Technology in use

Pond Fish Farming Integrated Fish Farming

Fish Seed Production Fresh Water Prawn Culture

Pond Fish Farming

 Fish Farming is an age old activity and in practice
from ancient times. The concept of composite
fish culture was developed by ICAR in late
seventies under a coordinated composite fish
culture project. This comprises the culture of 3
indigenous species of fish viz. rohu, catla and
mrigal and 3 exotic fish i.e silver carp, grass carp
and common carp, keeping in view their different
food habit and habitat. This practice has been
very well accepted by the farmers of Haryana as
its cultural practices are analogous to agriculture.
The successful fish culture requires ploughing of pond, addition of manure, stocking of fish seed;
eradication of unwanted aquatic plants and animals, watering the pond; harvesting the crop and
marketing of the produce. The fish culture technologies and economics are simple and
understandable to the fish farmers. To produce one kilogram fish, the requirements are:-

- one cubic meter water

- three number fish seed
- one kilogram manure and 100 gm inorganic fertilizer
- one kilogram supplementary feed
- and one year time

Cost of production of fish is Rs. 15/kg and the sale price on an average is Rs.30/- per kg. A net
profit of Rs.61,000 per hectare per year is obtained, The pond fish culture practice is being
adopted by farmers in all the districts of the state. There are 8,065 fish culture units having an
area of more than 12,883 hectares in the state. The ownership of these ponds vested with the
panchayats. Panchayat leases out their ponds to the farmer's for fish farming. These village ponds
are generally visited by cattle for drinking water. The cattle refuse dung and urine in the pond.
The organic waste released by the cattle are recycled into manure and help in the production of
plankton which is basic food for fish. Thus all the village fish culture ponds in Haryana are the
good example of fish cum cattle farming. With the passage of time, the farmers have modified the
technologies as per the need. Generally Rohu,catla, mrigal and common carp are used for culture.
The stocking density is kept at 20000 fish seed per hectare. Farmers have adopted the technique
of multiple harvesting. which give better returns. Govt. provides 20% subsidy to general
category while 25% to scheduled caste fish farmers for excavation of new pond/ renovation of
old pond and fisheries inputs.

Economics of Fish Farming

a) Expenditure Rs.
Construction of Pond,Water Supply Channel, Installation of
20000
Tubewell/Renovation/Lease Amount
Electricity & Water charges 10000
Cost of 250Kg Lime 750
 2000 Fish Seeds 1500
100 Quntals Organic Fertilizer 5000
250 KG Urea 1250
500 KG Single Super Phosphate 1500
Supplimentry feed 10000
Medicine, Fishing, Watch & Ward 15000
TOTAL EXPENDITURE 65000

b) Income
Sale of 4200 KG Fish 126000

c) Net Income (B-A) 61000

Note:- The Income may vary on the productivity and market price of a pond
Integrated Fish Farming

Fisheries Department provides technical and

financial assistance for integrated fish farming.
The Integrated fish farming practices utilize the
waste from different components of thc system
viz. live stock, poultry, duckery, piggery and
agriculture byproducts for fish production. 40-50
kg of organic wastes are converted into one kg of
fish, while the pond silt is utilized as fertilizers for
the fodder crops, which in turn is used to raise
livestock. The system of integrated farming is
very wide.
The system provides meal, milk, eggs, fruits, vegetables, mushroom, fodder & grains in addition
to fish. It utilizes the pond dykes which otherwise remain unutilized for the production of
additional food and income to the farmer. The possible'integrated farming systems are given
below:

a) Fish cum Agriculture System b) Fish cum Animal System

Fish cum Paddy Culture Fish Cum Dairy
Fish cum water chestnut Fish cum Pig Farming
Fish cum Pappaya Fish cum Rabbit Farming
Fish cum Mulberry Fish cum Poultry
Fish cum Mushroom Fish cum Duck Farming

Fish cum Dairy

Fish-cum-Dairy Farming is considered as an

excellent innovation for the use of organic wastes.
Use of cow/buffalo manure in fish farming is a
commonly prevailing practice. On an average, one
cow/buffalo excretes 12000 kg of dung and 8000
litre urine per year. The cattle faeces and urine are
beneficial to the filter-feeding and omnivorous
fishes. On an average, 3-4 cows/buffaloes can
provide sufficient manure to fertilize one hectare
pond. In this system, farmer gets milk, fish and calf as well, which increases revenue and reduces
input costs. The system gives a net profit of Rs.1,14,000/- per year from one hectare land.

Economics of Fish cum Dairy

a) Expenditure Rs.
Construction of Pond,Water Supply Channel, Installation of
20000
Tubewell/Renovation/Lease Amount
Electricity & Water charges 10000
2000 Fish Seeds 1500
 Construction of Shed for Animals (Rs. 80000/- for 10 years) 8000
Purchase of 5 Murrah Buffalo (Rs 20000/- for 5 years) 20000
13000 Kg Animal Feed 78000
Medicine for Animals & Fishes 2000
Labour Charges 20000
TOTAL EXPENDITURE 159500

b) Income
Sale of 4200 KG Fish 126000
Sale of 10000 Ltr. Milk 140000
Sale of 5 Young ones of Buffalo 7500

c) Net Income (B-A) 114000

Note:- The Income may vary on the productivity and market price of a pond

Fish cum Piggery

The pig dung as an organic manure for fish culture

has certain advantages over cattle manure. The
waste produced by 20-30 pigs is equivalent to one
ton of Ammonium Sulphate applied to the
soil.The pigs are fed largely on kitchen waste,
aquatic plants and crop byproducts. At present,
fish-pig integration is practiced in all the
developing countries. Several exotic breeds of
pigs have been introduced in the country to
augment pork production. The popular races are
the white Yorkshire,Berkshire and Landrace. The pigsties should provide adequate protection
from adverse weather conditions. A run or courtyard adjacent to the pig house is essential. The
size of the pig house depends on the number of pigs to be reared. Floor space is provided @3-4
m2 for every pig weighing 70-90 kg.The pigsties are built mostly at the pond sites and even over
the ponds. The washings from the pigsties containing dung and urine are either channelised
directly into the pond or composed before its application. The boars, sows and finishing stocks are
housed separately. Maize, groundnut, wheat- bran, fishmeal, mineral mixture provide base for
concentrated feed mixture. In advanced countries,garbage is widely used to economize pork
production and provided after pre-cooking when pig dung is applied to a pond. It enhances the
biological productivity of the pond. A portion of dung is directly consumed by some fish also. The
excreta voided by 35-40 pigs is found adequate to fertilize one hectare of water. Integrated fish-
pig farming is a viable and feasible scientific approach to augment fish production at low cost.
The net income in this integration from one hectare of pond is Rs.l,39,000/-.

Fish-cum-Poultry
The droppings of birds in this system are utilized to fertilize the pond. Poultry litter recycled into
fish pond produces 4500-5000 kg fish per hectare per year. Broiler production provides good and
immediate return to the farmers. Success in production depends mainly on the efficiency of the
farmer, experience, aptitude and ability, in the management of the flock. This involves
procurement of better brood stock, housing, brooding equipment, feeders, water trays and
management practices,which also includes prevention and control of diseases. The poultry litter is
applied to the pond in daily doses at a rate of 40-50 kg per hectare. The application of litter may
be deferred during the days when algal blooms appear in the ponds. One adult chicken produces
about 25 kg of compost poultry manure in one year. 500-600 birds would provide sufficient
manure for fertilization of one hectare of fish pond. Farmer can get a net income of Rs.l,37,157/-
from one hectare of pond in one year. Govt. provides financial assistance to the farmers for
promoting this system.

