventory, and improved delivery times.

1.5 IoT Challenges

The challenges faced by IoT are illustrated in the table below:
Table 2: IoT Challenges

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1.6 IoT Network Architecture and Design

Inorder to complete the construction project from foundation to roof, time and effort are
required to design each phase. Failure to carefully architect a network according to sound
design principles will result in something that is difficult to scale, manage and adapt to
organizational changes.

1.7 Drivers behind New Network Architectures

The differences between IT and IoT networks, with a focus on the IoT requirements that are
driving new network architectures are specified in the table below:
Table 3: IoT Architectural Drivers

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The following factors expand on the requirements driving specific architectural changes for
IoT.

1) Scale
Several thousand devices indicates the scale of a typical IT network. Example: printers,
mobile wireless devices, laptops, servers, etc. The IT network design is incapable of handling
a growing infrastructure. IoT introduces a model where an average-sized utility, factory,
transportation system, or city could easily be asked to support a network of this scale.

2) Security
As per the saying if World War III breaks out, it will be fought in cyberspace. The evidence
of targeted malicious attacks using vulnerabilities in networked machines, such as the
outbreak of the Stuxnet worm, which specifically affected Siemens programmable logic
controller (PLC) systems has been observed. The main functions of the IT department are to
protect corporate data from intrusion and theft. To provide optimum security IoT system
should be capable to authenticate and identify all entities involved in the IoT service.

1.8 Comparing IoT Architectures

The foundation concept in all these architectures is supporting data, process and the functions
performed by the endpoint devices. The best known architectures are those supported by:
1) OneM2M 2) IoT world forum (IoTwF).

1.8.1 The oneM2M IoT Standardized Architecture

The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) inorder to standardize the

rapid growing of machine-to-machine (M2M) communications formed the M2M Technical
Committee in 2018. The goal of this committee was to design common architecture that
would accelerate the usage of M2M devices and applications. Heterogeneity of devices,
access methods and software are the challenges involved in designing the IoT architecture.

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Figure 8: The Main Elements of the oneM2M IoT Architecture

The IoT functions are categorized by oneM2M architecture into three major domains: the
application layer, the services layer, and the network layer.
1) Applications layer: The oneM2M architecture focuses on establishing the connectivity
among devices and associated applications. This domain attempts to standardize northbound
API definitions for interaction with business intelligence (BI) systems and also includes
application-layer protocol.

2) Services layer: This layer is indicated by the horizontal framework across the vertical
industry applications. At this layer, horizontal modules include the physical network that the
IoT applications run on, the underlying management protocols, and the hardware.

3) Network layer: This layer acts as communication domain for IoT devices and endpoints.
Standard wireless and wired components are included in this layer.

1.8.2 The IoT World Forum (IoTWF) Standardized Architecture

IoT architectural reference model consisting of seven-layers was published in 2014 by
IoTWF architectural committee involving the following companies: Cisco, Rockwell
automation, IBM). This model provided a clean and simplified perspective on IoT. Each of
the seven layers is divided into specific functions, and the entire model is encompassed by
security.

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Figure 9: IoT Reference Model Published by the IoT World Forum

A set of levels is defined by the IoT Reference Model which indicates the control flowing
from the center to the edge. Example: The data transfer between data center and sensors.
Generally the data which is originated from the edge is transferred through the stack upwards
and reaches the center. IoT reference model helps in dividing the IoT problem into smaller
modules, finding the relation between technologies used in each layer, providing
interoperability through interfaces.
The seven layers of the IoT Reference Model are discussed below:

Layer 1: Physical Devices and Controllers Layer

This layer includes various sensors and endpoint devices that send and receive information.
The size of these “things” can range from almost microscopic sensors to giant machines in a
factory. Their primary function is generating data and being capable of being queried and/or
controlled over a network.

Layer 2: Connectivity Layer

The major functions of this layer are to provide better connectivity, establish communication
between layer 1 devices, deliver the information reliably, achieving timely switching and
routing.

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Layer 3: Edge Computing Layer

This layer is also known as the “fog” layer which focuses on converting network data flows
into information that will be available for storage and processing in higher layers. It also
emphasize on data reduction.

Figure 10: Functions of IoT Reference Model Layer 3

Upper Layers: Layers 4–7

IoT data generated by the bottom layer are handled and processed in the upper layers (4–7) of
the IoT Reference Model as shown in the table below:
Table 4: Summary of Layers 4–7 of the IoTWF Reference Model

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1.9 A Simplified IoT Architecture

The common functionality between the existing frameworks is that they all recognize the
interconnection of the IoT endpoint devices to a network that transports the data, where it is
ultimately used by applications. It may be data center or cloud.This section deals with two
parallel stacks: 1) The IoT Data Management and Compute Stack 2) The Core IoT Functional
Stack.