Economics of Fish-cum-Poultry
a) Expenditure Rs.
1 Construction of Pond,Water Supply Channel, Installation of
20000
Tubewell/Renovation/Lease Amount
2 Electricity & Water charges 10000
3 Construction of Poultry Shed ( Rs.80000/- for 10 years) 8000
4 550 Chiks 2750
5 22500Kg Poultry Feed 90000
6 Medicines for Fish & Poultry 5000
7 Fishing, Sale of Poultry Birds & Labour 20000
TOTAL EXPENDITURE 157250

b) Income
Sale of 4200 KG Fish 126000
Sale of 118750 Eggs 148437
Sale of 500 KG Poultry Birds 20000
Total Income 294437

c) Net Income(B-A) 137157

Note:- The Income may vary on the productivity and market price of a pond

Fish cum Duck farming

Fish cum Duck Integration is most common in the developing countries. This type of integration
is not popular in northern states of India. Ducks are of several types and Khaki Campbell is
recommended for fish-cum-duck integration Fishpond being a semi-closed biological system with
several aquatic animals and plants provides an excellent disease-free environment for the ducks.
In turn, ducks consume juvenile frogs, tadpoles and dragonfly etc. there by making a safe
environment for fish. Duck droppings go directly into the pond, which in turn provide essential
nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus that stimulate growth of natural food
organisms. Ducks also help in aerating the pond water, alongwith bottom racking. About 300
ducks are enough to fertilize a pond of one hectare. The system results in a net income of Rs.
77500/- per year per hectare. However, due to difficulty in marketing of eggs and duck meat, the
system is not very common in the state.

Fish cum Horticulture

Integration of fish cum flowers, fruit plants, vegetables and mushroom can be takcn up. The pond
humus is used as manure for plantation. Pond water can be used for plants which is rich in
nutrients, thereby decrease the cost on inorganic fertilizers. The pond dykes are used for the
plantation. The culture practice can be taken up as per suitablity to the location i.e. location
specific. The economics also varies and depends on the type of plantation.

Fish Seed Production

Quality fish seed is the pre-requisite for

successful fish farming. Department is using the
techniques of hypophysation for the production of
fish seed of culturable varieties. The breeding
season of common carp fish in Haryana is
February-March every year where as the breeding
season of other species is monsoon season. Brood

stock of required fish are maintained and sex-

wise segreggate is made two month before. The
pairing is made and injected with calculated dose
of pituitary gland or ovaprim, ovatide or ovpal is
injected to male and female fish. Within the 6-8
hours of the injection eggs from female and
sperm from male are released in the water. The
fertilizer is external. Normally one kg fish
releases about one lakh eggs. The hatchlings are known as spawn. The spawn is reared in the
nursary pond. After 15 days, the spawn attains the size of 25 mm and ready for stocking in the
pond. More than 50 lakh fry can be produced per hectare fish seed farm in both the seasons in a
year. The income from sale of fish seed is Rs. 3.25 lakh approx. per year @ Rs. 6500 per lakh.
Fisheries department provides technical and financial assistance for setting up of ecotype
hatchery and fish seed rearing units.
 Economics of Fish Seed Production
a) Expenditure Rs.
Construction of Eco Hatchery, Ponds, Water Supply Channel,
80000
Installation of Tubewell ( Rs/- 8 Lakh for 10 Years)
Electricity & Water charges 50000
Cost of 250 Kg Lime 750
1500 Kg Brood Stock 60000
100 Quntals Organic Fertilizer 5000
250 KG Urea 1250
500 KG Single Super Phosphate 1500
Supplimentry feed 50000
Injecting Material, Medicine, Fishing, Watch & Ward 25000
TOTAL EXPENDITURE 273500

b) Income
Sale of 500 Lac. Fish Spawn 200000
Sale of 50 Lac. Fish Fry 325000
Sale of Spent Brood Stock 20000
TOTAL 545000

c) Net Income (B-A) 271500

Note:- The Income may vary on the productivity and market price of a pond
Location of Fishery Seed Farms
Government Farms
Sr. No. Location of the Farm Total Land Area Total WaterArea
(in hectares) (in hectares)
1 Jansui (Ambala) 1.00 0.94
2 Sidpura (Karnal 3.00 1.98
3 Jyotisar (Kurukshetra) 14.60 6.93
4 Rohat (Sonepat) 3.00 1.42
5 Damadama (Gurgaon) 6.61 1.25
6 Badkhal (Faridabad) 6.50 3.50
7 Lisana (Rewari) 4.81 1.93
8 Sampla (Rohtak) 6.44 3.24
9 Kakroi (Sonepat) 4.52 2.31
10 Jhajjar 4.00 1.42
11 Tohana (Fatehabad) 4.20 1.60
12 Hisar 21.80 7.17
 13 Dadupur (YamunaNagar) 0.60 0.08
14 Mundri (Kaithal) 2.00 0.90
15 Ottu (Sirsa) 2.80 1.30
Private Farms
Sr. No. Location of the Farm Total Land Area Total Water Area
(in hectares) (in hectares)
1 Dherdu (Kaithal) 2.00 1.80
2 Bhutana ( Karnal) 10.00 8.00
3 Mandheri (Kurukshetra) 10.00 6.40
4 Laloda (Fatehabad) 3.50 1.80
5 Gochi (Jhajjar) 1.00 0.60
6 Dabra (Hisar) 4.50 3.45
7 Satrod( Hisar) 4.00 3.25
8 Julani-Khera (Kaithal) 1.50 0.80
9 Mauli (Panchkula) 1.00 0.60
10 Majra (Jhajjar) 1.00 0.60
11 Gagan Kheri (Hisar) 1.60 1.20

Fresh Water Prawn Farming

There are more than 100 species of Freshwater

prawn found in the world. There are more than
25 species are found in India. Out of these 10
species are important from commercial point of
view. Out of them Macrobrachium rosenbengii is
the main species which is used in culture
practices. This is also know as giant prawn. This
can be cultured in both fresh water as well as
brackish water. It is fast growing animal and
farmers can culture profitably. It contains 20-22
percent animal protein and has less cholestrol. It
has essential amino-acids and mineral which are
very important for human beings. In culture
practices, the freshwater prawn has two stages i.e Nursery Pond and Growout Pond. Fresh water
prawn is stocked in nursery pond for 45-60 days then it is shifted to grow-out ponds. The ponds
are prepared by using manure and fertilizers. The stocking density in nursery pond is kept 2.00-
2.50 lakh per hectare. Feed is provided 5 times @ 8-10 gm per kg body weight at initial stage.
Check trays are used to regulate the feeding. Prawn crop becomes ready for sale with 7-8 months.
The expenditure about Rs. 1.50 lakh per hectare and income is Rs. 2.50 lakh. Thus net income is
Rs. 1.00 lakh per hectare in 8 months.

Economics of Prawn Culture (Per Hect.)

a) Capital Investment Rs.
Construction of Pond,Water Supply Channel, Installation of
200000
Tubewell/Renovation/Lease Amount

b) Recurring Expenditure Rs.

Electricity & Diesel 10000
Cost of 250Kg Lime 750
20 KG Urea 160
50 KG Single Super Phosphate 250
Seed Cost of 50000 Seeds 27500
Artificial Feeding , Palleted Feed 2000 kg 44000
Vitamins, minerals & medicines 1000
Expenditure on marketing, harvesting and watch & wild 10000
EXPENDITURE 93660

c) Economics
Expenditure on Capital Investment @16% 320000
Deprecation on Capital Investment @10% 20000
Recurring Expenditure 93660
TOTAL EXPENDITURE 145660

d) Income
Sale of 1000 kg Prawn @ Rs.250/- per kg 250000

e) Net Income ( Income - Total Expenditure) 104340

Note:- Theabpve economics may change as per productivity of pond and market prices of the
PRAWN
 ND
2 PART
Fresh Water Fish Farming
FRIDAY, 01 MAY 2009 00:00 AMBRISH JHA OPPORTUNITIES - AGRICULTURE & RURAL

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Fish culture is practiced in less than 30 percent of the total areas available. This has a potential to create huge job
opportunities, provided fish cultivation is done on a scientific basis

India is a large producer of inland fish, ranking next only to Japan.

With an abundance of freshwater resources, India has still not been able to tap even 30% of the potential area for
inland fish production. Many entrepreneurs have, however, chosen to take this occupation on commercial scale. This
is best manifested in Andhra Pradesh, which with 10,56,000 tons of inland fish production in 2007-08 ranked next
only to West Bengal, which is far more endowed with water resources. Andhra Pradesh has emerged among the
ranks encouraging farmers to form cooperatives to take up farming in ponds around Kolleru lake.

Both the central and state governments have come

up with schemes to help the cause of the farmers.

Fish culture in ponds

Out of the total inland fish production of over 3.6
million metric tons, more than 60% is contributed by
fish culture in ponds and reservoirs. The average
productivity from ponds on the national level is
around 2,500 kg/ha/year, though in Andhra Pradesh
and Haryana it is more than 5,000 kg/ha/year, while
in some other states like Bihar and UP it is
anywhere between 1,500 and 2,500 kg/ha/year.
Fish culture is adopted by all kinds of farmers –
small and marginal ones, relatively larger farmers
and those who do it on commercial scale. Sizes of
ponds also depend on how affluent the farmers are.
Ponds less than 100 square meters in area prove unsustainable, while those above 1 hectare are expensive for small
players. Many farmers in Tamil Nadu, for instance, use ponds of sizes 30 feet by 30 feet to make their living. On the
other hand, a water spread of anything less than 10
hectares in Andhra Pradesh is treated as a pond. Fish Species Bred in Ponds
Ponds can be perennial or seasonal. While seasonal 3.6 million metric tons - Annual produce of inland fish in India, 60
ponds can be used for short-term fish culture, % - come from fish culture in ponds and reservoirs, 60 species -
cultivated in different parts of India in ponds or reservoirs, 80% -
provided they retain water for at least four to five contribution of carps from fish culture
months, perennial ponds are suited for fish culture on
a larger scale. Since water dries up in a few months, Major species cultured in ponds
seasonal ponds are easy to harvest fish. Any Indian major carps – rohu, catla and mrigal
perennial pond retaining water depth of 2 meters can Exotic carps – silver carp, grass carp, common carp
be used for fish culture. Dr Gopinath Sai, executive Catfish – magur, ari, singhi.
Tilapia – also known as kowai.
director (technical), National Fisheries Development Trout – golden mahseer, silver mahseer, silver grey mahseer and
Board (NFDB), says a water level of 3 to 4 feet is black mahseer.
preferable, even in summer. Fish farming can be
practiced on scientific lines in perennial ponds only, though seasonal ponds can be used to cultivate fry. Though
different pond shapes are being adopted by farmers, rectangular ponds are easier to work on, Sai points out. He says
freshwater fish culture is a very profitable business provided farmers take up this on scientific lines. Quality of soil,
water, fish seed and fish food needs to be of reasonably good quality to have better yields. The soil for ponds should
be able to retain water, and hence clayey soil is preferable. The water should not be acidic in nature, nor should it be
highly alkaline. It should be treated with appropriate quantity of lime. Provision for inlets and outlets should be made
in ponds, as Sai and C Ratnamachari, joint director, Inland Fisheries, Andhra Pradesh, says.

However, Ranjit, a fish farmer from Bihar, now into fish culture and retail trading in Delhi, says, “We do not know
about any inlets or outlets in our ponds but we manage a good catch despite that.”

Ponds are not the natural habitat of fish; it is rivers and canals. This makes it imperative for farmers to provide food
from outside and also create a desirable environment. Fish food is provided in the form of oil cakes and rice bran. But
to create conditions suitable for other organisms to grow inside ponds, fertilizers need to be applied. A combination of
organic and inorganic fertilizers is ideal, Ratnamachari says. Their application depends on the soil quality to a great
extent.

Economics of Fish Culture in Ponds (for 1ha, up to 1m excavation)

Items Amount (in Rs)
A. Fixed costs
Excavation of one hectare land (10,000 cubic meter land to the depth of one meter @Rs 20/cubic
200000
meter

Construction of inlet and outlet to ponds 40000

Equipment and gears 15000

Total fixed costs 255000

B. Recurring costs
Lime 500 kg @ Rs 7/kg 3500
Fingerlings 5,000 in number @ Rs 600 for every 1000 3000
Organic manure (cow dung) 15 tons @ Rs 400/ton 6000
Urea 330 kg @ Rs 7/kg 2310
Super phosphate 165 kg @ Rs 6/kg 990
 Ammonium sulphate 63 kg @ Rs 6/kg 378

Mustard oil cake 1350 kg@Rs 12/kg 16200

Rice bran 1350 kg @ Rs 4/kg 5400

Insurance cost @ 4% of seed and fertilizers 1200
Miscellaneous including harvesting, security of ponds, etc. 8000
Total recurring cost 46978

Total cost 301978

Income
Production (from second year onwards ) (in kg) 3000
Sale price (per kg) 45
Total Income (from second year onwards) (in Rs) 135000

Net income for first seven years

Net Income in first year -301978
Net Income in second year 88022
Net Income in third year 88022
Net Income in fourth year 88022
Net Income in fifth year 88022
Net Income in sixth year 88022
Net Income in seventh year 88022
Source: Updated from NABARD

Rajat Sharma of Haryana Fisheries Department has a simple mathematics for fish farming, which he says is followed
by most fish farmers in the state. He says what is needed to produce for 1 kilogram of fish is 1 cubic meter water, 1
kilogram of organic manure, 100 grams of inorganic fertilizer, 1 kilogram of supplementary feed and three fish seeds.
Farmers, he says, should wait for one year for the fish to mature. According to his calculation, investment needed for
1 kilogram of fish is anywhere between Rs 15 and 25. The sale price of 1 kilogram of fish to wholesalers is anywhere
between Rs 40 and 50, ensuring more than double the income.

Being a state subject, the fisheries department also helps farmers get the right quality fingerlings. Private hatcheries
have also come up in several parts of the country and government schemes are also aiding this process. Fingerlings
must be free from disease because one infected fish may cause widespread damage. Polyculture in ponds is the
dominant production system in most parts of the country. Carps, both Indian and exotic, contribute to almost 80% of
the produce from ponds. Rohu, katla, mrigal and magur are the favorite pond fish varieties.

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 Start
 P
 RD
3 PART
Fish farming
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Intensive koi aquaculture facility in Israel

Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. Fish farming
involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases young
(juvenile) fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally
referred to as a fish hatchery. The most common fish species raised by fish farms
aresalmon, carp, tilapia, European seabass, catfish and cod.

There is an increasing demand for fish and fish protein, which has resulted in widespread overfishing in wild
fisheries. Fish farming offers fish marketers another source. However, farming carnivorous fish, such
as salmon, does not always reduce pressure on wild fisheries, since carnivorous farmed fish are usually
fed fishmeal and fish oil extracted from wild forage fish. In this way, the salmon can consume in weight more
wild fish than they weigh themselves. The global returns for fish farming recorded by the FAO in 2008 totalled
33.8 million tonnes worth about $US 60 billion.[1]

Contents
 [hide]

 1 Major categories of fish aquaculture

o 1.1 Extensive aquaculture

 1.1.1 Sources

o 1.2 Intensive aquaculture

 2 Specific types of fish farms

o 2.1 Cage system

o 2.2 Irrigation ditch or pond systems

 2.2.1 Composite fish culture

o 2.3 Integrated recycling systems

o 2.4 Classic fry farming

 3 Issues

o 3.1 Labeling

 4 Indoor fish farming

 5 Slaughter methods

o 5.1 Inhumane methods

o 5.2 More humane methods

 6 Photo gallery

 7 See also

 8 Notes

 9 References

 10 External links

[edit]Major categories of fish aquaculture

There are two kinds of aquaculture: extensive aquaculture based on local photosynthetical production and
intensive aquaculture, in which the fish are fed with external food supply.

[edit]Extensive aquaculture
Aqua-Boy, a Norwegian live fish carrier used to service the Marine Harvest fish farms on the West coast of Scotland

Limiting for growth here is the available food supply by natural sources, commonly zooplankton feeding
on pelagic algae or benthic animals, such ascrustaceans and mollusks. Tilapia species filter feed directly
on phytoplankton, which makes higher production possible. The photosynthetic production can be increased
by fertilizing the pond water with artificial fertilizer mixtures, such as potash, phosphorus, nitrogen and micro-
elements. Because most fish arecarnivorous, they occupy a higher place in the trophic chain and therefore only
a tiny fraction of primary photosynthetic production (typically 1%) will be converted into harvest-able fish.

A second point of concern is the risk of algal blooms. When temperatures, nutrient supply and available
sunlight are optimal for algal growth, algae multiply their biomass at an exponential rate, eventually leading to
an exhaustion of available nutrients and a subsequent die-off. The decaying algal biomass will deplete the
oxygen in the pond water because it blocks out the sun and pollutes it with organic and inorganic solutes (such
as ammonium ions), which can (and frequently do) lead to massive loss of fish.

Another option is to use a wetland system such as that of Veta La Palma.