Figure 11: Simplified IoT Architecture

 The core layers of this model is depicted in the figure 11. The presented framework
divides the core IoT and data management into parallel and aligned stacks to create
better visibility into functions of each layer. The network communications layer of the
IoT stack itself involves a significant amount of detail and incorporates a vast array of
technologies.
 To accommodate the heterogeneity of IoT sensors and the many different ways that
exist to connect them to a network, the network communications layer needs to
consolidate all the devices together.
 The network between the gateway and the data center is composed mostly of
traditional technologies including tunneling and VPN technologies, IP-based quality
of service (QoS), conventional Layer 3 routing protocols such as BGP and IP-PIM,
and security capabilities such as encryption, access control lists (ACLs), and firewalls.

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 The model presented below aligns data management with each of the three layers of
the Core IoT Functional Stack.
 The three data management layers are the edge layer (data management within the
sensors themselves), the fog layer (data management in the gateways and transit
network), and the cloud layer (data management in the cloud or central data center).

Figure 12: Expanded View of Simplified IoT Architecture

As shown in the above figure the communications layer is broken down into four separate
sublayers: the access network, gateways and backhaul, IP transport, and operations and
management sublayers. IoT often involves a strong big data analytics component instead of
simply using business applications which makes it to stay different from a typical enterprise
network.

1.10 The Core IoT Functional Stack

 As the IoT network objects uses the combination of contextual information and
configured goals to perform actions, they are considered as smart. These actions can
be self-contained and “thing” interacts with an external system.
 The data collected from smart objects is processed by using the management
platform. IoT network can be made operational by combining several components
together.
1) “Things” layer: At this layer, the physical devices need to fit the constraints of the
environment in which they are deployed while still being able to provide the
information needed.

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2) Communications network layer: Objects need to communicate with an external

system since they are not self-contained. In many cases, this communication uses a
wireless technology. This layer has four sublayers:
a) Access network sublayer: This is typically made up of wireless technologies such
as 802.11ah, 802.15.4g, and LoRa or may be wired.
b) Gateways and backhaul network sublayer: By using the gateway this layer ensures
communication between multiple smart objects. Gateway transfers the information
collected through a longer-range medium to head-end central station where the
information is processed. Gateway also acts as a router because it forwards packets
from one IP network to another
c) Network transport sublayer: Communication can be made successful by
implementing the transport layer protocols such as IP and UDP.
d) IoT network management sublayer: Head-end applications can be made to
exchange the data with sensors by using additional protocols. Example: MQTT and
CoAP.

The following sections help in architecting customized IoT network.

Layer 1: Things: Sensors and Actuators Layer
IoT protocols and architectures can be driven by smart objects from the architectural view
point. Smart objects can be classified in many ways as discussed below:
a) Battery-powered or power-connected: This classification is based on whether the object
carries its own energy supply or receives continuous power from an external power source.
Compared to line-powered objects, battery-powered things can be moved more easily. The
amount of energy that the object is allowed to consume is limited by battery, thus driving
transmission range and frequency.
b) Mobile or static: This classification is based on whether the “thing” should move or
always stay at the same location. A sensor may be mobile because it is moved from one
object to another. Example: A location sensor on moving goods in factory.
c) Low or high reporting frequency: This indicates how often the object should report
monitored parameters. Example: A rust sensor may report values once a month, a motion
sensor may report acceleration several hundred times per second.
d) Simple or rich data: This classification is based on the quantity of data exchanged at each
report cycle. Example: a humidity sensor in a field may report a simple daily index value (on
a binary scale from 0 to 255), while an engine sensor may report hundreds of parameters.

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e) Report range: This classification is based on the distance at which the gateway is located.
Example: To make fitness band to communicate with your phone, it needs to be located a few
meters away at most.

Figure 13: Sensor Applications Based on Mobility and Throughput

Layer 2: Communications Network Layer
After determining the influence of the smart object from factor over its transmission
capabilities, we can connect object and communicate.
Access Network Sublayer: There is a direct relationship between the IoT network technology,
we choose type of connectivity and topology allowed by technology.

Figure 14: Access Technologies and Distances

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Range estimates are grouped by category names that illustrate the environment where data
collection over the range is expected.
1) PAN (Personal Area Network)
2) HAN (Home Area Network)
3) NAN (Neighbourhood Area Network)
4) FAN (Field Area Network)
5) LAN (Local Area Network)
Layer 3: Applications and Analytics Layer
The smart objects exchange information with other systems once connected to the network.
Analytics versus Control Applications
Multiple applications can help to increase the efficiency of an IoT network. Each
application collects data and provides a range of functions based on analyzing the
collected data.
 Analytics application: This type of application collects data from multiple smart objects,
processes the collected data, and displays information resulting from the data that was
processed. The display can be about any aspect of the IoT network, from historical
reports, statistics, or trends to individual system states. The application processes the data
to convey a view of the network that cannot be obtained from solely looking at the
information displayed by a single smart object.
 Control application: This type of application controls the behavior of the smart object or
the behavior of an object related to the smart object. For example, a pressure sensor may
be connected to a pump. A control application increases the pump speed when the
connected sensor detects a drop in pressure.
Data versus Network Analytics
 Analytics is a general term that describes processing information to make sense of
collected data. In the world of IoT, a possible classification of the analytics function is as
follows:
 Data analytics: This type of analytics processes the data collected by smart objects and
combines it to provide an intelligent view related to the IoT system. In a more complex
case, temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, and light levels collected from thousands of
sensors may be combined and then processed to determine the likelihood of a storm and
its possible path. In this case, data processing can be very complex and may combine
multiple changing values over complex algorithms.