In order to tap all available food sources in the pond, the aquaculturist will choose fish species which occupy
different places in the pond ecosystem, e.g., a filter algae feeder such as tilapia, a benthicfeeder such
as carp or catfish and a zooplankton feeder (various carps) or submerged weeds feeder such as grass carp.

Despite these limitations significant fish farming industries use these methods. In the Czech
Republic thousands of natural and semi-natural ponds are harvested each year for trout and carp. The large
ponds around Trebon were built from around 1650 and are still in use.

[edit]Sources

 Introduction to Aquaculture, college notes, Department of Aquaculture, Wageningen University

 Aquaculture: training manual, second edition, Donald R. Swift, ISBN 0-85238-194-8

[edit]Intensive
Optimal water parameters for cold- and warm-water fish in intensive aquaculture[2]
aquaculture
Acidity pH 6-9

Arsenic <440 µg/L

Alkalinity >20 mg/L (as CaCO3)

Aluminum <0.075 mg/L

In these kinds of systems Ammonia (non-ionized) <O.O2mg/L

fish production per unit of

<0.0005 mg/L in soft water;
surface can be increased Cadmium
<0.005 mg/L in hard water
at will, as long as
sufficient oxygen, fresh Calcium >5 mg/L

water and food are

Carbon dioxide <5-10 mg/L
provided. Because of the
requirement of sufficient Chloride >4.0 mg/L
fresh water, a
massive water Chlorine <0.003 mg/L

purification system must be

<0.0006 mg/L in soft water;
integrated in the fish farm. Copper
<0.03 mg/L in hard water
A clever way to achieve
this is the combination <100% total gas pressure
Gas supersaturation (103% for salmonid eggs/fry)
of hydroponic horticulture a
(102% for lake trout)
nd water treatment, see
below. The exception to Hydrogen sulfide <0.003 mg/L
this rule are cages which
are placed in a river or sea,
Iron <0.1 mg/L

which supplements the fish

Lead <0.02 mg/L
crop with sufficient
oxygenated water. Mercury <0.0002 mg/L
Some environmentalists ob
Nitrate <1.0 mg/L
ject to this practice.

Nitrite <0.1 mg/L

6 mg/L for coldwater fish

Oxygen
4 mg/L for warmwater fish

Selenium <0.01 mg/L

Total dissolved solids <200mg/L

Total suspended solids <80 NTU over ambient levels

Expressing eggs from a Zinc <0.005 mg/L

female rainbow trout
The cost of inputs per unit of fish weight is higher than in extensive farming, especially because of the high cost
of fish feed, which must contain a much higher level of protein (up to 60%) thancattle food and a
balanced amino acid composition as well. However, these higher protein level requirements are a consequence
of the higher food conversion efficiency (FCR—kg of feed per kg of animal produced) of aquatic animals. Fish
like salmon have FCR's in the range of 1.1 kg of feed per kg of salmon[citation needed] whereas chickens are in the
2.5 kg of feed per kg of chicken range. Fish don't have to stand up or keep warm and this eliminates a lot of
carbohydrates and fats in the diet, required to provide this energy. This frequently is offset by the lower land
costs and the higher productions which can be obtained due to the high level of input control.

Essential here is aeration of the water, as fish need a sufficient oxygen level for growth. This is achieved by
bubbling, cascade flow or aqueous oxygen. Catfish, Clarias spp. can breathe atmospheric air and can tolerate
much higher levels of pollutants than trout or salmon, which makes aeration and water purification less
necessary and makes Clarias species especially suited for intensive fish production. In some Clariasfarms
about 10% of the water volume can consist of fish biomass.

The risk of infections by parasites like fish lice, fungi (Saprolegnia spp.), intestinal worms (such
as nematodes or trematodes), bacteria (e.g.,Yersinia spp., Pseudomonas spp.), and protozoa (such
as Dinoflagellates) is similar to animal husbandry, especially at high population densities. However, animal
husbandry is a larger and more technologically mature area of human agriculture and better solutions to
pathogen problem exist. Intensive aquaculture does have to provide adequate water quality (oxygen, ammonia,
nitrite, etc.) levels to minimize stress, which makes the pathogen problem more difficult. This means, intensive
aquaculture requires tight monitoring and a high level of expertise of the fish farmer.

Controlling roes manually

Very high intensity recycle aquaculture systems (RAS), where there is control over all the production
parameters, are being used for high value species. By recycling the water, very little water is used per unit of
production. However, the process does have high capital and operating costs. The higher cost structures mean
that RAS is only economical for high value products like broodstock for egg production, fingerlings for net pen
aquaculture operations, sturgeon production, research animals and some special niche markets like live
fish.[3][4]

Raising ornamental cold water fish (goldfish or koi), although theoretically much more profitable due to the
higher income per weight of fish produced, has never been successfully carried out until very recently. The
increased incidences of dangerous viral diseases of koi Carp, together with the high value of the fish has led to
initiatives in closed system koi breeding and growing in a number of countries. Today there are a few
commercially successful intensive koi growing facilities in the UK, Germany and Israel.

Some producers have adapted their intensive systems in an effort to provide consumers with fish that do not
carry dormant forms of viruses and diseases.

[edit]Specific types of fish farms

Within intensive and extensive aquaculture methods, there are numerous specific types of fish farms; each has
benefits and applications unique to its design.

[edit]Cage system

Giant gourami is often raised in cages in central Thailand

Fish cages are placed in lakes, bayous, ponds, rivers or oceans to contain and protect fish until they can be
harvested. The method is also called "off-shore cultivation[5]" when the cages are placed in the sea. They can
be constructed of a wide variety of components. Fish are stocked in cages, artificially fed, and harvested when
they reach market size. A few advantages of fish farming with cages are that many types of waters can be used
(rivers, lakes, filled quarries, etc.), many types of fish can be raised, and fish farming can co-exist with sport
fishing and other water uses. Cage farming of fishes in open seas is also gaining popularity. Concerns of
disease, poaching, poor water quality, etc., lead some to believe that in general, pond systems are easier to
manage and simpler to start. Also, past occurrences of cage-failures leading to escapes, have raised concern
regarding the culture of non-native fish species in open-water cages. Even though the cage-industry has made
numerous technological advances in cage construction in recent years, the concern for escapes remains valid.
Main article: Copper alloys in aquaculture

Recently, copper alloys have become important netting materials in aquaculture. Copper alloys
are antimicrobial, that is, they destroy bacteria, viruses, fungi,algae, and other microbes. In the marine
environment, the antimicrobial/algaecidal properties of copper alloys prevent biofouling, which can briefly be
described as the undesirable accumulation, adhesion, and growth
of microorganisms, plants, algae, tubeworms, barnacles, mollusks, and other organisms.[6]

The resistance of organism growth on copper alloy nets also provides a cleaner and healthier environment for
farmed fish to grow and thrive.

In addition to its antifouling benefits, copper netting has strong structural and corrosion-resistant properties in
marine environments.

Copper-zinc brass alloys are currently (2011) being deployed in commercial-scale aquaculture operations in
Asia, South America and the USA (Hawaii). Extensive research, including demonstrations and trials, are
currently being implemented on two other copper alloys: copper-nickel and copper-silicon. Each of these alloy
types has an inherent ability to reduce biofouling, cage waste, disease, and the need for antibiotics while
simultaneously maintaining water circulation and oxygen requirements. Other types of copper alloys are also
being considered for research and development in aquaculture operations.

[edit]Irrigation ditch or pond systems

These use irrigation ditches or farm ponds to raise fish. The basic requirement is to have a ditch or pond that
retains water, possibly with an above-ground irrigation system (many irrigation systems use buried pipes with
headers.) Using this method, one can store one's water allotment in ponds or ditches, usually lined with
bentonite clay. In small systems the fish are often fed commercial fish food, and their waste products can help
fertilize the fields. In larger ponds, the pond grows water plants and algae as fish food. Some of the most
successful ponds grow introduced strains of plants, as well as introduced strains of fish.

Control of water quality is crucial. Fertilizing, clarifying and pH control of the water can increase yields
substantially, as long as eutrophication is prevented and oxygen levels stay high.Yields can be low if the fish
grow ill from electrolyte stress.

[edit]Composite fish culture

The Composite fish culture system is a technology developed in India by the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research in the 1970s. In this system both local and imported fish species, a combination of five or six fish
species is used in a single fish pond. These species are selected so that they do not compete for food among
them having different types of food habitats.[7][8] As a result the food available in all the parts of the pond is
used. Fish used in this system include catla and silver carp which are surface feeders, rohu a column feeder
and mrigal and common carp which are bottom feeders. Other fish will also feed on the excreta of the common
carp and this helps contribute to the efficiency of the system which in optimal conditions will produce 3000–
6000 kg of fish per hectare per year.

[edit]Integrated recycling systems

One of the largest problems with freshwater aquaculture is that it can use a million gallons of water per acre
(about 1 m³ of water per m²) each year. Extended water purification systems allow for the reuse (recycling) of
local water.

The largest-scale pure fish farms use a system derived (admittedly much refined) from the New Alchemy
Institute in the 1970s. Basically, large plastic fish tanks are placed in a greenhouse. Ahydroponic bed is placed
near, above or between them. When tilapia are raised in the tanks, they are able to eat algae, which naturally
grows in the tanks when the tanks are properly fertilized.

The tank water is slowly circulated to the hydroponic beds where the tilapia waste feeds commercial plant
crops. Carefully cultured microorganisms in the hydroponic bed convert ammonia to nitrates, and the plants are
fertilized by the nitrates and phosphates. Other wastes are strained out by the hydroponic media, which
doubles as an aerated pebble-bed filter.

This system, properly tuned, produces more edible protein per unit area than any other. A wide variety of plants
can grow well in the hydroponic beds. Most growers concentrate on herbs (e.g. parsleyand basil), which
command premium prices in small quantities all year long. The most common customers
are restaurant wholesalers.

Since the system lives in a greenhouse, it adapts to almost all temperate climates, and may also adapt
to tropical climates. The main environmental impact is discharge of water that must be salted to maintain the
fishes' electrolyte balance. Current growers use a variety of proprietary tricks to keep fish healthy, reducing
their expenses for salt and waste water discharge permits. Some veterinary authorities speculate that
ultraviolet ozone disinfectant systems (widely used for ornamental fish) may play a prominent part in keeping
the Tilapia healthy with recirculated water.

A number of large, well-capitalized ventures in this area have failed. Managing both the biology and markets is
complicated.

Reference: Freshwater Aquaculture: A Handbook for Small Scale Fish Culture in North America, by William
McLarney

[edit]Classic fry farming

This is also called a "Flow through system" [9] Trout and other sport fish are often raised from eggs to fry or
fingerlings and then trucked to streams and released. Normally, the fry are raised in long, shallow concrete
tanks, fed with fresh stream water. The fry receive commercial fish food in pellets. While not as efficient as the
New Alchemists' method, it is also far simpler, and has been used for many years to stock streams with sport
fish. European eel (Anguilla anguilla) aquaculturalists procure a limited supply of glass eels, juvenile stages of
the European eel which swim north from theSargasso Sea breeding grounds, for their farms. The European eel
is threatened with extinction because of the excessive catch of glass eels by Spanish fishermen and
overfishing of adult eels in, e.g., the Dutch IJsselmeer, Netherlands. As per 2005, no one has managed to
breed the European eel in captivity.

[edit]Issues

See also: Aquaculture of salmon#Issues

The issue of feeds in fish farming has been a controversial one. Many cultured fishes (tilapia, carp, catfish,
many others) require no meat or fish products in their diets. Top-level carnivores (most salmon species)
depend on fish feed of which a portion is usually derived from wild caught (anchovies, menhaden, etc.).
Vegetable-derived proteins have successfully replaced fish meal in feeds for carnivorous fishes, but vegetable-
derived oils have not successfully been incorporated into the diets of carnivores.

Secondly, farmed fish are kept in concentrations never seen in the wild (e.g. 50,000 fish in a 2-acre (8,100 m2)
area.[10]) with each fish occupying less room than the average bathtub. This can cause several forms of
pollution. Packed tightly, fish rub against each other and the sides of their cages, damaging their fins and tails
and becoming sickened with various diseases and infections. This also causes stress.

However, fish tend also to be animals that aggregate into large schools at high density. Most successful
aquaculture species are schooling species, which do not have social problems at high density. Aquaculturists
tend to feel that operating a rearing system above its design capacity or above the social density limit of the fish
will result in decreased growth rate and increased FCR (food conversion ratio - kg dry feed/kg of fish
produced), which will result in increased cost and risk of health problems along with a decrease in profits.
Stressing the animals is not desirable, but the concept of and measurement of stress must be viewed from the
perspective of the animal using the scientific method.[11]

Sea lice, particularly Lepeophtheirus salmonis and various Caligus species, including Caligus
clemensi and Caligus rogercresseyi, can cause deadly infestations of both farm-grown and wild
salmon.[12][13] Sea lice are ectoparasites which feed on mucus, blood, and skin, and migrate and latch onto the
skin of wild salmon during free-swimming, planktonic nauplii and copepodid larval stages, which can persist for
several days.[14][15][16] Large numbers of highly populated, open-net salmon farms can create exceptionally large
concentrations of sea lice; when exposed in river estuaries containing large numbers of open-net farms, many
young wild salmon are infected, and do not survive as a result.[17][18] Adult salmon may survive otherwise critical
numbers of sea lice, but small, thin-skinned juvenile salmon migrating to sea are highly vulnerable. On
the Pacific coast of Canada, the louse-induced mortality of pink salmon in some regions is commonly over
80%.[19]

A 2008 meta-analysis of available data shows that salmon farming reduces the survival of associated wild
salmon populations. This relationship has been shown to hold for Atlantic, steelhead, pink, chum, and coho
[20]
salmon. The decrease in survival or abundance often exceeds 50 percent.

Diseases and parasites are the most commonly cited reasons for such decreases. Some species of sea
lice have been noted to target farmed coho and Atlantic salmon.[21] Such parasites have been shown to have
an effect on nearby wild fish. One place that has garnered international media attention is British
Columbia's Broughton Archipelago. There, juvenile wild salmon must "run a gauntlet" of large fish farms located
off-shore near river outlets before making their way to sea. It is alleged that the farms cause such severe sea
lice infestations that one study predicted in 2007 a 99% collapse in the wild salmon population by 2011.[22] This
claim, however, has been criticized by numerous scientists who question the correlation between increased fish
farming and increases in sea lice infestation among wild salmon.[23]

Because of parasite problems, some aquaculture operators frequently use strong antibiotic drugs to keep the
fish alive (but many fish still die prematurely at rates of up to 30 percent[24]). In some cases, these drugs have
entered the environment. Additionally, the residual presence of these drugs in human food products has
become controversial. Use of antibiotics in food production is thought to increase the prevalence of antibiotic
resistance in human diseases.[25] At some facilities, the use of antibiotic drugs in aquaculture has decreased
considerably due to vaccinations and other techniques.[26] However, most fish farming operations still use
antibiotics, many of which escape into the surrounding environment.[27]

The lice and pathogen problems of the 1990s facilitated the development of current treatment methods for sea
lice and pathogens. These developments reduced the stress from parasite/pathogen problems. However, being
in an ocean environment, the transfer of disease organisms from the wild fish to the aquaculture fish is an ever-
present risk.[28]

The very large number of fish kept long-term in a single location contributes to habitat destruction of the nearby
areas. The high concentrations of fish produce a significant amount of condensed faeces, often contaminated
with drugs, which again affect local waterways. However, these effects are very local to the actual fish farm site
and are minimal to non-measurable in high current sites.

Concern remains that resultant bacterial growth strips the water of oxygen, reducing or killing off the local
marine life. Once an area has been so contaminated, the fish farms are moved to new, uncontaminated areas.
This practice has angered nearby fishermen.[29]
Other potential problems faced by aquaculturists are the obtaining of various permits and water-use rights,
profitability, concerns about invasive species and genetic engineering depending on what species are involved,
and interaction with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.