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 Network analytics: Most IoT systems are built around smart objects connected to the
network. A loss or degradation in connectivity is likely to affect the efficiency of the
system. Such a loss can have dramatic effects. Example: Open mines use wireless
networks to automatically pilot dump trucks. A lasting loss of connectivity may result in
an accident or degradation of operations efficiency.

Data Analytics versus Business Benefits

 Data analytics is undoubtedly a field where the value of IoT is booming. Almost any
object can be connected, and multiple types of sensors can be installed on a given object.
Collecting and interpreting the data generated by these devices is where the value of IoT
is realized.
 From an architectural standpoint, we can define static IoT networks where a clear list of
elements to monitor and analytics to perform are determined. Such static systems are
common in industrial environments where the IoT charter is about providing a clear view
of the state of the operation.
Smart Services
 The ability to use IoT to improve operations is often termed “smart services.”
Fundamentally, smart services use IoT and aim for efficiency. For example, sensors
can be installed on equipment to ensure ongoing conformance with regulations or
safety requirements. This angle of efficiency can take multiple forms, from presence
sensors in hazardous areas to weight threshold violation detectors on trucks.
 Smart services can also be used to measure the efficiency of machines by detecting
machine output, speed, or other forms of usage evaluation.Entire operations can be
optimized with IoT. In hospitality, for example, presence and motion sensors can
evaluate the number of guests in a lobby and redirect personnel accordingly.
1.11 IoT Data Management and Compute Stack
The data generated by IoT sensors is one of the single biggest challenges in building an IoT
system.
These new requirements include the following:
1) Minimizing latency: Milliseconds matter for many types of industrial systems, such as
when we are trying to prevent manufacturing line shutdowns or restore electrical service.
Analyzing data close to the device that collected the data can make a difference between
averting disaster and a cascading system failure.

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2) Conserving network bandwidth: Offshore oil rigs generate 500 GB of data weekly.
Commercial jets generate 10 TB for every 30 minutes of flight. It is not practical to transport
vast amounts of data from thousands or hundreds of thousands of edge devices to the cloud.
Nor is it necessary because many critical analyses do not require cloud-scale processing and
storage.
3) Increasing local efficiency: Collecting and securing data across a wide geographic area
with different environmental conditions may not be useful. The environmental conditions in
one area will trigger a local response independent from the conditions of another site
hundreds of miles away. Analyzing both areas in the same cloud system may not be
necessary for immediate efficiency.
The traditional IT cloud computing model is shown in the below figure. Data management in
this model is very simple.

Figure 15: The Traditional IT Cloud Computing Model

The endpoints communicate over an IP core network to servers in the data center or cloud. Data
is generally stored in the data center, and the physical links from access to core are typically high
bandwidth, meaning access to IT data is quick.
Fog Computing
The solution to the challenges mentioned in the previous section is to distribute data
management throughout the IoT system, as close to the edge of the IP network as possible.
The best-known embodiment of edge services in IoT is fog computing. Any device with

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computing, storage, and network connectivity can be a fog node. Examples include industrial
controllers, switches, routers, embedded servers, and IoT gateways. Analyzing IoT data close to
where it is collected minimizes latency, offloads gigabytes of network traffic from the core
network, and keeps sensitive data inside the local network.
The defining characteristic of fog computing are as follows:
1) Contextual location awareness and low latency: The fog node sits as close to the IoT
endpoint as possible to deliver distributed computing.
2) Geographic distribution: In sharp contrast to the more centralized cloud, the services and
applications targeted by the fog nodes demand widely distributed deployments.
3) Deployment near IoT endpoints: Fog nodes are typically deployed in the presence of a
large number of IoT endpoints. For example, typical metering deployments often see 3000 to
4000 nodes per gateway router, which also functions as the fog computing node.
4) Wireless communication between the fog and the IoT endpoint: Although it is possible
to connect wired nodes, the advantages of fog are greatest when dealing with a large number
of endpoints, and wireless access is the easiest way to achieve such scale.

Acknowledgement
The diagrams and tables are taken from the textbooks specified in the references section.

Prepared by:
Mr. Rakshith M D
Mr. Prasad S R
Department of CS&E
SDMIT, Ujire

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