In regards to genetically modified farmed salmon, concern has been raised over their proven reproductive
advantage and how it could potentially decimate local fish populations, if released into the wild. Biologist Rick
Howard [30] did a controlled laboratory study where wild fish and GMO fish were allowed to breed. The GMO
fish crowded out the wild fish in spawning beds, but the offspring were less likely to survive. The colorant used
to make pen-raised salmon appear rosy like their wild cousins has been linked with retinal problems in
humans.[29]

[edit]Labeling

In 2005, Alaska passed legislation requiring that any genetically altered fish sold in the state be labeled.[31] In
2006, a Consumer Reports investigation revealed that farm-raised salmon is frequently sold as wild.[32]

In 2008, the US National Organic Standards Board allowed farmed fish to be labeled as organic provided less
than 25% of their feed came from wild fish. This decision was criticized by the advocacy group Food & Water
Watch as "bending the rules" about organic labeling.[33] In the European Union, fish labeling as to species,
method of production and origin, has been required since 2002.[34]

Concerns continue over the labeling of salmon as farmed or wild caught, as well as about the humane
treatment of farmed fish. The Marine Stewardship Council has established an Eco label to distinguish between
farmed and wild caught salmon,[35] while the RSPCA has established the Freedom Food label to indicate
humane treatment of farmed salmon as well as other food products.[34]

[edit]Indoor fish farming

An alternative to outdoor open ocean cage aquaculture, is through the use of a recirculation aquaculture
system (RAS). A RAS is a series of culture tanks and filters where water is continuously recycled and
monitored to keep optimal conditions year round. To prevent the deterioration of water quality, the water is
treated mechanically through the removal of particulate matter and biologically through the conversion of
harmful accumulated chemicals into nontoxic ones.

Other treatments such as UV sterilization, ozonation, and oxygen injection are also used to maintain optimal
water quality. Through this system, many of the environmental drawbacks of aquaculture are minimized
including escaped fish, water usage, and the introduction of pollutants. The practices also increased feed-use
efficiency growth by providing optimum water quality (Timmons et al., 2002; Piedrahita, 2003).

One of the drawbacks to recirculation aquaculture systems is water exchange. However, the rate of water
exchange can be reduced through aquaponics, such as the incorporation of hydroponically grown plants
(Corpron and Armstrong, 1983) and denitrification (Klas et al., 2006). Both methods reduce the amount of
nitrate in the water, and can potentially eliminate the need for water exchanges, closing the aquaculture system
from the environment. The amount of interaction between the aquaculture system and the environment can be
measured through the cumulative feed burden (CFB kg/M3), which measures the amount of feed that goes into
the RAS relative to the amount of water and waste discharged.

Because of its high capital and operating costs, RAS has generally been restricted to practices such as
broodstock maturation, larval rearing, fingerling production, research animal production, SPF (specific
pathogen free) animal production, and caviar and ornamental fish production. Although the use of RAS for
other species is considered by many aquaculturalists to be impractical, there has been some limited successful
implementation of this with high value product such as barramundi, sturgeon and live tilapia in the US.[36]

[edit]Slaughter methods

Tanks saturated with carbon dioxide have been used to make fish unconscious. Then their gills are cut with a
knife so that the fish bleed out before they are further processed. This is no longer considered a humane
method of slaughter. Methods that induce much less physiological stress are electrical or percussive stunning
and this has led to the phasing out of the carbon dioxide slaughter method in Europe.[37]

[edit]Inhumane methods
According to T. Håstein of the National Veterinary Institute, "Different methods for slaughter of fish are in place
and it is no doubt that many of them may be considered as appalling from an animal welfare point of view." [38] A
2004 report by the EFSA Scientific Panel on Animal Health and Welfare explained: "Many existing commercial
killing methods expose fish to substantial suffering over a prolonged period of time. For some species, existing
methods, whilst capable of killing fish humanely, are not doing so because operators don’t have the knowledge
to evaluate them."[39] Following are some of the less humane ways of killing fish.

 Air Asphyxiation. This amounts to suffocation in the open air. The process can take upwards of 15 minutes
[40]
to induce death, although unconsciousness typically sets in sooner.

 Ice baths / chilling. Farmed fish are sometimes chilled on ice or submerged in near-freezing water. The
purpose is to dampen muscle movements by the fish and to delay the onset of post-death decay.
However, it does not necessarily reduce sensibility to pain; indeed, the chilling process has been shown to
elevate cortisol. In addition, reduced body temperature extends the time before fish lose
consciousness. [41]

 CO2 narcosis.

 Exsanguination without stunning. This is a process in which fish are taken up from water, held still, and cut
so as to cause bleeding. According to references in Yue[42] , this can leave fish writhing for an average of
four minutes, and some catfish still responded to noxious stimuli after more than 15 minutes.
[edit]More humane methods

 Percussive stunning.

 Electric stunning. This can be humane when a proper current, duration, conductivity, and temperature are
present. One advantage is that in-water stunning allows fish to be rendered unconscious without stressful
handling or displacement.[43] However, improper stunning may not induce insensibility long enough to
prevent the fish from enduring exsanguination while conscious.[39] It's unknown whether the optimal
stunning parameters that researchers have determined in studies are used by the industry in practice. [43]
[edit]Photo gallery

Houseboat rafts with cages under for rearing fish. Near My Tho, Mekong delta, Vietnam.

Transport boats moored at fish processing plant. My Tho, Mekong delta, Vietnam.

Workers removing fish from hold of transport boat. My Tho, Mekong delta, Vietnam.
 

Fish reared in cages. My Tho, Mekong delta, Vietnam.

A communal Zapotec fish farm inIxtlán de Juárez, Oaxaca, Mexico.

[edit]See also
Agriculture and Agronomy portal

 Aquaculture

 Farm-raised catfish

 Maine Salmon

 Animal Slaughter
[edit]Notes

1. ^ Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics: Aquaculture Production2008 FAO Yearbook, Rome.

2. ^ Stress and Physiology By Dr. BiIl Krise at Bozeman Technology Center, and Dr. Gary Wedemeyer at

Western Fisheries Research Center. January 2002

3. ^ Weaver, D E (2006) Design and operations of fine media fluidized bed biofilters for meeting oligotrophic

water requirements Aquacultural Engineering 34(3): 303-310.

4. ^ Avnimelech Y, M Kochva, et al. (1994) Development of controlled intensive aquaculture systems with a

limited water exchange and adjusted carbon to nitrogen ratio. Israeli Journal of Aquaculture Bamidgeh

46(3): 119-131.

5. ^ Off-shore fish farming term

6. ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_alloys_in_aquaculture

7. ^ Strategy for transfer of composite fish culture technology

8. ^ Pond fish farming

9. ^ Flow-trough system term

10. ^ “Fuss Over Farming Fish”, Alaska Science Forum, June 27, 1990

11. ^ Journal of Fish Biology 68 (2): 332-372 February 2006

12. ^ Sea Lice and Salmon: Elevating the dialogue on the farmed-wild salmon story Watershed Watch Salmon

Society, 2004.

13. ^ Bravo, S. (2003). "Sea lice in Chilean salmon farms". Bull. Eur. Assoc. Fish Pathol. 23, 197–200.

14. ^ Morton, A., R. Routledge, C. Peet, and A. Ladwig. 2004 Sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) infection

rates on juvenile pink (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) and chum (Oncorhynchus keta) salmon in the nearshore

marine environment of British Columbia, Canada. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
61:147–157.

15. ^ Peet, C. R. 2007. Thesis, University of Victoria.

16. ^ Krkošek, M., A. Gottesfeld, B. Proctor, D. Rolston, C. Carr-Harris, M.A. Lewis. 2007. Effects of host

migration, diversity, and aquaculture on disease threats to wild fish populations. Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, Ser. B 274:3141-3149.

17. ^ Morton, A., R. Routledge, M. Krkošek. 2008. Sea louse infestation in wild juvenile salmon and Pacific

herring associated with fish farms off the east-central coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. North
American Journal of Fisheries Management 28:523-532.

18. ^ Krkošek, M., M.A. Lewis, A. Morton, L.N. Frazer, J.P. Volpe. 2006. Epizootics of wild fish induced by farm

fish. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103:15506-15510.

19. ^ Krkošek, Martin, et al. Report: "Declining Wild Salmon Populations in Relation to Parasites from Farm
Salmon",Science: Vol. 318. no. 5857, pp. 1772 - 1775, 14 December 2007.

20. ^ Ford JS and Myers RA (2008) [doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060033 "A Global Assessment of Salmon
Aquaculture Impacts on Wild Salmonids" PLoS Biol,6(2): e33.

21. ^ University of Maine, Department of Animal, Veterinary and Aquaculture Sciences, "Sea Lice Information".

22. ^ Fish Farms Drive Wild Salmon Populations Toward Extinction

23. ^ Northwest Fish Experts Debunk Controversial Sea Lice Study

24. ^ Lymbery, P. CIWF Trust report, "In Too Deep - The Welfare of Intensively Farmed Fish" (2002)

25. ^ Facts About Antibiotic Resistance

26. ^ UNH Aquaculture website

27. ^ Barrionuevo, Alexei (July 26, 2009). "Chile’s Antibiotics Use on Salmon Farms Dwarfs That of a Top
Rival’s". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-08-28.
 28. ^ Bulletin of the European Association of Fish Pathologists 22 (2): 117-125 2002

29. ^ a b Salmon Farming Tactics Produce Unhealthy Fish

30. ^ Purdue scientists: Genetically modified fish could damage ecology.

31. ^ "Alaska Passes Law Requiring Mandatory Labeling of Genetically Engineered Fish". Retrieved 29 June

2010.

32. ^ "Consumer Reports reveals that farm-raised salmon is often sold as "wild"". July 5, 2006. Retrieved 29

June 2010.

33. ^ Eilperin, Juliet; Black, Jane (November 20, 2008). "USDA Panel Approves First Rules For Labeling

Farmed Fish 'Organic'". The Washington Post. Retrieved 29 June 2010.

34. ^ a b "Environmental Labelling". Retrieved 29 June 2010.

35. ^ "MSC eco-label helps consumers identify certified wild Alaska salmon". January 15, 2004. Retrieved 29

June 2010.

36. ^ :[1][2] [3][4][5]

37. ^ Victoria Braithwaite (2010) Do fish feel pain?, Oxford University Press, p. 180

38. ^ Håstein 2004, pp. 224.

39. ^ a b European Food Safety Authority 2004, pp. 22.

40. ^ Benson, pp. 23.

41. ^ Yue, pp. 4.

42. ^ Yue, pp. 6.

43. ^ a b Yue, pp. 7.

[edit]References

 Benson, Tess. "Advancing Aquaculture: Fish Welfare at Slaughter". Retrieved 2011-06-12.

 Yue, Stephanie. "An HSUS Report: The Welfare of Farmed Fish at Slaughter". Humane Society of the
United States. Retrieved 2011-06-12.

 "Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Animal Health and Welfare on a request from the Commission related
to welfare aspects of the main systems of stunning and killing the main commercial species of
animals". The EFSA Journal. 2004. Retrieved 2011-06-12.

 Håstein, T (2004), "Animal welfare issues relating to aquaculture", Proceedings of the Global Conference
on Animal Welfare: an OIE Initiative, pp. 219–31, retrieved 2011-06-12
[edit]External links

Look up fish farm in

Wiktionary, the free
 dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has

media related to: Fish farming

 AquacultureWorld: Aquaculture information

 NOAA Aquaculture Website

 FAO Fisheries Department and its SOFIA report on fisheries and aquaculture

 Aquaculture Network Information Center (AquaNIC)

 Brown, Lester R (2001) Fish Farming May Soon Overtake Cattle Ranching As a Food Source Earth Policy
Institute.

 Watershed Watch Salmon Society A British Columbia advocacy group for wild salmon

 Wild Salmon in Trouble: The Link Between Farmed Salmon, Sea Lice and Wild Salmon - Watershed
Watch Salmon Society. Animated short video based on peer-reviewed scientific research, with subject
background article Watching out for Wild Salmon.

 Aquacultural Revolution: The scientific case for changing salmon farming - Watershed Watch Salmon
Society. Short video documentary. Prominent scientists and First Nation representatives speak their minds
about the salmon farming industry and the effects of sea lice infestations on wild salmon populations.

 "The Case for Fish and Oyster Farming," Carl Marziali, University of Southern California Trojan Family
Magazine, May 17, 2009.

 Norwegian fishfarming

 Coastal Alliance for Aquaculture Reform Coalition of environmental groups, scientists and First Nations
opposed to current salmon farming practices

 German Specialist in Fancy Goldfish and Fishhealth, with Forum and large Picture-Gallery

 Fish farming facts from Greenpeace

 Ethical concerns about the conditions on fish farms

 Safety for Fish Farm Workers, from the U.S. National Agricultural Safety Database

 The Pure Salmon Campaign website

 Tropical Fish Farming in Florida

 Nature's Subsidies to Shrimp and Salmon Farming

 Fish Farming Business.com Start Up & Success Tips For Fish Farm Business Owners
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TH
4 PART
Fish Farming
Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under
mariculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A
facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a
species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Fish species raised by
fish farms include salmon, catfish, tilapia, cod, carp, trout and others.

Increasing demands on wild fisheries by commercial fishing operations have caused

widespread overfishing. Fish farming offers an alternative solution to the increasing market
demand for fish and fish protein.

Major categories of Fish Farms

Basically there are two kinds of aquaculture: extensive aquaculture based on local
photosynthetical production and intensive aquaculture, in which the fish are fed with
external food supply. The management of these two kinds of aquaculture systems are
completely different.

Extensive (Pond) Aquaculture

Limiting for fish growth here is the available food supply by natural sources, commonly
zooplankton feeding on pelagic algae or benthic animals, such as certain crustaceans and
mollusks. Tilapia species filter feed directly on phytoplankton, which makes higher
production possible. The photosynthetical production can be increased by fertilizing the
pond water with artificial fertilizer mixtures, such as potash, phosphorus, nitrogen and
microelements. Because most fish are carnivorous, they occupy a higher place in the trophic
chain and therefore only a tiny fraction of primary photosynthetic production (typically 1%)
will be converted into harvestable fish.

As a result, without additional feeding the fish harvest will not exceed 200 kilograms of fish
per hectare per year, equivalent to 1% of the gross photosynthetic production.

A second point of concern is the risk of algal blooms. When temperatures, nutrient supply
and available sunlight are optimal for algal growth, algae multiply their biomass at an
exponential rate, eventually leading to an exhaustion of available nutrients and a
subsequent die-off. The decaying algal biomass will deplete the oxygen in the pond water
and pollute it with organic and inorganic solvents (such as ammonium ions), which can (and
frequently do) lead to massive loss of fish.

In order to tap all available food sources in the pond, the aquaculturist will choose fish
species which occupy different places in the pond ecosystem, e.g., a filter algae feeder such
as tilapia, a benthic feeder such as carp or catfish and a zooplankton feeder (various carps)
or submerged weeds feeder such as grass carp.

Intensive (Closed-Circulation) Aquaculture

In this kind of systems fish production per unit of surface can be increased at will, as long
as sufficient oxygen, fresh water and food are provided. Because of the requirement of
sufficient fresh water, a massive water purification system must be integrated in the fish
farm. A clever way to achieve this is the combination of hydroponic horticulture and water
treatment, see below. The exception to this rule are cages which are placed in a river or
sea, which supplements the fish crop with sufficient fresh water. Environmentalists object to
this practice.

The cost of inputs per unit of fish weight is higher than in extensive farming, especially
because of the high cost of fish food, which must contain a much higher level of protein (up
to 60%) than, e.g., cattle food and a balanced amino acid composition as well. This
frequently is offset by the lower land costs and the higher productions which can be
obtained due to the high level of input control.
Essential here is aeration of the water, as fish need a sufficient oxygen level for growth. This
is achieved by bubbling, cascade flow or liquid oxygen. Catfish, Clarias ssp. can breathe
atmospheric air and can tolerate much higher levels of pollutants than, e.g., trout or
salmon, which makes aeration and water purification less necessary and makes Clarias
species especially suited for intensive fish production. In some Clarias farms about 10% of
the water volume can consist of fish biomass.

Especially when fish densities are high, the risk of infections by parasites like fish lice, fungi
(Saprolegnia ssp.), intestinal worms (such as nematodes or trematodes), bacteria (e.g.,
Yersinia ssp, Pseudomonas ssp.), and protozoa (such as Dinoflagellates) is much higher
than in animal husbandry because of the ease in which pathogens can invade the fish body
(e.g. by the gills). The same holds for water pollution or depletion of oxygen in the water,
which can ruin a fish crop within minutes. This means, intensive aquaculture requires tight
monitoring and a high level of expertise of the fish farmer.

Intensive aquaculture was developed as a source for food fish. Raising ornamental cold
water fish (goldfish or koi), although theoretically much more profitable due to the higher
income per weight of fish produced, has never been successfully carried out till very
recently. The increased incidences of dangerous viral diseases of koi Carp, together with the
high value of the fish has led to initiatives in closed system koi breeding and growing in a
number of countries. Today there are a few commercially successful intensive koi growing
facilities in the UK, Germany and Israel.

Some producers have adapted their intensive systems and made them totally biosecure in
an effort to provide consumers with fish that do not carry dormant forms of viruses and
diseases.

Specific Types of Fish Farms

Within intensive and extensive aquaculture methods there are numerous specific types of
fish farms, each has benefits and applications unique to its design.

Integrated Recycling Systems

One of the largest problems with freshwater aquaculture is that it can use a million gallons
of water per acre (about 1 m³ of water per m²) each year. Extended water purification
systems allow for the reuse (recycling) of local water.

The largest-scale pure fish farms use a system derived (admittedly much refined) from the
New Alchemists in the 1970s. Basically, large plastic fish tanks are placed in a greenhouse.
A hydroponic bed is placed near, above or between them. When tilapia are raised in the
tanks, they are able to eat algae, which naturally grows in the tanks when the tanks are
properly fertilized.

The tank water is slowly circulated to the hydroponic beds where the tilapia waste feeds a
commercial plant crops. Carefully cultured microorganisms in the hydroponic bed convert
ammonia to nitrates, and the plants are fertilized by the nitrates and phosphates. Other
wastes are strained out by the hydroponic media, which doubles as an aerated pebble-bed
filter.

This system, properly tuned, produces more edible protein per unit area than any other. A
wide variety of plants can grow well in the hydroponic beds. Most growers concentrate on
herbs (e.g. parsley and basil), which command premium prices in small quantities all year
long. The most common customers are restaurant wholesalers.Since the system lives in a
greenhouse, it adapts to almost all temperate climates, and may also adapt to tropical
climates.

The main environmental impact is discharge of water that must be salted to maintain the
fishes' electrolyte balance. Current growers use a variety of proprietary tricks to keep fish
healthy, reducing their expenses for salt and waste water discharge permits. Some
veterinary authorities speculate that ultraviolet ozone disinfectant systems (widely used for
ornamental fish) may play a prominent part in keeping the Tilapia healthy with recirculated
water.A number of large, well-capitalized ventures in this area have failed. Managing both
the biology and markets is complicated.

Irrigation Ditch or Pond Systems

These use irrigation ditches or farm ponds to raise fish. The basic requirement is to have a
ditch or pond that retains water, possibly with an above-ground irrigation system (many
irrigation systems use buried pipes with headers. Using this method, one can store one's
water allotment in ponds or ditches, usually lined with bentonite clay. In small systems the
fish are often fed commercial fish food, and their waste products can help fertilize the fields.
In larger ponds, the pond grows water plants and algae as fish food. Some of the most
successful ponds grow introduced strains of plants, as well as introduced strains of fish.

Control of water quality is crucial. Fertilizing, clarifying and pH control of the water can
increase yields substantially, as long as eutrophication is prevented and oxygen levels stay
high.Yields can be low if the fish grow ill from electrolyte stress.

Cage System
Fish cages are synthetic fiber cages kept in existing water resources to contain and protect
fish until they can be harvested. A few advantages of fish farming with cages are that many
types of water can be used (rivers, lakes, filled quarries, etc.), many types of fish can be
raised, and fish farming can co-exist with sport fishing and other water uses. However, fish
are vulnerable to disease, poaching, and low levels of dissolved oxygen. In general, pond
systems are easier to manage, and simpler to start.

In regards to genetic modification of fish, cage systems can be detrimental to the

environment because the genetically modified fish can easily escape into the wild destroying
other breeds of fish and upsetting the balance of nature.

Classic Fry Farming

Trout and other sport fish are often raised from eggs to fry or fingerlings and then trucked
to streams and released. Normally, the fry are raised in long, shallow concrete tanks, fed
with fresh stream water. The fry receive commercial fish food in pellets. While not as
efficient as the New Alchemists' method, it is also far simpler, and has been used for many
years to stock streams with sport fish. European eel (Anguilla anguilla) aquaculturalists
procure a limited supply of glass eels, juvenile stages of the European eel which swim north
from the Sargasso Sea breeding grounds, for their farms. The European eel is threatened
with extinction because of the excessive catch of glass eels by Spanish fishermen and
overfishing of adult eels in, e.g., the Dutch IJsselmeer, Netherlands. As per 2005, no one
has managed to breed the European eel in captivity.

Criticisms
The issue of feeds in fish farming has been a controversial one. While vegetarian fish like
tilapia require no meat products in their diets, carnivorous fish like salmon depend on fish
feed of which a portion is usually derived from wild caught fish. Attempts to replace fish
meal and oil in fish feed with vegetable sources of protein like soybeans are underway but
have yet to be successful[citation needed].

Secondly, farmed fish are kept in concentrations never seen in the wild (e.g. 50,000 fish in
a two-acre area) with each fish occupying less room than the average bathtub. This can
cause several forms of pollution. Packed tightly, fish rub against each other and the sides of
their cages, damaging their fins and tails and becoming sickened with various diseases and
infections.

However, fish tend also to be animals that aggregate into large schools at high density.
Most successful aquaculture species are schooling species, which do not have social
problems at high density. Aquaculturists tend to feel that operating a rearing system above
its design capacity or above the social density limit of the fish will result in decreased
growth rate and FCR (food conversion ratio - kg dry feed/kg of fish produced), which will
result in increased cost and risk of health problems along with a decrease in profits.
Stressing the animals is not desirable, but the concept of and measurement of stress must
be viewed from the perspective of the animal using the scientific method.

Some species of sea lice have been noted to target farmed coho and Atlantic salmon.Such
parasites may have an effect on nearby wild fish. For these reasons, some aquaculture
operators frequently use strong antibiotic drugs to keep the fish alive (but many fish still die
prematurely at rates of up to 30%). In some cases, these drugs have entered the
environment. Additionally, the residual presence of these drugs in human food products has
become controversial.

The lice and pathogen problems of the 1990's facilitated the development of current
treatment methods for sea lice and pathogens. These developments reduced the stress from
parasite/pathogen problems. However, being in an ocean environment, the transfer of
disease organisms from the wild fish to the aquaculture fish is an ever-present risk factor.

The very large number of fish kept long-term in a single location produces a significant
amount of condensed feces, often contaminated with drugs, which again affect local
waterways. However, these effects are very local to the actual fish farm site and are
minimal to non-measurable in high current sites.

Other potential problems faced by aquaculturists are the obtaining of various permits and
water-use rights, profitability, concerns about invasive species and genetic engineering
depending on what species are involved, and interaction with the UN Law of the Sea Treaty.

Environmentally Friendly Methods

An alternative to open ocean cage aquaculture, one in which the the risk of environmental
damage is substantially eliminated is through the use of a recirculating aquaculture system
(RAS). A RAS is a series of culture tanks and filters where water is continuously recycled. To
prevent the deterioration of water quality, the water is treated mechanically through the
removal of particulate matter and biologically through the conversion of harmful
accumulated chemicals into nontoxic ones.

Other treatments such as UV sterilization, ozonation, and oxygen injection are also utilized
to maintain optimal water quality. Through this system, many of the environmental
drawbacks of aquaculture are minimized including escaped fish, water usage, and the
introduction of harmful pollutants. The practices also increase efficiency of feed utilisation
and growth by providing optimal water quality parameters (Timmons et al., 2002;
Piedrahita, 2003).
One of the drawbacks to recirculating aquaculture systems is water exchange. However, the
rate of water exchange can be reduced through aquaponics, such as the incorporation of
hydroponically grown plants (Corpron and Armstrong, 1983) and denitrification (Klas et al.,
2006). Both methods reduce the amount of nitrate in the water, and can potentially
eliminate the need for water exchanges, closing the aquaculture system from the
environment. The amount of interaction between the aquaculture system and the
environment can be measured through the cumulative feed burden (CFB kg/M3), which
measures the amount of feed that goes into the RAS relative to the amount of water and
waste discharged.

Because of its high capital and operating costs, RAS has generally been restricted to
practices such as broodstock maturation, larval rearing, fingerling production, research
animal production, SPF (specific pathogen free) animal production, and caviar and
ornamental fish production. Although the use of RAS for other species is considered by
many aquaculturalists to be impractical, there has been some limited successful
implementation of this with with high value product such as barramundi, sturgeon and live
tilapia in the US.